Chemistry in Real Life

Making calculated decisions helps influence relationships towards desired

consequences.

0 Greenland Prevert International School

Sciences Department 2023-2024
MYP 5
 Table of Contents
Unit Objectives ............................................................................................................................... 3
Basic Chemistry Skills .................................................................................................................... 4
Naming Chemical Formulae (Binary Compounds) .................................................................... 4

Writing chemical formulae ......................................................................................................... 4

The law of conservation of mass and balancing chemical equations ......................................... 7

Balancing chemical equations..................................................................................................... 8

Review Questions (1) ............................................................................................................ 10

Review on organic chemistry.................................................................................................... 13

Alkanes: ................................................................................................................................ 14

Alkenes: ................................................................................................................................ 14

Alcohols: ............................................................................................................................... 14

Carboxylic Acids: ................................................................................................................. 15

Isomers: ................................................................................................................................. 15

IUPAC nomenclature ............................................................................................................ 16

Review Questions (2) ............................................................................................................ 16

The Mole Concept......................................................................................................................... 19

Atomic structure and isotopes ................................................................................................... 19

Relative atomic mass ................................................................................................................ 20

Relative molecular mass: .......................................................................................................... 21

Avogadro and the mole concept ............................................................................................... 21

Review Questions (3) ............................................................................................................ 22

The mole concept and solutions................................................................................................ 24

Review Questions (4) ............................................................................................................ 25

Percentage yield ........................................................................................................................ 26

Review Questions (5) ............................................................................................................ 27

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Titration......................................................................................................................................... 28
1. Acid-base Titrations ........................................................................................................... 28

Strong vs weak ...................................................................................................................... 29

2. Redox Titrations................................................................................................................. 30

3. Precipitation Titrations....................................................................................................... 30

General method of titration: ...................................................................................................... 31

Titration Calculations................................................................................................................ 32

Back titration ............................................................................................................................. 33

Review Questions (7) ............................................................................................................ 33

How to validate data collected? .................................................................................................... 35

Uncertainty in measurement ..................................................................................................... 35

Accuracy and precision ............................................................................................................. 35

Significant figures ..................................................................................................................... 36

Review Questions (8) ............................................................................................................ 37

Experimental errors ................................................................................................................... 38

Percentage Error........................................................................................................................ 39

Review Questions (9) ............................................................................................................ 39

Exam Style Questions ................................................................................................................... 40

Appendix I – Periodic Table ..................................................................................................... 44

Appendix II – Polyatomic Ions ................................................................................................. 45

Appendix III – Constant Values ............................................................................................... 45

Appendix IV - Stoichiometric formulae ................................................................................... 46

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 Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit students should be able to:

1. Apply basic chemistry concepts:

- Naming chemical compounds
- Writing correct chemical formulae
- Balance chemical equations
- Write down balanced chemical equations for different chemical reactions
- Identify and name simple hydrocarbons.
- Identify and name alcohols, organic acids and esters.
2. Define “relative molecular mass”, “mole”.
3. Apply the mole concept to change amounts from mass to moles and vice versa.
4. Determine the molar ratio from balanced chemical equations.
5. Calculate the percentage yield using the rule:
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑥 100
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑌𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑑
6. Calculate the concentration of a solution in g.dm3 and mol.dm3.
7. Define acids and bases according to Arrhenius and Brønsted-Lowry.
8. Differentiate between strong and weak, acids and bases.
9. Apply the concept of titration to determine the unknown concentration of a solution.
10. Identify the different types of errors that occur during scientific investigations.
11. Calculate percentage error.

Disclaimer!
The Booklet isn’t your only source to study from, your notes, links
and videos shared with you throughout the year need to also be taken
into consideration while studying.

3
 Basic Chemistry Skills

Naming Chemical Formulae (Binary Compounds)

Binary compounds are those that consist of a positive ion and a negative ion. The positive
ion is referred to as the cation, while the negative ion is referred to as the anion. The compounds
are always named with the cation first then the anion with the suffix -ide, figure 1 shows a
couple of examples:

Figure 1: Examples on how to name binary ionic compounds.

Polyatomic ions are ions which consist of more than one atom. For example, nitrate ion,
NO3- , contains one nitrogen atom and three oxygen atoms. The atoms in a polyatomic ion are
usually covalently bonded to one another, therefore stay together as a single, charged unit, and
that has a net charge that is not zero. You will find a list of polyatomic ions in Appendix II.

Table 1: The diatomic elements

Writing chemical formulae
The chemical formulae for elements are straight forward,
they are simply represented by their symbols from the periodic
table (Appendix I) with the exception of the elements in table 1,
that exist in nature as diatomic molecules:

4
 To write the chemical formulae for a binary compound you should follow these steps, the
example for Magnesium Chloride is done below for clarification.

The following video explains the steps in details: https://youtu.be/vscoYh6m46M

If the compound contains polyatomic ions, such as magnesium hydroxide, you will need
to write the symbols for polyatomic ion in parentheses and write the number as a subscript
outside the parentheses as shown below;

The charges of the ions can be determined according to their location in the periodic
table, as shown in figure 2, these charges correspond to the number of electrons gained or lost by
the atom during a chemical reaction. (Note that a positive charge indicates that the atom has lost
electrons, while a negative charge indicates that the atom has gained electrons)

Figure 2: Ionic charges of elements in the periodic table

5
 As for the transition metals, the charge of the metal needs to be mentioned in the name of
the compound, this is because transition metals can form ions with different charges depending
on the conditions. For example, the iron ion in Iron (III) oxide has a +3 charge while that in Iron
(II) oxide has a +2 charge.
The chemical formulae for Iron (III) Oxide and Iron (II) Oxide would be represented as
follows:

It is important to write down the chemical formulae of the compounds correctly to

represent the chemical reaction as it happened.

For practice scan the following QR codes:

Practice 1

Practice 2

Practice 3

6
The law of conservation of mass and balancing chemical equations
We are not able to actually see what is happening during a chemical reaction at an atomic
level. Therefor scientists have developed methods of modelling the chemical system to represent
the chemicals involved and how they interact and change during the reaction.
One way of modelling the reaction is by using molecular models. These typically use
balls, or atoms, represents the rearrangement of atoms during a chemical reaction to form new
chemicals, as shown in figure 3 below.

Figure 3: A molecular model that shows the reaction between

methane and oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water

Equations are another way to model reaction. In an equation, words or chemical symbols
are used to represent the chemicals.
Word equation: Represent the names of the reactants and the products.
Methane + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water

Balanced chemical equation: Represents the chemical formulae of the reactants and
products.
CH4 (g) + 2 O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (g)

Chemical reactions occur when chemical bonds between atoms are formed or broken.
The substances that go into a chemical reaction are called the reactants, and the substances
produced at the end of the reaction are known as the products. And an arrow represents the
progress of the reaction.

The reactants and products might be written as words to form word equation. Or as their
chemical symbols to form a symbol or chemical equation.

7
Example:
When magnesium burns it reacts with oxygen in the air producing magnesium oxide, in
this chemical reaction, magnesium and oxygen are reactants and magnesium oxide is the
product. This reaction can be represented by the reaction below.

Molecular model:

Word equation: Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium Oxide

Chemical or symbol equation: 2 Mg (s) + O2 (g) → 2 MgO (s)

The numbers in front of the chemical symbols are called coefficients. These show how
many molecules or atoms of each chemical are needed or produced. a subscript is a small-sized
number on the bottom right of the symbol. It refers to the number of atoms of the element in the
compound.
There are also letters written in brackets after the symbols. These show the state of the
substance – solid (s) , liquid (l) , gas (g) or aqueous (aq) which means its dissolved in water.

Balancing chemical equations

The law of conservation of mass, that was discovered in the 18th century by Antione
Lavoisier. States that the mass of a chemical system remains the same during a chemical
reaction. Mass is neither gained nor lost, which means that the atoms that were present at the
start of the reactions are also there at the end. However, during the reaction they may have been
rearranged.
When an equation is balanced, the number of atoms of each element in the reactants is
the same as the number of atoms if each element in the products.
To balance a chemical equation, follow these steps (a worked example is provided for
each step). Consider the following chemical reaction, Sodium metal reacts with Chlorine gas to
produce sodium chloride.

1) Write down the word equation to identify the reactants and products.
Sodium + Chlorine → Sodium Chloride

8
2) Write the chemical formulae for each of the reactants and products.
(This is known as the skeleton equation)
Na + Cl2 → NaCl
3) Identify the type and number of elements on each side (reactants & products), you can
organize it in table form as shown below:
Na + Cl2 → NaCl

4) Since both sides are not equal, you need to write a coefficient (whole number) in front of the
compound so that they become equal
2 Na (s) + Cl2 (g) → 2 NaCl (s)

It is important NOT to change the subscripts of the chemical formulae as this would
change the compound completely. Check these videos for further clarification on balancing
chemical equations. https://youtu.be/bSlqA8nedGQ and https://youtu.be/jy6F0Lbvjm8

You can also use the following simulation to help you practice the concept of balancing
chemical equations: Balancing Chemical Equations (colorado.edu)

For practice scan the following QR codes:

Practice 7
Practice 4 Practice 5 Practice 6

9
Review Questions (1)
1. Write down the symbols for the following elements with reference to the periodic table.
a. Sodium
b. Silver
c. Sulfur
d. Silicon

2. Write down the names of the following elements with reference to the periodic table.
a. C
b. Ca
c. Co
d. Cu
e. Cr

3. Determine the names of the following chemical compounds, with reference to the
periodic table and the table of polyatomic ions.
a. KCl
b. PbO
c. NH4Cl
d. AgNO3
e. Al(OH)3
f. (NH4)2SO4

4. Write down the chemical formulae for the following chemical compounds, with reference
to the periodic table and the table of polyatomic ions.
a. Calcium Fluoride
b. Tin (IV) Oxide
c. Iron (II) Sulfide
d. Gold (I) Carbonate
e. Potassium phosphate
f. Ammonium hydroxide

10
5. Name the compounds containing only these elements:
a. Sodium and fluoride
b. Fluorine and hydrogen
c. Sulfur and hydrogen
d. Bromine and beryllium

6. Determine whether the formulae are correct or not, if not, write down the correct
chemical formulae for the incorrect ones.
a. HBr2
b. ClNa
c. Cl3Ca
d. Ba2O

7. Write down the name and chemical formula for a compound that forms when boron
reacts with fluorine.

8. Outline the difference between then following two substances:

a. Ne and N
b. Co and CO
c. H2O and H2O2

9. Consider the following chemical equation

K2O (s) + H2O (l) → 2 KOH (aq)
a. State the names of the reactants in the reaction
b. Outline what the letters in the parentheses next to each chemical formulae
represent.

10. Apply your understanding of the law of conservation of matter to balance the following
chemical equations.
a. __ KI + __ Pb(NO3)2 → __ KNO3 + __ PbI2
b. __ CH4 + __ Cl2 → __ CH3Cl + __ HCl

11
 c. __ H2 + __ O2 → __ H2O
d. __ Al + __ O2 → __ Al2O3
e. __CaCl2 + __AgNO3 → __ AgCl + __Ca(NO3)2

11. Write down the word equations for the following chemical reactions to show the
reactants and products involved in the reaction.
a. Copper metal is placed in a solution of Silver (I) Nitrate, after some time, the
silver metal is deposited, and a blue solution of Copper (II) Nitrate is produced.
b. Potassium sulfate solution reacts with barium chloride solution to produce a white
precipitate of barium sulfate and Potassium chloride solution.
c. When a piece of chalk (CaCO3) is added to a solution of hydrochloric acid (HCl),
it produces a solution of Calcium Chloride, Carbon Dioxide and water.

12. Write down a balanced chemical equation for each reaction in question (11) remember to
include the state symbols for each substance.

13. Write down the word equations for the following equations:
a. Zn (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)
b. Na2CO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
c. 2 Mg (s) + CO2 (g) → 2 MgO (s) + C (s)
d. Cl2 (g) + 2 NaBr (aq) → 2 NaCl (aq) + Br2 (l)

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Review on organic chemistry
Organic compounds all contain carbon, and most contain hydrogen. Some contain
elements like sulfur and nitrogen too. Many are found in, or derived from, living things. Methane
is the simplest organic compound. There are millions more – far more than all the inorganic
(non-organic) compounds. They include:

• The proteins, carbohydrates, and fats in your body

• The hundreds of different compounds in petroleum and coal
• The plastics and medical drugs made from the compounds in petroleum.

The study of these carbon compounds is called organic chemistry.

There are millions of organic compounds. That could make organic chemistry confusing
– but to avoid this, the compounds are named in a very logical way.

The name of the organic compound tells you:

• Which family it belongs to

• How many carbon atoms are in it.

Look at these two tables:

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Alkanes:
The alkanes are the simplest family of organic
compounds, they contain only carbon and hydrogen.
They contain carbon – carbon bonds that are all single
bonds. They form a homologous series, with the
general formula CnH2n+2. Figure 4 shows the first
alkanes.
Figure 4: The first 4 alkanes

Alkenes:
The alkenes are hydrocarbons. They form a
homologous series, with the general formula CnH2n. They
all contain the C=C double bond. This is their functional
group, and largely dictates their reactions. Because they
contain C=C double bonds, they are called unsaturated.
(Alkanes have only single carbon – carbon bonds, so are
saturated). Figure 5 shows the first alkenes, notice that
butene has two different structures depending on the
Figure 5: The first alkenes (butene has 2 structures depending
position of the double bond. on the position of the double bond.

Alcohols:
They form a homologous series, with the
general formula CnH2n-1OH. Their -OH functional
group means they will all react in a similar way. The
number in the name tells you which carbon atom the
OH group is attached to. Figure 6 shows the first 4
primary alcohols (where the -OH groups is attached to
the first carbon)
Figure 6 The first four primary alcohols

14
Carboxylic Acids:
The family forms a homologous series with the general formula CnH2nO2. The functional
group COOH is also called the carboxyl group. Figure 7 shows the first 3 carboxylic acids,
notice that the -COOH group is terminal, which means it is found on the first/last carbon atom in
the chain.

Figure 7 The first 3 carboxylic acids

Isomers:
Compare these alkane molecules in figure 8.
Both have the same formula, C4H10, but they have
different structures which gives them different
properties such as different boiling points. The first
has a straight or unbranched chain. In the second, the
Figure 8: Isomers of an organic compound that contains four
chain is branched. The two compounds are isomers. carbons and eight hydrogens

Isomers are compounds with the same formula, but different structures.

The more carbon atoms in a compound, the more isomers it has. There are 75 isomers
with the formula C10H22!

Since isomers have different structures, they also have slightly different properties. For
example, branched isomers have lower boiling points, because the branches make it harder for
the molecules to get close. So, the attraction between them is less strong, and less heat is needed
to overcome it.

15
 In alkenes, the chains can branch in different ways, and the double bonds can be in
different positions. Compare the three compounds below. All three have the formula C4H8, but
they have different structures.

Since they have different structures, they have different physical properties.

IUPAC nomenclature
IUPAC nomenclature of organic compounds refers to the systematic approach taken for
the nomenclature of organic compounds as per the recommendation of the International Union of
Pure and Applied Chemistry (often abbreviated to IUPAC).

The necessity for such a systematic approach arose due to the

sheer quantity of new discoveries of organic compounds which made
the trivial nomenclature of organic compounds highly inconvenient.
Review the steps of how to name organic compounds by scanning the
following QR code:

Practice 8

Review Questions (2)

1. Define the following terms:
a. Homologous series
b. Isomers
c. Alkanes
d. Alkenes
e. Unsaturated hydrocarbons

16
2. Name the following organic compounds according to the IUPAC rules:
Compound Name

a.

b.

c.

d.

3. Draw the structure of the following compounds:

a. Butan-2-ol
b. Hexane
c. 3 – Ethylpentane

17
4. The structures A to H are the structural formulae of some organic compounds.

a. Determine the letters that don’t represent hydrocarbon compounds.

b. Determine the name of compound A.
c. State the name of the homologous series that compound F belongs to.
d. State the two letters that represent two compounds that are isomers.

18
 The Mole Concept

Atomic structure and isotopes

The atom represents the smallest unit of matter, it consists
of a positive, dense nucleus that contains positive protons and
neutral neutrons, and negative electrons that orbit around the
nucleus. Figure 9 shows a simplified representation of a carbon
atom, and the table below shows the properties of the components
Figure 9: Components of a carbon atom
of the atom.

Particle Location Relative Mass Relative Charge

Proton In the nucleus 1 +1
Neutron In the nucleus 1 0
Electron Around the nucleus 5 x 10-4 (neglected) -1

The components of an atom can be represented by using the following notation:

𝑨
𝒁𝑿

The X- represents the symbol of the element, the Z – represents the atomic number which
is the number of protons and electrons in a neutral atom and the A – represents the mass number
which is the sum of the protons and neutrons present in the atom.

Not all atoms of the same element are the same,

even though the atoms of the same element have the same
number of protons and electrons, they can have different
number of neutrons. The atoms that have the same number
of protons, but different number of neutrons are known as
isotopes. Figure 10 shows an example of isotopes.
Figure 10: The three isotopes of Hydrogen

19
Relative atomic mass
“The weighted average of the masses of an element’s isotopes in comparison to the mass
of a carbon-12 atom is known as relative atomic mass (RAM or Ar).”

The ratio of the average mass of atoms of a chemical element in a given sample to the
atomic mass constant is defined as relative atomic mass (Ar) or atomic weight. The atomic mass
constant (symbol: mu) is one-twelfth of the mass of a carbon-12 atom. Since the ratio’s two
quantities are masses, the resulting value is dimensionless; thus, the value is said to be relative.

The average mass is the relative atomic mass, which can be easily calculated by knowing
the mass numbers of the isotopes that make up the element and the percentage composition of
each isotope (% abundance).

You use the following equation to calculate the relative atomic mass:

∑(𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒 𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑒)

𝑅𝐴𝑀 =
100

Example:

Chlorine has 2 natural isotopes, 35 37

17𝐶𝑙 & 17𝐶𝑙 , with an abundance of 75% and 25%

respectively. Calculate the relative atomic mass of chlorine.

(75𝑥 35) + (25 𝑥 37)
𝑅𝐴𝑀 = = 35.5 𝑎𝑚𝑢
100

20
Relative molecular mass:
Molecules are made up of more than one atom and therefore, when calculating the
relative molecular mass, the number and type of atoms that make up the molecule needs to be
taken into consideration. The relative molecular mass (Mr) is the sum of the relative atomic
masses of the atoms that compose it.

Example:

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is made up of one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms. Calculate
the relative molecular mass.

The relative atomic mass of carbon and oxygen are 12.011 and 15.999 respectively (these
numbers are from the periodic table). Therefore, the relative molecular mass is calculated as
follows:

Mr = 12.011 + 2(15.999) = 44.009 amu

Avogadro and the mole concept

When dealing with particles at an atomic (or molecular) level, even one gram of a pure
element is known to contain a huge number of atoms, the number of atoms in one gram of
different elements are also different. This is where the mole concept is widely used. It primarily
focuses on the unit known as a ‘mole’, which is a count of a very large number of particles.

In the field of chemistry, a mole is defined as the amount of a substance that contains
exactly 6.02214076 x 1023 particles of the given substance. This number is known as Avogadro
constant and is often denoted by the symbol ‘NA’. The elementary entities that can be
represented in moles can be atoms, molecules, monoatomic/polyatomic ions, and other particles
(such as electrons).

For example, one mole of a pure carbon-12 (12C) sample will have a mass of exactly
12.011 grams and will contain 6.02214076 x 1023 (NA) number of 12C atoms. The number of
moles of a substance in a given pure sample can be represented by the following formula:

𝑁
𝑛=
𝑁𝐴
21
 Where n is the number of moles of the substance, N is the total number of elementary
entities in the sample, and NA is the Avogadro constant (6.02214076 x 1023).

The word “mole” was introduced around the year 1896 by the German chemist Wilhelm
Ostwald, who derived the term from the Latin word moles meaning a ‘heap’ or ‘pile.

The number of moles of a molecule may not always be equal to the number of moles of
its constituent elements. For example, a mole of water contains NA number of H2O molecules.
However, each water molecule contains 2 hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Therefore, one
mole of H2O contains 2 moles of hydrogen and one mole of oxygen.

The number of moles of a substance can be calculated by dividing the total mass of the
sample divided by the relative molecular mass.

𝑚
𝑛=
𝑀𝑟

Practice mole conversions by scanning the following QR codes:

Practice 10 Practice 9

Review Questions (3)

1. Define the following terms:
a. Protons
b. Electrons
c. Isotopes
d. Relative atomic mass
e. Mole

22
2. Apply your knowledge on the atomic structure to complete the following table.
Mass Atomic Number of Number of Number of
Notation
number number protons neutrons electrons
___
___𝑀𝑔 12 12
___
19𝐾 20 19
16
8𝑂
___
___𝐶𝑢 64 29

3. The following table shows the components of different atoms (note: the letters don’t
represent the symbols of the elements)
Atom Number of protons Number of neutrons Number of electrons
A 12 13 12
B 27 31 25
C 13 14 13
D 20 20 18
E 16 16 18
F 12 12 12

a. State the letters that represent particles that are isotopes

b. Justify your answer in (a)
c. State the letter(s) that represent positive ions.
d. Justify your answer in (c).
e. State the letter(s) that represent negative ions.
f. Justify your answer in (e).

69 71
4. A sample of gallium contains 60% of atoms of 31𝐺𝑎 , and 40% of atoms of 31𝐺𝑎 .

Calculate the relative atomic mass of this sample of gallium.

23
 5. Calculate the relative molecular mass of the following compounds.
a. CaCl2
b. K3PO4
c. Ammonium nitrate
d. Chlorine gas

6. Calculate the number of moles of the following samples:

a. 50 g of NaCl
b. 100 g of CaCO3
c. 0.35 Kg of H2O

7. Calculate the number of particles for each of the samples in question 4.

The mole concept and solutions

Concentration is a way to express the amount of solute that dissolved in a solvent. It can
be expressed as the mass of the solute dissolved in a unit volume of solvent.
For example,
If 1 g of NaCl is dissolved in 0.5 dm3 of water, the concentration can be expressed as follows:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 1
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = = 2 𝑔. 𝑑𝑚−3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 0.5
The most common way that concentration is expressed in chemistry is Molarity. Which
expresses the number of moles of a solute dissolved in a unit volume of solvent.
For example,
If we wanted to calculate the molarity of the example mentioned above, we would need to
calculate the number of moles of NaCl in the 1 g sample first.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 1
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 = = = 0.0171 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 58.44
Then, the concentration of the same solution, expressed in Molarity, is calculated as follows:
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 0.0171
𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = = 0.0342 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠. 𝑑𝑚−3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 0.5
Scan the following QR code to practice:

24

Practice 11
Review Questions (4)
1. Calculate the concentration of solutions containing:
a. 0.2 moles of sodium hydroxide dissolved in water and made up to 100 cm3.
b. 9.8g sodium sulfate dissolved in water and made up to 500 cm3.
2. Calculate the mass of:
a. Copper (II) sulfate needed to prepare 500 cm3 of a 1.0 mol.dm-3 solution.
b. Potassium nitrate needed to prepare 200 cm3 of a 2 mol.dm-3 solution.
3. A student took 500 ml sample of 0.5 M solution of sodium chloride.
a. Calculate the mass of the sodium chloride present in the sample.
b. The student added water to the sample to become 700 ml.
i. Discuss what changed in the solution and what remained the same.
ii. Calculate the new concentration of the solution.
4. Rose is a lab technician who made a 200 ml solution of limewater (calcium hydroxide).
The concentration of the solution she made was 1.50 g.dm-3.
a. Calculate the concentration of the solution in mol.dm-3.
b. Rose wanted to dilute the solution even further, so that she has half the concentration.
Deduce how much water Rose needs to add to the solution to obtain the desired
concentration.

25
Percentage yield
Reactions are not perfect, the actual yield (the amount of product produced during the
reaction) is often less than the amount calculated through stoichiometry. The effectiveness of the
reaction is determined through calculating the percentage yield of the reaction by comparing the
actual yield as a percentage of the theoretical yield.

The theoretical yield is the ideal yield of the reaction, which doesn’t take into
consideration various aspects such as the purity of the reactants, the errors of the tools used
during the reaction and the errors of the person conducting the reaction itself. On a small scale
(for example doing certain chemical reactions in the lab) this may not be an issue however, when
it comes to large productions such as pharmaceuticals, the issue becomes much more
complicated as the raw materials cost money and the reaction needs to be effective enough to
produce enough products that can be sold to obtain appropriate profits.

The percentage yield is calculated as follows:

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑥 100
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

Consider the following situation, 12.4 g of copper (II) carbonate are heated and
decomposes. 6 g of copper (II) oxide is formed. Calculate the percentage yield.

First, we should write down a balanced chemical equation for the reaction.

CuCO3 (s) → CuO (s) + CO2 (g)

Then, we should determine the number of moles is in 12.4g of copper (II) carbonate.

𝑚 12.4 12.4
𝑛𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑂3 = = = = 0.100 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝑀𝑟 63.546 + 12.011 + 3(15.999) 123.554

Since, the molar ratio between the copper (II) carbonate and copper (II) oxide is 1: 1, the
number of moles of copper (II) carbonate would produce the same number of moles of copper
(II) oxide. Next we need to determine the theoretical mass of copper (II) oxide.

𝑚 = 𝑛 𝑥 𝑀𝑟 = 0.100 𝑥 (63.546 + 15.999) = 0.100 𝑥 79.545 = 7.95 𝑔

26
 Finally, we can substitute the values and calculate the percentage yield:

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 6
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = = 𝑥 100 = 75.5 %
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑠 7.95

Scan the following QR code for practice:

Review Questions (5) Practice 12

1. Define:
a. Percentage yield
b. Theoretical yield
c. Actual yield

2. During a chemical reaction 0.6 g of product is made. The maximum calculated yield
is 1.4 g. Calculate the percentage yield of the reaction.

3. Calculate the percentage yield of sodium sulfate when 32.18 g of sulfuric acid reacts
with excess sodium hydroxide, to produce 37.91 g of sodium sulfate.

27
 Titration
Titration is a common laboratory method of using quantitative chemical analysis. This
method is used to determine the unidentified concentration of a known analyte. The volume
measurement is known as volumetric analysis, and it is important in the titration.

There are many types of titration when considering goals and procedures. However, the
most common types of titration in quantitative chemical analysis are redox titration and acid-
base titration.

Titrations can be classified as:

1. Acid-base Titrations
The acid-base titration is based on the reaction that neutralization is between a base or an
acidic and analyte. In this type, a reagent is mixed with the sample solution until it reaches the
required pH level. This type of titration majorly depends on the track change in pH or a pH
meter.
Acids and Bases
Acidic substances are usually identified by their sour taste. An acid is basically a
molecule which can donate an H+ ion and can remain energetically favourable after a loss of H+.
Acids are known to turn blue litmus red.

Bases, on the other hand, are characterized by a bitter taste and a slippery texture. A base
that can be dissolved in water is referred to as an alkali. When these substances chemically react
with acids, they yield salts. Bases are known to turn red litmus blue

The terms acid and base have been defined in different ways, depending on the way of
looking at the properties of acidity and basicity.

Arrhenius first defined acids as compounds which ionize to produce hydrogen ions, and
bases as compounds which ionize to produce hydroxide ions.

For example, hydrochloric acid is considered an acid because, when it dissolves in water,
it produces hydrogen (H+) ions as shown in the equation below;

HCl → H+ + Cl-

28
 Sodium hydroxide on the other hand, produces hydroxide (-OH) ions when it dissolves in
water, as shown in the equation below:

NaOH → Na+ + -OH

According to the Bronsted-Lowry definition, an acid is a proton donor, and a base is a

proton acceptor.

For example, looking at ammonia dissolving in water, you’ll observe that water has
donated a proton (therefore it acts as an acid according to Bronsted-Lowry), while the ammonia
accepted a proton (therefore it acts as a base according to Bronsted-Lowry).

NH3 + H2O → NH4+ + -OH

Examples of common acids and bases:

Acids
HCl (Hydrochloric acid)
Strong H2SO4 (Sulfuric acid)
HNO3 (Nitric acid)
CH3COOH (Ethanoic acid)
Weak
HCOOH (Methanoic acid)
Bases
NaOH (Sodium hydroxide)
KOH (Potassium hydroxide)
Mg(OH)2 (Magnesium hydroxide)
Ammonia (NH3)

Strong vs weak
Strong acids dissociate fully in water to produce the maximum number of H+ ions. This
means if you had one mole of hydrochloric acid (HCl) molecules, they would all ‘split’ to form
one mole of H+ ions and one mole of Cl– ions. As shown in the equation below:

HCl → H+ + Cl-

Weak acids, such as ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), do not fully dissociate. In fact, about
only one per cent of ethanoic acid molecules split up to form H+ ions and CH3COO– ions at any
one time.

CH3COOH ⇌ CH3COO- + H+

29
 This means that the pH values of strong acids are lower
than that of weak acids, which explains why the rate of
reaction of strong acids with substances (such as metals,
metal carbonates etc) is higher than that of weak acids.

2. Redox Titrations.
Redox reactions are those that deal with the transfer of electrons between particles.

For example:

2 Na (s) + Cl2 (g) → 2 NaCl (aq)

Where the sodium atom will lose electrons and chlorine will gain electrons.

We will cover this in more details in unit 3.

3. Precipitation Titrations.
The titration is based on the insoluble precipitate formation when the two reacting
substances are brought into contact is called precipitation titration. For instance, when the
solution of silver nitrate is used to a solution of sodium chloride, it reacts and forms a white
precipitate of silver chloride.

AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) → NaNO3 (aq) + AgCl (s)

Titration is the incremental addition of a known concentration solution (called a titrant) to

a known volume of an unknown concentration solution before the reaction achieves
neutralization, which is often signaled by a color shift. This colour change is achieved by
using an indicator, which indicates that the amount of reactant needed for a full reaction has
been added to a solution during a titration.

30
General method of titration:
Material (shown in figure 13)
• Sodium hydroxide solution 100 cm3 (approx.
concentration 8.0 g.dm-3 – technician- make a note
of the exact concentration made up) mol.dm-3
sulfuric acid, H2SO4 100 cm3
• Phenolphthalein indicator
• 25.0 cm3 pipette and filler
• 50.0 cm3 burette, retort stand and burette clamp
• Small funnel
• 250 cm3 Conical flask (x3)
• Distilled Water Figure 11: Apparatus used in titration procedures.
• White tile
Method:
1 Rinse the burette with distilled water, then with the supplied alkali. Fill the burette with the
alkali taking care to ensure that the bottom of the meniscus is on zero and that the jet of the
burette is filled completely.
2 Rinse the pipette with distilled water, then with the sulfuric acid. Fill the pipette with the
acid, taking care with the pipette filler and ensuring that the bottom of the meniscus is on the
‘line’ of the pipette.
3 Carefully transfer the acid in the pipette into a conical flask, to remove the final drop from
the pipette, gently touch the end of the pipette onto the surface of the liquid in the conical
flask.
4 Add 3 drops of phenolphthalein indicator to the conical flask and swirl gently to mix.
5 Place the conical flask onto a white tile underneath the burette.
6 Titrate the alkali with the acid, stop adding the alkali when the indicator turns pink and
remains pink.
7 Record your ‘rough’ titre value in the results table.
8 Repeat the process with fresh acid and
indicator, adding the alkali dropwise
with swirling as the end point is
reached.
9 Repeat once more, or until 2 titre values
are within 0.2 cm3 of each other.
10 Calculate the average titre.

Figure 12: The titration process

31
Titration Calculations
The results of a titration can be used to calculate the concentration of a solution, or the
volume of solution needed.

Consider the following example:

25.0 cm3 of 0.100 mol.dm-3 sodium hydroxide solution is exactly neutralised by 20.00
cm3 of a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid. Calculate the concentration of the hydrochloric acid
solution.

First you need to calculate the number of moles in the volume of sodium hydroxide used
to neutralize the sample of hydrochloric acid. (Remember to convert the volume units from cm3
to dm3 by dividing the volume by 1000)

𝑛 = 𝐶. 𝑉 = 0.025 𝑥 0.1 = 0.0025 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠

Then you need to write down the balanced chemical equation of the reaction.

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)

Since, the molar ratio between NaOH and HCl is 1:1, at neutralization, 1 mole of NaOH
will equal 1 mole HCl. Therefore, the number of moles in the sample of HCl is 0.0025 moles.

Calculate the concentration of the sample of HCl.

𝐶 = 𝑛/𝑉 = 0.0025/0.02 = 0.125 𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑑𝑚−3

32
Back titration
Back titration is also known as indirect titration. Here known excess amount of standard
reagent is used to determine the concentration of an analyte. The remaining excess reagent is
back titrated with the second reagent. So, this way the actual amount of titrant consumed by the
analyte is measured. Figure 15 shows a visual of how back titration works.
Back titrations are performed where there is difficulty in finding out endpoint in normal
conditions or there is a slow reaction between titrant and analyte.

Figure 13:Back titration is a method of titration that can be used to

determine the concentrations of some solutions.

Review Questions (6)

1. Define the following terms:
a. Arrhenius acid
b. Arrhenius base
c. Brønsted Lowry acid
d. Brønsted Lowry base
2. Outline the difference between weak and strong acids.
3. Outline at least 2 types of titration.
4. Outline how titration is used to determine the concentration of a solution.

33
5. Vinegar is a weak acid that is used in our homes. A student wanted to determine the
concentration of the vinegar they use at home using a 1.00 M solution of NaOH.
The student titrated 25.00 ml of vinegar with the NaOH three times and collected the
following results:
Reading of the Reading of the Volume of NaOH
burette before (ml) burette after (ml) used (ml)
Trial 1 0 19.8 19.8
Trial 2 19.8 39.5
Trial 3 0 19.9 19.9
a. Calculate the volume of NaOH used in Trial 2.
b. Calculate the average volume of NaOH used during the titration.
c. Calculate the concentration of the vinegar sample.

6. Use the information to determine the concentration of the hydrochloric acid.

• A 25 cm3 sample of hydrochloric acid is sucked into a pipette and transferred
into a 250 cm3 volumetric flask. The solution is made up to the mark.
• 25 cm3 of the diluted acid is transferred into a conical flask using a pipette.
• A burette is used to neutralise the acid with 0.100 mol dm-3 sodium hydroxide.

Hydrochloric acid reacts with sodium hydroxide according to the equation:

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
a. The average titre of the sodium hydroxide was 30.00 cm3. Calculate the number of
moles in the average titre.
b. Determine the number of moles in the diluted sample of hydrochloric acid, then
calculate the concentration of the diluted acid.
c. Calculate the concentration of the undiluted hydrochloric acid.
d. Calculate the concentration of the hydrochloric acid in g.dm-3.
e. Discuss what would happen if the pipette used to transfer the acid solution was filled
slightly above the mark.
f. Explain how would washing the burette with distilled water before filling it would
affect the accuracy of the results.

34
 How to validate data collected?
Uncertainty in measurement
When collecting data in the lab, the data collected will have some degree of inexact numbers.
This is sometimes related to the preciseness of the tool you use while measuring, so the numbers
collected will have some degree of uncertainty.

For example, figure 16 shows different tools used to

measure time. An analogue clock will be able to
measure to the nearest second, while the stopwatch will
be able to measure to the nearest part of a second. So,
the stopwatch would allow you to gather more precise Figure 14: Tools used the measure time

data than the analogue clock.

Every tool would have the degree of uncertainty mentioned on it as

shown in figure 17. The measuring cylinder is 5 ml ±0.5 ml, which
means that any measurement taken by the measuring cylinder will be
precise to the nearest 0.5 ml.

So, if you measure 41 ml of a solution using this measuring cylinder,

there is an uncertainty between 40.5 ml and 41.5 ml.
Figure 15: Uncertainty
of a measuring cylinder
The small the uncertainty of the tool the more precise it is. For example,
the one-mark pipette shown in figure 18, has an uncertainty of ± 0.03
ml which makes it more precise to measure 25 ml than the measuring
cylinder in figure 17.

Accuracy and precision

Scientists aim for their investigations to be as accurate and as
precise as possible; it is important to understand the difference
between both aspects and you would need to take them into
consideration for your own scientific investigations. The accuracy
and precision of a scientific investigation greatly reflects on the Figure 16: The
uncertainty of a pipette
reliability of the results collected from the investigation.

35
 Figure 19 is an analogy of the accuracy and
precision of an archer. The closer the archer got to the
bull’s eye, the more accurate they are, the more consistent
they are with their shots (hitting more or less the same
spot) the more precise they are.

Accuracy is the closeness of the measurements to the true

value.

Precision is closeness of the measurements from one

another. To improve your precision, several trials should
be performed, and an average should be calculated. Figure 17: An analogy to show the difference between accuracy
and precision.
Significant figures
Significant figures refers to the number of digits
reflecting the precision of a measurement. The
greater the number of significant figures the more
precise the measurement is. To know the
significant figures of a given measurement, it is
important to express the numbers in scientific
notations. The table opposite shows you some
examples.

During scientific investigations, calculations are done to transfer the raw data collected to
transformed data. The significant figures must be taken into consideration following these
rules:

Multiplication and Division Addition and Subtraction

The result must be expressed based on the The result must be expressed based on the
measurement that has the smallest number measurement that has the smallest number
of significant figures of decimal places.

36
Scan the following QR codes to practice significant figures:

Practice 14 Practice 13

Practice 15

Review Questions (7)

1. State the number of significant figures for each of the following:
a. 2.78
b. 0.057
c. 0.003480
d. 3.95 x 104
e. 80.00

2. Round each number to three significant figures.

a. 6.7863
b. 0.000079835
c. 0.00499931

3. The table below shows the results collected by 2 students.

Trial Student A Student B
1 1.34 1.37
2 1.48 1.22
3 1.40 1.58
4 1.27 1.18
5 1.38 1.44
a. State which values are more precise.
b. Justify your answer in (a)

37
 4. A series of experiments was carried out to determine the value of a particular quantity.
The results are shown in the table below.
Experiment Value (J)
1 45.276
2 48
3 44.2
4 49.57
Given that the literature value is 47.0 J.
a. State which experiment produced the most accurate results
b. Justify your answer in (a).

Experimental errors
Experimental errors are classified into Systematic Errors and
Random Errors.

Systematic errors arise due to issues with the design 

itself, such as instrumentation errors (such as an
uncalibrated tool), experimental methodology errors
(such as measuring the volume of a liquid from the
incorrect position as shown in figure 20) and personal
errors (inaccurately identifying the end point during
titration)
These errors will affect the ACCURACY of the results.


Figure 18: These are the three methods of reading a
measurement from a measuring cylinder. The correct way is to
have your eyes horizontal to the level of the liquid and take the
reading below the meniscus.

Random errors these are the errors that cannot be

controlled and therefore cannot be eliminated; however,
they can be reduced by repetition.

Random errors include, estimating a quantity between two lines of a measuring cylinder or
burette, fluctuations that occur during measurements and taking an average or round figure,
stopping the stopwatch (reaction time), etc.

38
Percentage Error
Percentage error can be used as a way to evaluate the accuracy of your investigation, by
considering the literature value (that you can obtain from the internet) and values you obtained
from your experiment.

𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 − 𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑥 100
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

The percentage yield can also be used in the same way to evaluate the effectiveness of a
chemical reaction, where the theoretical value is calculated through stoichiometry.

Review Questions (8)

1. Outline the difference between systematic and random errors, giving at least 2 examples
for each one.

2. An experiment to determine the molar mass of solid hydrated copper (II) sulfate,
CuSO4.5H2O, gave a result 240 g.mol-1.
Calculate the percentage error.

3. A student carried out an experiment to measure a certain quantity. The value they
obtained from their experiment = 56.1 ± 0.5 kJ.
Discuss the accuracy of the student’s experiment with reference to the percentage error.

39
 Exam Style Questions

Strand (i): Explain Scientific

1. Define the following terms

a. Moles

b. Acids

c. Concentration

2. Outline why chemists need to apply the mole concept.

3. Outline the difference between strong and weak acids with reference to your

understanding of the pH scale.

4. Describe the relationship between the amount of product produced from a chemical

reaction and the limiting reagent.

5. Explain why the mass of 1 mole of NaCl and 1 mole of CaCl2 are different.

6. Discuss why the percentage yield can never be 100 %.

Strand (ii): Apply Scientific Knowledge to solve problems

7. Calculate the molar mass of KMnO4.

8. Calculate the mass of 0.2 moles of H2O.

9. An artificial sweetener called aspartame has the following chemical formula C14H18N2O5.
Calculate the molar mass of aspartame.
10. A student measured 50 g of potassium chloride (KCl) and dissolved it in 200 cm3 of

water.

Calculate the concentration of the solution the student prepared in mol.dm-3.

40
11. Some salts are hydrated, which means that each molecule of the salt is bonded to some

water molecules.

Copper (II) sulfate is one of these salts, when the hydrated copper (II) sulfate is heated it

changes colour from blue to white.

CuSO4.xH2O → CuSO4 + x H2O

Blue White

A student measured 9.63 g of hydrated Copper (II) Sulfate, then heated it till sample

turned white where all the water evaporated. After the sample cooled down the student

measured the white powder left and found it was 6.16 g.

Calculate the number of moles of water bonded to the sample of copper (II) sulfate in

hydrated form.

Strand (iii): Analyse information to make scientifically supported judgment

12. Determine the names of the following compounds using the periodic table and table of

polyatomic ions.

a. Li2O
b. Fe(OH)3

13. Write down the formulae of the following compounds using the periodic table and table

of polyatomic ions.

a. Barium Chloride

b. Zinc (II) Sulfate

41
14. The following chemical equation represents the reaction between marble (CaCO3) and

Hydrochloric acid.

CaCO3 + HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O

Apply your knowledge of the law of conservation of mass to balance the equation above.

15. The following reaction is used to produce iron:

__ Fe2O3(s) + __ Al (s) → __ Fe (l)+ __ Al2O3 (s)

a. Apply your understanding of the law of conservation to balance the chemical

equation.

b. 50 g of Al and 50 g Fe2O3 were used.

Determine which reactant will run out first

c. Justify your answer in (b).

16. 5.2 g of Calcium was placed in 250 cm3 of 1 M HCl. The reaction produces calcium

chloride solution and hydrogen gas.

a. Determine the limiting reagent.

b. Find the theoretical yield of calcium chloride in grams.
c. Calculate the percentage yield if only 10.3 g of calcium chloride was collected.
d. Calculate the percentage error of the experiment.

42
17. A chemist found a bottle of HCl with unknown concentration and used 0.5 M solution of
NaOH to help determine the concentration.
The chemist measured 50 cm3 of the HCl and gradually added NaOH, they measured the
pH after every addition. They obtained the following graph.

a. Interpret the graph to determine the volume of NaOH that was needed to neutralize the
acid.
b. Determine the concentration of HCl in the bottle.

43
Appendix I – Periodic Table

44
Appendix II – Polyatomic Ions

Appendix III – Constant Values

1 dm3 ≡ 1 litre ≡ 1 x 10-3 m3 ≡ 1 x 103 cm3
Avogadro’s number (NA) = 6.02 x 1023

45
Appendix IV - Stoichiometric formulae
𝑚
1. 𝑛 =
𝑀𝑟
𝑛
2. 𝐶 =
𝑉

3. 𝐶1 . 𝑉1 = 𝐶2 . 𝑉2
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
4. 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑥 100
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑁
5. 𝑛 =
𝑁𝐴
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
6. 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑥 100
𝐿𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒

46