KIMIA RADIASI

(Definisi dan Rumus)

Pertemuan ke-1 - Maria Christina P. – Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Nuklir
Definition
Stopping power (Spesific Energy Loss): is defined as
the retarding force acting on charged particles due to
interaction with matter, resulting in loss of particle energy
(gaya perlambatan yang bekerja pada partikel
bermuatan karena interaksi dengan materi, yang
mengakibatkan hilangnya energi partikel).
• Energy loss:
pengubahan energi
menjadi bentuk partikel
lain
Stopping
power

Electronic and nuclear stopping power for aluminum ions in

aluminum, versus particle energy per nucleon. The maximum of
the nuclear stopping curve typically occurs at energies of the
order of keV per nucleon.
Definition
The specific ionization (J):
is the number of ion
pairs produced per unit path
length
Definition
The slowing-down process in solids : In the beginning of
the slowing-down process at high energies, the ion is
slowed down mainly by electronic stopping, and it moves
almost in a straight path. When the ion has slowed down
sufficiently, the collisions with nuclei (the nuclear
stopping) become more and more probable, finally
dominating the slowing down. 
When atoms of the solid receive significant recoil energies when struck by
the ion, they will be removed from their latticepositions, and produce a 
cascade of further collisions in the material. These collision cascadesare
the main cause of damage production during ion implantation in metals and
semiconductors.
The slowing-down process in solids : illustration of the
slowing down of a single ion in a solid material.
Definition
• Range: In passing through matter, charged particles 
ionize and thus lose energy in many steps, until their
energy is (almost) zero. The distance to this point is
called the range of the particle. The range depends
on the type of particle, on its initial energy and on the
material through which it passes.
Dalam melewati materi, partikel bermuatan
mengionisasi dan kehilangan energi di banyak
langkahnya, sampai energi mereka adalah (hampir)
nol. Jarak dari awal sampai ke titik ini disebut kisaran
(range) partikel. Rentang (range) ini tergantung pada
jenis partikel, energi awal, dan pada bahan yang
dilaluinya.
Range
Definition
• Energy Straggling: Energy loss in a material is a
statistical or stochastic process. Therefore, a spread
of energies always results when an initially
monoenergetic beam of particles encounters an
absorber. Many particles lose the "average energy,"
although some will lose not so much and some will
lose more than the average. This results in a finite
width to the energy distribution curve known as "
energy straggling."
Definition
• Energy Straggling contd: The straggling peak is
approximately Gaussian shaped, with a width that
increases with the ratio Z/A. In other words, at lower
atomic numbers (where the Z/A ratio is higher) we
have wider widths. This is due to the fact that there is
less shielding of inner electrons in the lower Z
elements - there is more stopping influence per
electron.
Energy Straggling contd:
Definition
Linear energy transfer (LET) : is a term used in
dosimetry. It describes the action of radiation upon
matter. It is identical to the retarding force acting on a
charged ionizing particle travelling through the matter.
It describes how much energy an ionizing particle
transfers to the material transversed per unit distance.
By definition, LET is a positive quantity. LET depends
on the nature of the radiation as well as on the
material traversed.
• Linear energy transfer (LET) : is similar to the
stopping power except that it does not include the effects of
radiative energy loss (i.e., Bremsstrahlung) or delta-rays.
The difference between LET and S is that LET is local
energy deposition only and S is concerned with the total
energy lost by the particle. S and LET are nearly equal for
heavy charged particles; for betas LET does not include
delta-rays nor Bremsstrahlung.
• The LET is related to Biological Damage. The severity and
permenance of biological chages are directly related to the
local rate of energy deposition along the particle track. The
higher the LET, the higher the Q- quality factor in determining
dose equivalent (Severts, where 1 Sv = 100 rem).
Linear energy transfer (LET) :
Definition
Radiation tracks : The radiolytic species created by
the incident radiation are spatially deposited in a very
nonhomogeneous manner, the radiation track
structure. The radiation track structure is highly
dependent on the type and energy of the incident
radiation.
Radiation tracks
Definition
G-value: Radiation chemical yield is described in
terms of G-values. Originally G(x) was defined
as the number of molecules of x transformed per 100
eV absorbed energy (a practical notation as most
reactions have G-values of < 10). In the SI system the
symbol G(x) is the same but the unit is mol/J. The
conversion factor between the two units is 1 mol/J =
9.649 × 106 molecules per 100 eV absorbed.
Definition
Scavengers : Chemicals that can react with reactive

species, like HO , can block the indirect effects of
radiation.
 KIMIA RADIASI
(Interaksi Elektron dengan Materi)
Pertemuan ke-2 Maria Christina P. – Sekolah Tinggi Teknologi Nuklir
What is an electron?
• The discovery that the electron
was a subatomic particlewas made
in 1897by J.J. Thomson.
• Mass: 9.1093826(16)×10−31kg
• Electric Charge:
−1.60217653(14)×10−19C

• Electron beams are used in welding, lithography,

scanning electron microscopesand transmission
electron microscopes.
• They are also at the heart of cathode ray tubes.
Have you ever seen electron
interactions with matter?
Aurora Borealis
Aurora adalah fenomena alam yang
menyerupai pancaran cahayayang menyala-
nyala pada lapisan ionosfer dari sebuah 
planetsebagai akibat adanya interaksi
antara medan magnetik yang dimiliki planet
tersebut dengan partikel bermuatan yang
dipancarkan oleh Matahari (angin surya).

Di bumi, aurora terjadi di daerah di sekitar 

kutub Utara dan kutub Selatan magnetiknya.
Aurora yang terjadi di daerah sebelah Utara
dikenal dengan nama Aurora Borealis
Cherenkov radiatio
“Blue Lagoon” Light of the Reactor.
Nothing has velocity greater than light’s
velocity in vacuum.
Fission products which are produced in the
reactor decay and produce high-energy
beta particles.

Speed of light in water is approx. 2.3x108

m/s.

Speed of beta particles with kinetic energy

of 0.26 MeV exceeds 2.3x108 m/s.
What else happens when
the solar wind comes to the
earth?
blue:electrons/ positrons
cyan:photons
red: neutrons
orange: Protons
gray: mesons
green:muons
How do electrons interact with matter?

e
How do electrons interact with matter?

e
How do electrons interact with matter?

e
Electron Tracks
Tracks
Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles
with Matter
Interaction of Heavy Charged Particles
with Matter
1. A heavy charged particle traversing matter loses
energy primarily through the ionization and
excitation of atoms. (Except at low velocities, a
heavy charged particle loses a negligible amount of
energy in nuclear collisions).
2. The moving charged particle exerts electromagnetic
forces on atomic electrons and imparts energy to
them.
What do we calculate?

Stopping power in nuclear physics is defined as the retarding force

acting on charged particles due to interaction with matter, resulting in loss
of particle energy. Its application is important in areas such as radiation
protection and nuclear medicine.
In passing through matter, charged particles ionize and thus lose 
energy in many steps, until their energy is (almost) zero. The distance
to this point is called the range of the particle. The range depends on
the type of particle, on its initial energy and on the material through
which it passes.
Stopping Power (Heavy Charged Particles with
Matter
This equation gives the energy loss per unit distance (e.g., MeV/cm) as a
function of the properties of the ionizing particle and the absorber:
Range of Beta Particles
The maximum thickness the beta particles will penetrate is
called the range.
The Bethe Formula for Stopping Power
Using relativistic quantum mechanics, Bethe derived the following expression
for the stopping power of a uniform medium for a heavy charged particle:

(5.23)
The Bethe Formula for Stopping Power

(5.23)
The multiplicative factor in Eq. (5.23) can be written with the help of the
constants in Appendix A and Appendix C as
The Bethe Formula for Stopping Power

In the dimensionless logarithmic term in (5.23) we express the

energies conveniently in eV. The stopping power is then
The Bethe Formula for Stopping Power
This general formula for any heavy charged particle in any medium
can be written

where

I = Mean excitation energies dalam eV

The Bethe Formula for Stopping Power

where
The Bethe Formula for Stopping Power

where
Substitution of this value into Eq. (5.34) gives
F(β) = 9.972.
Mean Excitation Energies
• Mean excitation energies I for a number of elements have been
calculated from the quantum-mechanical definition obtained in
the derivation of Eq. (5.23).
• They can also be measured in experiments in which all of the
quantities in Eq. (5.23) except Iare known.
• The following approximate empirical formulas can be used to
estimate the I value in eV for an element with atomic number Z:
Mean Excitation Energies
• When the material is a compound or mixture, the stopping power can be
calculated by simply adding the separate contributions from the
individual constituent elements.
• If there are Ni atoms cm–3 of an element with atomic number Zi and
mean excitation energy Ii, then in formula (5.23) one makes the
replacement

where n is the total number of electrons cm–3 in the material (n = i NiZi).

In this way the composite ln I value for the material is obtained from the
individual elemental ln Ii values weighted by the electron densities NiZi of
the various elements. When the material is a pure compound, the electron
densities n and NiZi in Eq. (5.27) can be replaced by the electron numbers
in a single molecule, as shown in the next example
Mean Excitation Energies
 Stopping Power of Water for Protons
For protons, z = 1 in Eq. (5.33). The gram molecular weight of water is
18.0 g, and the number of electrons per molecule is 10. Since 1 m 3 of
water has a mass of 106 g, the density of electrons is

Also, as found at the end of Section 5.7, ln IeV = 4.312.

From Eq. (5.33) it follows that the stopping power of water
for a proton of speed β is given by
Table for Computation of Stopping Powers
Stopping Power of Water for Protons
At 1 MeV, for example, we find in Table 5.2 that β2 = 0.00213 and F(β) =
7.69; therefore Eq. (5.37) gives
 H.Becquerel
1900, Beta decay consists of electrons
Discovery
 E. Rutherford
1903, Alpha radiation consists of the ions of helium
W. Ramsay (a Scottish chemist) and F. Soddy ( English 
radiochemist)
1903, Radon (radium emanation) Discovery
 Albert Einstein, 1905
Equivalence of energy and mass
Discovery

Albert Einstein
Theoretical Physicist, a German-born theoretical physicist
and philosopher of science
1913, Cosmic radiation Victor Franz Hess (Austro-
Hungarian) Discovery
 Niels Henrik David Bohr
was a Danish physicist
who made foundational
contributions to
understanding
atomic structure
and quantum theory
1913, Nucleus is surrounded by electrons moving on
orbitals with well-determined energy
Discovery
 Hans Wilhelm Geiger
German
Physics and sciences
1913 Counter for radioactivity measurement
Discovery
 Ernest Rutherford
known as
the "father of nuclear
physics"
1919, The first nuclear reaction:

Discovery
 Otto Hahn, was a German chemist
and pioneer in the fields of
radioactivity and radiochemistry

1921, Isomer nuclei:

Discovery
 Arthur Holly Compton was an
American physicist
1923 Inelastic scattering of gamma photons
Discovery
 Louis-Victor-
Pierre-Raymond,

7th duc de
Broglie
was a French physicist who made
groundbreaking contributions to quantum
theory.
1924, Wave-particle duality of moving particles
Discovery
 Erwin Rudolf Josef
Alexander
Schrödinger,
sometimes written as
Erwin Schrodinger or
Erwin Schroedinger

was a Nobel Prize-winning Austrian physicist 

1926, Wave mechanics in quantum theory
Discovery
 H. Geiger and W. Mu¨ller
1928 The Geiger -Muller counter
Discovery
 Robert J. Van de Graaff
was an American physicist

1931, A high-voltage generator for acceleration of ions

Discovery
Ernest Orlando Lawrence was a
pioneering American 
nuclear scientist Milton Stanley
Livingston was an American
accelerator physicist
1932 Cyclotron Discovery
Harold Clayton Urey  was an
American physical chemist whose
pioneering work on isotopes
1932 Deuterium; isotope enrichment by evaporation
of liquid hydrogen Discovery
Sir James Chadwick, CH, 
FRS  was an English 
physicist
1932 Neutron Discovery
Werner Karl Heisenberg 
German theoretical physicist
 and one of the key pioneers
of quantum mechanics

1932, NUCLEUS: protons + neutrons Discovery

Carl David Anderson was
an American physicist. 1932, POSITRON Discovery
J.D. Cockcroft British physicist and E.D.S.
Walton (Irish physicist)
1932, Nuclear reactions with accelerated charged
Particles, Discovery
 Jean Frédéric Joliot-Curie was a
French physicist, husband of 
Irène Joliot-Curie 
Irène Joliot-Curie was a French scientist, thedaughter of Marie
Skłodowska-Curie andPierre Curie and the wife of Frédéric
Joliot-Curie

1933, Pair Production, Discovery

 Jean-Pierre Thibaud
Jean Frédéric Joliot-Curie
French  physicist.
was a French physicist.

1933, Annihilation, Discovery

Pavel A. Cherenkov, Il´ja M. Frank, Igor Y. Tamm
were Russian physicists.
1933, Cherenkov radiation, Discovery
Hideki Yukawa ForMemRS FRSE, was a Japanese
theoretical physicist and the first Japanese Nobel laureate
1935 Postulation of mesons, Discovery
 Carl Friedrich Freiherr von Weizsäcker was a
German physicist and philosopher.
1935, Semiempirical formula for the binding energy
of nuclei, Discovery
 Enrico Fermi  was an Italian physicist
1935-1936, Description of nuclear reactions with neutrons,
Discovery
George Charles de Hevesy was a Hungarian radiochemist and
Hilde Levi  was a German-Danish physicist.
1936 Neutron activation analysis (NAA) Discovery
Emilio Gino Segrè was an Italian physicist and Carlo
Perrier (1886-1948) was an Italian mineralogist .

1937 - Technetium, Discovery

Hans Albrecht Bethe was a German and American nuclear  
physicist and Carl Friedrich Freiherr von Weizsäcker was a
German physicist and philosopher
1938, Theory of nuclear fusion in stars, Discovery
Otto Hahn, was a German chemist and Friedrich
Wilhelm "Fritz" Strassmann was a German chemist 
1938, Fission of uranium using neutrons, Discovery
Jan Aleksander Rajchman was a Polish electrical
engineer and computer pioneer.
1938, Photomultiplier, Discovery
Otto Hahn, was a German chemist and Friedrich
Wilhelm "Fritz" Strassmann was a German chemist 
1938, Fission of uranium using neutrons, Discovery
Enrico Fermi (Italian physicis) coworkers
 

1942, First nuclear reactor ("Manhattan Project." )

1945, Production of plutonium in kilograms.
Application of nuclear weapons by the USA in Japan (Hiroshima,
Nagasaki)
 Willard Frank
Libby 
was an American
physical chemist 
noted for his
role in the 1949
development
of 
radiocarbon dating

1949, Radiocarbon dating, Discovery

1951, First breeder and energy production reactor,
Discovery
 Martin Deutsch was an Austrian-American physicist
1951 Positronium atom, Discovery
1952, The first uncontrolled fusion reaction
(hydrogen bomb) Discovery
1952, The first atomic bomb experiment by Great
Britain
1953 The first atomic bomb experiment by Soviet
Union
It is based in the northwest
suburbs of Geneva on the
Franco-Swiss border, and
operates the Large Hadron
Collider, the world’s most
powerful particle collider.

1953, Establishment of European Organization of

Nuclear Research (CERN)
Robert
Hofstadter was an
American physicist. 

1953-1960 Electron scattering on the nucleus,

Discovery
Frederick Reines was an
American physicist.  

1953-1960 Experimental detection of neutrinos,

Discovery
Kai Manne Börje Siegbahn was a 
Swedish physicist

1954-1958 Electron spectroscopy, Discovery

Zalman Mordecai Shapiro  is an American chemist and inventor
who played a key role in the development of the reactor that
powered the world's first nuclear powered submarine, the Nautilus
1955, Nuclear-powered submarine (Nautilus), Discovery
Clifford Glenwood Shull  was an American physicist and
Bertram Neville Brockhouse was a Canadian physicist
1955-1960 Neutron spectroscopy and diffraction,
Discovery
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar,  was
an Indian American astrophysicist

1956-1965 Nucleogenesis: formation of elements in

the universe, Discovery
Rudolf Ludwig Mössbauer  was a 
German physicist
1958, Mössbauer effect, Discovery
Rosalyn Sussman Yalow  was an American medical
physicist
1959 Radioimmunoassay (RIA): determination of
peptide hormones, Discovery
 proton

The quark model was independently proposed by

physicists Murray Gell-Mann is an American physicist
1960-1965 Classification of elementary particles
Discovery
A pellet of 238PuO2 to be used in an RTG for
either the Cassini or Galileo mission. The pellet 
glows red hot because of the heat generated by
the radioactive decay (primarily α). This photo
was taken after insulating the pellet under a
graphite blanket for several minutes and then
removing the blanket.

RTGs were developed in the US during the late 1950s by 

Mound Laboratoriesin Miamisburg, Ohio under contract with the 
United States Atomic Energy Commission.
1961, Invention of 238Pu-powered satellite (Transit-4A)
1961, Semiconductor detectors, Discovery
1964 The first atomic bomb experiment by China
RTGs were developed in the US during the late 1950s by 
Mound Laboratoriesin Miamisburg, Ohio under contract with the 
United States Atomic Energy Commission.
1961, Invention of 238Pu-powered satellite (Transit-4A)
1974 The first atomic bomb experiment by India
1974, Discovery of ancient natural nuclear reactor in
Oklo (Gabon)
1976 SI-compatible-dose units (gray and sievert)
IUPAC
The Three Mile Island accident was
a partial nuclear meltdown that
occurred on March 28, 1979 in one of
the two Three Mile Islandnuclear
reactors in 
Dauphin County, Pennsylvania, United
States. The incident was rated a five
on the seven-point 
International Nuclear Event Scale:
Accident With Wider Consequences
The accident began with failures in the
non-nuclear secondary system,
followed by a stuck-open 
pilot-operated relief valve in the
primary system, which allowed large
amounts of nuclear reactor coolant to
escape. The mechanical failures were
compounded by the initial failure of
plant operators to recognize the
situation as a loss-of-coolant accident
 due to inadequate training and 
human factors
1979, Three Mile Island accident
1986, Accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant
2006, The first atomic bomb experiment by North
Korea
2011, Accident at the Fukushima nuclear power plant
2012-2013, CERN Announces Discovery of Higgs-Like
Particle in the 125 GeV Range
2012-2014,  Generation IV reactors are not presently (2014) commercially
operating save for 1 or 2 reactors, in most part, Gen IV designs are still in
development and have as of yet, not been widely adopte
THANK YOU
 Half life - logarithmic plot

Willard Frank Libby was an Americanphysical chemist

 noted for his role in the 1949 development of 
radiocarbon dating

116 Part 2, lecture 1: General radiation physics

 Peluruhan
At = A0 exp(-t.ln2 / t1/2)
atau
At = A0 exp(-t.)

• At = activity at time t
• A0 = original activity at time 0
• t = time
117 • t1/2 = half life
Part 2, lecture 1: General radiation physics
 Reaksi Inti
•  
Target(Projectile, Ejectile)Product  T(Pro,E)P
•  13
C(,n)16O

3n   
  206
Pb(3n,)209Pb

118 Part 2, lecture 1: General radiation physics

Particle and Photon
History:
NUCLEOGENESIS
Nucleosynthesis
Nucleosynthesis
• Nucleosynthesis is the process that creates new
atomic nuclei from pre-existing nucleons, primarily
protons and neutrons.
• The first nuclei were formed about three minutes after
the Big Bang, through the process called Big Bang
nucleosynthesis.
• It was then that hydrogen and helium formed that
became the content of the first stars, and is
responsible for the present hydrogen/helium ratio of
the cosmos.
Particle
• Proton, symbol  P
• Neutron, symbol  n
• Alpha, symbol  
• Beta minus atau Negatron, symbol  ˗
• Beta plus atau Positron, symbol  +
Proton, symbol  P
Neutron, symbol  n
Interaksi dengan Neutron
Reaction with neutron
Reaction with neutron
 Alpha, symbol  
Partikel alfa (inti Helium) - "berat", muatan positif, berinteraksi sangat
kuat dengan materi
Beta minus atau Negatron, symbol  ˗
Partikel beta / radiasi (elektron) - partikel ringan dan berinteraksi
ringan dengan materi.
Beta minus atau Negatron, symbol  ˗
Interaksi materi dengan elektron berenergi tinggi
Beta plus atau Positron, symbol  +
Photon
• X-ray
• Gamma ()-ray
 Interaction matter with photon
Absorpsi; Scattering;
 Interaction matter with photon
Efek fotolistrik; Efek Compton Pembentukan Pasangan
Gamma ()-ray
Sifat Fisika dan Kimia dari Radiasi
Sifat fisika dapat mengeksitasi, sifat kimia dapat mengionisasi
Energi dan daya ionisasi
Daya ionisasi:
• Alpha, proton >>>
• Beta atau elektron >
• Sinar-X dan Sinar- <
Bila Air Terkena Radiasi: Radiolisis Air

• Eksitasi : H2O  H2O*

• Ionisasi : H2O  H2O+ + e˗ (ion radikal lifetime =
10˗10 detik)

• H2O+  H + + ·OH radikal bebas lifetime = 10˗5 detik

• e˗ + H2O  eaq (elektron tersolvasi)
• H + + eaq  ·H
Four Primary Types of Ionizing Radiation

• Alpha particles
• Beta particles
• Gamma rays (or photons)
• X-Rays (or photons)
• Neutrons
Ionisasi

• Radiasi pengion dihasilkan oleh atom tidak stabil. Atom

tidak stabil berbeda dari atom yang stabil karena mereka
memiliki kelebihan energi atau massa atau keduanya.
Four Primary Types of Ionizing Radiation

Direct Ionization Indirect Ionization

Caused By: Caused By:
• Protons • Neutrons
• Alpha Particles • Gamma Rays
• Beta Particles • X-Rays
• Positron
Particles
Sifat Fisika dan Kimia dari Radiasi
Sifat Fisika dan Kimia dari Radiasi
Sifat Fisika dan Kimia dari Radiasi
Aberasi Kromosom
FILOSOFI PEMANFAATAN RADIASI DAN ZRA

• MANFAAT
• SAFE DAN AMAN

• Justifikasi
• Limitasi
• Optimisasi
SATUAN-SATUAN YANG DIGUNAKAN TERKAIT
RADIASI DAN ZRA

• Aktivitas  Bq, Ci, dps

• Paparan Radiasi  Rongent dan X-unit
• Dosis serap  Gray, rad, Sievert, rem
Contoh;
Dosis efektif yang berlaku di Indonesia untuk
pekerja radiasi 20 mSv/tahun, masyarakat
1mSv/tahun (Perka Bapeten no.4 tahun 2013)
Sifat Fisika dan Kimia dari Radiasi dapat digunakan untuk
sterilisasi alat kedokteran dan pengawetan makanan
Sifat Fisika dan Kimia dari Radiasi dapat
digunakan untuk Pengelolaan Air Limbah
Sifat Fisika dan Kimia dari Radiasi dapat
digunakan untuk Pengolahan Limbah
PENUTUP

1.Radiasi mempunyai sifat fisika dan kimia;

2.Sifat fisika pada prinsipnya eksitasi, scattering dan
penyerapan;
3.Sifat kimia adalah ionisasi;
4.Radiasi mempunyai sifat yang membahayakan;
5.Di sisi lain radiasi dapat berguna bagi kehidupan
manusia.