CHAPTER 1 (4 LECTURES)

NUMERICAL ALGORITHMS AND ROUNDOFF ERRORS

1. Numerical analysis
Numerical analysis is the branch of mathematics which study and develop
the algorithms that use numerical approximation for the problems of mathematical analysis (continuous mathematics). Numerical technique is widely
used by scientists and engineers to solve their problems. A major advantage
for numerical technique is that a numerical answer can be obtained even
when a problem has no analytical solution. However, result from numerical
analysis is an approximation, in general, which can be made
as accurate as

desired. For example to find the approximate values of 2, etc.

In this chapter, we introduce and discuss some basic concepts of scientific
computing. We begin with discussion of floating-point representation and
then we discuss the most fundamental source of imperfection in numerical
computing namely roundoff errors. We also discuss source of errors and then
stability of numerical algorithms.
2. Numerical analysis and the art of scientific computing
Scientific computing is a discipline concerned with the development and
study of numerical algorithms for solving mathematical problems that arise
in various disciplines in science and engineering. Typically, the starting point
is a given mathematical model which has been formulated in an attempt
to explain and understand an observed phenomenon in biology, chemistry,
physics, economics, or any engineering or scientific discipline. We will concentrate on those mathematical models which are continuous (or piecewise
continuous) and are difficult or impossible to solve analytically: this is usually the case in practice. Relevant application areas within computer science
include graphics, vision and motion analysis, image and signal processing,
search engines and data mining, machine learning, hybrid and embedded
systems, and many more. In order to solve such a model approximately on
a computer, the (continuous, or piecewise continuous) problem is approximated by a discrete one. Continuous functions are approximated by finite
arrays of values. Algorithms are then sought which approximately solve the
mathematical problem efficiently, accurately and reliably.
3. Floating-point representation of numbers
Any real number is represented by an infinite sequence of digits. For example
1

NUMERICAL ALGORITHMS AND ERRORS



8
2
6
6
= 2.66666 =
+
+
+ . . . 101 .
3
101 102 103
This is an infinite series, but computer use an finite amount of memory to
represent numbers. Thus only a finite number of digits may be used to
represent any number, no matter by what representation method.
For example, we can chop the infinite decimal representation of 83 after 4
digits,
6
6
6
8
2
= ( 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 ) 101 = 0.2666 101 .
3
10
10
10
10
Generalizing this, we say that number has n decimal digits and call this n
as precision.
For each real number x, we associate a floating point representation denoted
by f l(x), given by
f l(x) = (0.a1 a2 . . . an ) e ,
here based fraction is called mantissa with all ai integers and e is known
as exponent. This representation is called based floating point representation of x.
For example,
42.965 = 4 101 + 2 100 + 9 101 + 6 102 + 5 103
= 42965 102 .
0.00234 = 0.234 102 .
0 is written as 0.00 . . . 0 e . Likewise, we can use for binary number system
and any real x can be written
x = q 2m
with 21 q 1 and some integer m. Both q and m will be expressed in
terms of binary numbers.
For example,
1001.1101 = 1 23 + 2 20 + 1 21 + 1 22 + 1 24
= (9.8125)10 .
Remark: The above representation is not unique.
For example, 0.2666 101 = 0.02666 102 .
Definition 3.1 (Normal form). A non-zero floating-point number is in normal form if the values of mantissa lies in (1, 1 ) or [ 1 , 1].
Therefore, we normalize the representation by a1 6= 0. Not only the precision is limited to a finite number of digits, but also the range of exponent is
also restricted. Thus there are integers m and M such that m e M .

NUMERICAL ALGORITHMS AND ERRORS

3.1. Rounding and chopping. Let x be any real number and f l(x) be its
machine approximation. There are two ways to do the cutting to store a
real number
x = (a1 a2 . . . an an+1 . . . ) e ,

a1 6= 0.

(1) Chopping: We ignore digits after an and write the number as following in chopping
f l(x) = (.a1 a2 . . . an ) e .
(2) Rounding: Rounding is defined as following

(0.a1 a2 . . . an ) e , 0 an+1 < /2
(rounding down)
f l(x) =
(0.a1 a2 . . . an ) + (0.00 . . . 01) e , /2 an+1 < (rounding up).
Example 1.
  
6
0.86 100 (rounding)
fl
=
0.85 100 (chopping).
7
Rules for rounding off numbers:
(1) If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, the last retained digit is
increased by one. For example,
12.6 is rounded to 13.
(2) If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, the last remaining digit is left
as it is. For example,
12.4 is rounded to 12.
(3) If the digit to be dropped is 5, and if any digit following it is not zero,
the last remaining digit is increased by one. For example,
12.51 is rounded to 13.
(4) If the digit to be dropped is 5 and is followed only by zeros, the last
remaining digit is increased by one if it is odd, but left as it is if even. For
example,
11.5 is rounded to 12, and 12.5 is rounded to 12.
Definition 3.2 (Absolute and relative error). If f l(x) is the approximation
to the exact value x, then the absolute error is |x f l(x)|, and relative error
|x f l(x)|
.
is
|x|
Remark: As a measure of accuracy, the absolute error may be misleading
and the relative error is more meaningful.
Definition 3.3 (Overflow and underflow). An overflow is obtained when
a number is too large to fit into the floating point system in use, i.e e >
M . An underflow is obtained when a number is too small, i.e e < m .
When overflow occurs in the course of a calculation, this is generally fatal.
But underflow is non-fatal: the system usually sets the number to 0 and
continues. (Matlab does this, quietly.)

NUMERICAL ALGORITHMS AND ERRORS

4. Errors in numerical approximations

Let x be any real number we want to represent in a computer. Let f l(x)
be the representation of x in the computer then what is largest possible
|x f l(x)|
values of
? In the worst case, how much data we are losing due
|x|
to round-off errors or chopping errors?
Chopping errors: Let

X
ai
i

x = (0.a1 a2 . . . an an+1 . . . ) =

!
e , a1 6= 0.

i=1

n
X
ai
i

f l(x) = (0.a1 a2 . . . an ) e =

!
e.

i=1

Therefore

X
ai
i

|x f l(x)| =

!
e

i=n+1

X
ai
.
i

e |x f l(x)| =

i=n+1

Now since each ai 1,

therefore,
e |x f l(x)|

X
1
i

i=n+1


= ( 1)

1
n+1
"

= ( 1))

1
n+2
#

1
n+1
1 1


+ ...

= n .

Now
|x| = (0.a1 a2 . . . an ) e

1
e.

Therefore
|x f l(x)|
n e
1
1n .
|x|
e
Rounding errors: For rounding
n


P ai

(0.a1 a2 . . . an ) =
e , an+1 < /2

i

i=1

f l(x) =
n a
P
1

i
e

e , an+1 /2.
(0.a1 a2 . . . an1 [an + 1]) = n +
i

i=1

NUMERICAL ALGORITHMS AND ERRORS

For an+1 < /2,

X
X
ai
an+1
ai
|x f l(x)| =
= n+1 +
i

i
i=n+1

/2 1
+
n+1

i=n+2

X
i=n+2

( 1)
i

/2 1
1
1
+ n+1 = n .
n+1

For an+1 /2,

Since an+1




 X a
1


i

e |x f l(x)| = 

i
n



i=n+1



 1
X
ai 

= n


i 
i=n+1



 1

X
a
a

n+1
i
 n n+1



i 
i=n+2


 1
an+1 

 n n+1 

/2, therefore


 1
/2 
e

|x f l(x)|  n n+1 

1
= n .
2

Therefore, for both cases

|x f l(x)|
Now

1 en

.
2

|x f l(x)|
1 n e
1

= 1n .
1
e
|x|
2
2
5. Significant Figures

All measurements are approximations. No measuring device can give

perfect measurements without experimental uncertainty. By convention, a
mass measured to 13.2 g is said to have an absolute uncertainty of plus or
minus 0.1 g and is said to have been measured to the nearest 0.1 g. In
other words, we are somewhat uncertain about that last digit-it could be a
2; then again, it could be a 1 or a 3. A mass of 13.20 g indicates an
absolute uncertainty of plus or minus 0.01 g.
The number of significant figures in a result is simply the number of figures
that are known with some degree of reliability.

NUMERICAL ALGORITHMS AND ERRORS

The number 25.4 is said to have 3 significant figures. The number 25.40
is said to have 4 significant figures
Rules for deciding the number of significant figures in a measured quantity:
(1) All nonzero digits are significant:
1.234 has 4 significant figures, 1.2 has 2 significant figures.
(2) Zeros between nonzero digits are significant: 1002 has 4 significant figures.
(3) Leading zeros to the left of the first nonzero digits are not significant;
such zeros merely indicate the position of the decimal point: 0.001 has only
1 significant figure.
(4) Trailing zeros that are also to the right of a decimal point in a number
are significant: 0.0230 has 3 significant figures.
(5) When a number ends in zeros that are not to the right of a decimal
point, the zeros are not necessarily significant: 190 may be 2 or 3 significant
figures, 50600 may be 3, 4, or 5 significant figures.
The potential ambiguity in the last rule can be avoided by the use of standard
exponential, or scientific, notation. For example, depending on whether
the number of significant figures is 3, 4, or 5, we would write 50600 calories
as:
0.506 106 (3 significant figures)
0.5060 106 (4 significant figures), or
0.50600 106 (5 significant figures).
What is an exact number? Some numbers are exact because they are
known with complete certainty. Most exact numbers are integers: exactly
12 inches are in a foot, there might be exactly 23 students in a class. Exact
numbers are often found as conversion factors or as counts of objects. Exact
numbers can be considered to have an infinite number of significant figures.
Thus, the number of apparent significant figures in any exact number can be
ignored as a limiting factor in determining the number of significant figures
in the result of a calculation.
6. Rules for mathematical operations
In carrying out calculations, the general rule is that the accuracy of a
calculated result is limited by the least accurate measurement involved in
the calculation. In addition and subtraction, the result is rounded off so
that it has the same number of digits as the measurement having the fewest
decimal places (counting from left to right). For example,
100 (assume 3 significant figures) +23.643 (5 significant figures) = 123.643,
which should be rounded to 124 (3 significant figures). However, that it is
possible two numbers have no common digits (significant figures in the same
digit column).
In multiplication and division, the result should be rounded off so as to have
the same number of significant figures as in the component with the least

NUMERICAL ALGORITHMS AND ERRORS

number of significant figures. For example,

3.0 (2 significant figures ) 12.60 (4 significant figures) = 37.8000
which should be rounded to 38 (2 significant figures).
Let X = f (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) be the function having n variables. To determine
the error X in X due to the errors x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , respectively.
X + X = f (x1 + x1 , x2 + x2 , . . . , xn + xn ).
Error in addition of numbers. Let X = x1 + x2 + + xn .
Therefore
X + X = (x1 + x1 ) + (x2 + x2 ) + + (xn + xn )
= (x1 + x2 + + xn ) + (x1 + x2 + + xn )
Therefore absolute error,
|X| |x1 | + |x2 | + + |xn |.
Dividing by X we get,

 
 



 X   x1   x2 




+
 + . . .  xn 
X  X   X 
 X 
which is a maximum relative error. Therefore it shows that when the given
numbers are added then the magnitude of absolute error in the result is the
sum of the magnitudes of the absolute errors in that numbers.
Error in subtraction of numbers. As in the case of addition, we can
obtain the maximum absolute errors for subtraction of numbers
|X| |x1 | + |x2 |.
Also

 
 


 X   x1   x2 

+


X  X  X 

which is a maximum relative error in subtraction of numbers.

Error in product of numbers. Let X = x1 x2 . . . xn then using the general
formula for error
X
X
X
X = x1
+ x2
+ + xn
.
x1
x2
xn
We have
X
x1 X
x2 X
xn X
=
+
+ +
.
X
X x1
X x2
X xn
Now
1 X
x 2 x 3 . . . xn
1
=
=
X x1
x1 x2 x3 . . . xn
x1
1 X
x 1 x 3 . . . xn
1
=
=
X x2
x1 x2 x3 . . . xn
x2

1 X
x1 x2 . . . xn1
1
=
=
.
X xn
x1 x2 x3 . . . xn
xn

NUMERICAL ALGORITHMS AND ERRORS

Therefore
X
xn
x1 x2
+
+ +
.
=
X
x1
x2
xn
Therefore maximum relative and absolute errors are given by
 
 




 X   x1   x2 
 xn 



.




Er = 

+
+ + 
X   x1   x2 
xn 




 X 
 X 



 (x1 x2 . . . xn ).
Ea = 
X
X 
X 
x1
then
x2
X
X
X = x1
+ x2
.
x1
x2

Error in division of numbers. Let X =

We have
X
x1 X
x2 X
x1 x2
=
+
=

.
X
X x1
X x2
x1
x2
Therefore relative error

 
 

 X   x1   x2 



,


Er = 

+
X   x1   x2 
and absolute error



 X 
 X.

Ea = 
X 

Example 2. Add the following floating-point numbers 0.4546e3 and 0.5433e7.

Sol. This problem contains unequal exponent. To add these floating-point
numbers, take operands with the largest exponent as,
0.5433e7 + 0.0000e7 = 0.5433e7.
(Because 0.4546e3 changes in the same operand as 0.0000e7).
Example 3. Add the following floating-point numbers 0.6434e3 and 0.4845e3.
Sol. This problem has an equal exponent but on adding we get 1.1279e3,
that is, mantissa has 5 digits and is greater than 1, thats why it is shifted
right one place. Hence we get the resultant value 0.1127e4.
Example 4. Subtract the following floating-point numbers:
1. 0.5424e 99 from 0.5452e 99
2. 0.3862e 7 from 0.9682e 7
Sol. On subtracting we get 0.0028e 99. Again this is a floating-point
number but not in the normalized form. To convert it in normalized form,
shift the mantissa to the left. Therefore we get 0.28e 101. This condition
is called an underflow condition.
Similarly, after subtraction we get 0.5820e 7.

NUMERICAL ALGORITHMS AND ERRORS

Example 5. Multiply the following floating point numbers:

1. 0.1111e74 and 0.2000e80
2. 0.1234e 49 and 0.1111e 54
Sol. 1. On multiplying we obtain 0.1111e74 0.2000e80 = 0.2222e153. This
shows overflow condition of normalized floating-point numbers.
2. Similarly second multiplication gives 0.1370e 104, which shows the underflow condition of floating-point number.
Example 6. The error in the measurement of area of a circle is not allowed
to exceed 0.5%. How accurately the radius should be measured.
Sol. Area of the circle = r2 (say)
A
= 2r.
r
A
Percentage error in A =
100 = 0.5
A
0.5
Therefore A =
A = 1/200r2
100
r
100 A
Percentage error in r =
100 =
= 0.25.
r
r A
r
7.342
, where numbers
Example 7. Find the relative error in calculation of
0.241
7.342 and 0.241 are correct to three decimal places. Determine the smallest
interval in which true result lies.
x1
7.342
=
= 30.467
x2
0.241
Here errors x1 = x2 = 21 103 = 0.0005.
Therefore relative error

 

 0.0005   0.0005 



 = 0.0021
Er 
+
7.342   0.241 
Sol. Let

Absolute error
Ea 0.0021

x1
= 0.0639
x2

7.342
Hence true value of
lies between 30.4647 0.0639 = 30.4008 and
0.241
30.4647 + 0.0639 = 30.5286.
7. Loss of significance, stability and conditioning
Roundoff errors are inevitable and difficult to control. Other types of
errors which occur in computation may be under our control. The subject of
numerical analysis is largely preoccupied with understanding and controlling
errors of various kinds. Here we examine some of them.

10

NUMERICAL ALGORITHMS AND ERRORS

7.1. Loss of significance. One of the most common error-producing calculations involves the cancellation of significant digits due to the subtractions
nearly equal numbers (or the addition of one very large number and one
very small number). The phenomenon can be illustrated with the following
example.
Example 8. If x = 0.3721478693 and y = 0.3720230572. What is the relative error in the computation of x y using five decimal digits of accuracy?
Sol. We can compute with ten decimal digits of accuracy and can take it as
exact.
x y = 0.0001248121.
Both x and y will be rounded to five digits before subtraction. Thus
f l(x) = 0.37215
f l(y) = 0.37202.
f l(x) f l(y) = 0.13000 103 .
Relative error, therefore is
(x y) (f l(x) f l(y)
Er =
.04% = 4%.
xy

Example 9. Consider the stability of x + 1 1 when x is near 0. Rewrite

the expression to rid it of subtractive cancellation.

Sol. Suppose that x = 1.2345678 105 . Then x + 1 1.000006173. If

our computer (or calculator) can only keep 8 significant digits, this will be
rounded to 1.0000062. When 1 is subtracted, the result is 6.2 106 .
Thus 6 significant digits have been lost from the original. To fix this, we
rationalize the expression

x+1+1
x
x + 1 1 = ( x + 1 1)
=
.
x+1+1
x+1+1
This expression has no subtractions, and so is not subject to subtractive
cancelling. When x = 1.2345678 105 , this expression evaluates approximately as
1.2345678 105
= 6.17281995 106
2.0000062
on a machine with 8 digits, there is no loss of precision.
Example 10. Find the solution of the following equation using floatingpoint arithmetic with 4-digit mantissa
x2 1000x + 25 = 0.
Sol. Given that,
x2 1000x + 25 = 0

1000 106 102

= x =
2

NUMERICAL ALGORITHMS AND ERRORS

11

Now in four digit mantissa

106 = 0.1000e7 & 102 = 0.1000e3
Therefore
p
106 102 = 0.1000e4
Hence roots are given by


0.1000e4 + 0.1000e4
x1 =
= 0.1000e4
2
and



0.1000e4 0.1000e4
x2 =
= 0.0000e4
2
One of the roots becomes zero due to the limited precision allowed in computation.
In this equation since b2 is much larger than 4ac. Hence b and

b2 4ac become two equal numbers. Calculation of x2 involves the subtraction of nearly two equal numbers which will cause serious loss of significant figures.
To obtain a more accurate 4-digit rounding approximation for x2 , we change
the formulation by rationalizing the numerator or we know that in quadratic
equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, the product of the roots is given by c/a, therefore the smaller root may be obtained by dividing (c/a) by the largest root.
Therefore first root is given by 0.1000e4 and second root is given as
0.2500e2
25
=
= 0.2500e 1.
0.1000e4
0.1000e4
Example 11. The quadratic formula is used for computing the roots of
equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, a 6= 0 and roots are given by

b b2 4ac
x=
.
2a
Consider the equation x2 + 62.10x + 1 = 0 and discuss the numerical results.
Sol. Using quadratic formula and 8-digit rounding arithmetic, we obtain
two roots
x1 = .01610723
x2 = 62.08390.
We use these values as exact values. Now we perform calculations with
4-digit rounding
arithmetic.

We have b2 4ac = 62.102 4.000 = 3856 4.000 = 62.06 and

62.10 + 62.06
f l(x1 ) =
= 0.02000.
2.000
The relative error in computing x1 is
|f l(x1 ) x1 |
| 0.02000 + .01610723|
=
= 0.2417.
|x1 |
| 0.01610723|

12

NUMERICAL ALGORITHMS AND ERRORS

In calculating x2 ,
f l(x2 ) =

62.10 62.06
= 62.10.
2.000

The relative error in computing x2 is

|f l(x2 ) x2 |
| 62.10 + 62.08390|
=
= 0.259 103 .
|x2 |
| 62.08390|
2
2
In this
equation since b = 62.10 is much larger than 4ac = 4. Hence b
and b2 4ac become two equal numbers. Calculation of x1 involves the
subtraction of nearly two equal numbers but x2 involves the addition of the
nearly equal numbers which will not cause serious loss of significant figures.
To obtain a more accurate 4-digit rounding approximation for x1 , we change
the formulation by rationalizing the numerator, that is,

x1 =

2c

.
b + b2 4ac

Then
f l(x1 ) =

2.000
= 2.000/124.2 = 0.01610.
62.10 + 62.06

The relative error in computing x1 is now reduced to 0.62 103 . However,

if rationalize the numerator in x2 to get
x2 =

2c

.
b b2 4ac

The use of this formula results not only involve the subtraction of two nearly
equal numbers but also division by the small number. This would cause
degrade in accuracy.
f l(x2 ) =

2.000
= 2.000/.04000 = 50.00
62.10 62.06

The relative error in x2 becomes 0.19.

Example 12. How to evaluate y x sin x, when x is small.
Sol. Since x sin x, x is small. This will cause loss of significant figures.
Alternatively, if we use Taylor series for sin x, we obtain
y = x (x

x3 x5 x7
+

+ ...)
3!
5!
7!

x3
x5
x7

+
...
6
6 20 6 20 42


x3
x2
x2
x2
=
1 (1 (1 )(...)) .
6
20
42
72
=

NUMERICAL ALGORITHMS AND ERRORS

13

7.2. Conditioning. The words condition and conditioning are used to indicate how sensitive the solution of a problem may be to small changes in
the input data. A problem is ill-conditioned if small changes in the data
can produce large changes in the results. For a certain types of problems,
a condition number can be defined. If that number is large, it indicates an
ill-conditioned problem. In contrast, if the number is modest, the problem
is recognized as a well-conditioned problem.
The condition number can be calculated in the following manner:
K=

relative change in output

relative change in input


 f (x) f (x ) 




f (x)


=

x x 


 x 
 0

 xf (x) 

,

f (x) 

10
, then the condition number can be calculated
For example, if f (x) =
1 x2
as
 0

2
 xf (x) 

 = 2x .
K=
f (x)  |1 x2 |
Condition number can be quite large for |x| 1. Therefore, the function is
ill-conditioned.
7.3. Stability of an algorithm. Another theme that occurs repeatedly
in numerical analysis is the distinction between numerical algorithms are
stable and those that are not. Informally speaking, a numerical process is
unstable if small errors made at one stage of the process are magnified and
propagated in subsequent stages and seriously degrade the accuracy of the
overall calculation.
An algorithm can be thought of as a sequence of problems, i.e. a sequence of
function evaluations. In this case we consider the algorithm for evaluating
f (x) to consist of the evaluation of the sequence x1 , x2 , , xn . We are concerned with the condition of each of the functions f1 (x1 ), f2 (x2 ), , fn1 (xn1 )
where f (x) = fi (xi ) for all i. An algorithm is unstable if any fi is illconditioned, i.e. if any fi (xi ) has condition much worse than f (x). Consider
the example

f (x) = x + 1 x

14

NUMERICAL ALGORITHMS AND ERRORS

so that there is potential loss of significance when x is large. Taking x =

12345 as an example, one possible algorithm is
x0
x1
x2
x3
f (x) := x4

:
:
:
:
:

=
=
=
=
=

x = 12345
x0 + 1

x
1
x0
x2 x3 .

The loss of significance occurs with the final subtraction. We can rewrite
the last step in the form f3 (x3 ) = x2 x3 to show how the final answer
depends on x3 . As f30 (x3 ) = 1, we have the condition
 


 x3 f30 (x3 )   x3 




=
K(x3 ) = 
f3 (x3 )   x2 x3 
from which we find K(x3 ) 2.2 104 when x = 12345. Note that this is
the condition of a subproblem arrived at during the algorithm. To find an
alternative algorithm we write

x+1+ x
1
f (x) = ( x + 1 x)
=

x+1+ x
x+1+ x
This suggests the algorithm
x0
x1
x2
x3
x4
f (x) := x5

:
:
:
:
:
:

=
=
=
=
=
=

x = 12345
x0 + 1

x
1
x0
x2 + x3
1/x4 .

In this case f3 (x3 ) = 1/(x2 + x3 ) giving a condition for the subproblem of


 

 x3 f30 (x3 )   x3 




=
K(x3 ) = 
f3 (x3 )   x2 + x3 
which is approximately 0.5 when x = 12345, and indeed in any case where
x is much larger than 1. Thus first algorithm is unstable and second is
stable for large values of x. In general such analyses are not usually so
straightforward but, in principle, stability can be analysed by examining
the condition of a sequence of subproblems.
Exercises
(1) Determine the number of significant digits in the following numbers:
123, 0.124, 0.0045, 0.004300, 20.0045, 17001, 170.00, and 1800.
(2) Find the absolute, percentage, and relative errors if x = 0.005998 is
rounded-off to three decimal digits.

NUMERICAL ALGORITHMS AND ERRORS

15

(3) Round-off the following numbers correct to four significant figures:

58.3643, 979.267, 7.7265, 56.395, 0.065738 and 7326853000.
(4) The following numbers are given in a decimal computer with a four
digit normalized mantissa: A = 0.4523e 4, B = 0.2115e 3, and
C = 0.2583e1.
Perform the following operations, and indicate the error in the result,
assuming symmetric rounding:
(i) A + B + C (ii) A B (iii) A/C (iv) AB/C.
(5) Assume 3-digit mantissa with rounding
(i) Evaluate y = x3 3x2 + 4x + 0.21 for x = 2.73.
(ii) Evaluate y = [(x 3)x + 4]x + 0.21 for x = 2.73.
Compare and discuss the errors obtained in part (i) and (ii).
(6) Associativity not necessarily hold for floating point addition (or multiplication).
Let a = 0.8567 100 , b = 0.1325 104 , c = 0.1325 104 , then
a + (b + c) = 0.8567 100 , and (a + b) + c) = 0.1000 101 .
The two answers are NOT
Show the calculations.
the same!
(7) Calculate the sum of 3, 5, and 7 to four significant digits and
find its absolute and relative errors.
(8) Calculate the smaller root of the equation x2 400x + 1 = 0 using
4digit arithmetic.
(9) Rewrite ex cos x to be stable when x is near 0.
(10) Find the smaller root of the equation
x2 400x + 1 = 0
using four digits rounding arithmetic.
(11) Discuss the condition number of the polynomial function f (x) =
2x2 + x 1.
(12) Suppose that a function ln is available to compute the natural logarithm of its argument. Consider the calculation of ln(1 + x), for
small x, by the following algorithm
x0 : = x
x1 : = x0
f (x) := x2 : = ln(x1 )
By considering the condition K(x1 ) of the subproblem of evaluating
ln(x1 ), show that such a function ln is inadequate for calculating
ln(1 + x) accurately.
Bibliography
[Atkinson]
[Conte]

K. Atkinson and W. Han, Elementary Numerical Analysis,

John Willey and Sons, Third edition, 2004.
Samuel D. Conte and Carle de Boor, Elementary Numerical
Analysis: An Algorithmic Approach, Third edition, McGrawHill, New York, 1980.