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INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction
1.1. Introduction
The modern power distribution network is constantly being faced with an
ever-growing load demand. Distribution networks experience distinct change from a low
to high load level everyday. Electric load growth and higher regional power transfers in a
largely interconnected network becoming more complex and less secure power system
operation. Power generation and transmission facilities are unable to meet these new
demands.
Many loads at various distribution ends like domestic utilities ,computers,
process industries, adjustable speed drives, printers microprocessor based equipments etc.
have become intolerant to voltage fluctuations, harmonic content and interruptions.
Growth of electronic loads has made the quality of power supply a critical issue. There
fore numerous problems have to be attended in monitoring the operation of such a
system, like voltage fluctuations, power losses, etc. Power system engineers facing these
challenges to operate the system in more a flexible.
Electrical power losses in distribution systems correspond to about 70% of
total losses in electric power systems. These electrical losses can be considerably reduced
through the installation and control of reactive support equipments, such as capacitor
banks, reducing reactive currents in distribution feeders and so on.
Conventional solutions for solving distribution network problems, like
tap-changing transformers to control the voltage along feeders are no longer viable,
because the distribution network will be changed from a passive network into an active
network and thus the voltage profile is not predictable any more. One of the most severe
problems faced by distribution networks operators is voltage drop along distribution
feeders, which is caused by real and reactive power flow. Voltage control is a difficult
task because voltages are strongly influenced by random load fluctuations.
Voltage profile can be improved and power losses can be considerably
reduced by installing Custom Power Devices or Controllers at suitable location. These
controllers which are also named Distribution Flexible AC Transmission System (D2
load
flow
program,
which
is
applicable
in
large
distribution
systems.
The effects of D-STATCOM on voltage improvement at other nodes are considered and
the optimum location of D-STATCOM in the distribution network is determined.
In the proposed method D-STATCOM is considered in modified load flow
computations. Further the optimal location is identified to place D-STATCOM for the
purpose of loss reduction and voltage improvement.
Load flow is an important method for analysis, operation and planning
studies of any power system in a steady-state condition. In this paper an efficient method
for node and line identification utilized in load flow has been proposed.
The load flow method [5] is modified by considering all the line
parameters and load flow solution is obtained. By considering these modifications the
line losses are still reduced and voltage profile is also improved. D-STATCOM is then
modeled [6] and incorporated in the system under consideration. The results obtained are
highly satisfactory and hence the method can be applied a system of any size.
the minimum. These losses are called line losses or I R losses in the line.
Distribution losses
It has been established that 70% of the total losses are occurring in the
primary and secondary distribution system, while transmission and sub transmission lines
account for only 30% of the total losses. There fore the primary and secondary
distribution system must be properly planned to ensure losses within the acceptability
limits.
(a) Factors effecting distribution system losses
Factors contributing to the increase in the line losses in the primary and
secondary distribution system are Feeder length, Inadequate size of conductor, Location
of distribution transformer, Use of over rated distribution transformers, Low voltages,
Low power factor and Poor workman ship in fittings.
(b) Methods for reduction of line losses
The following methods are adopted for reduction of distribution system
losses are Constriction of new substation, Reinforcement of the feeder, Reactive power
compensation, HV distribution system, Grading of conductor, Using shunt compensation
techniques, Feeder reconfiguration and DG unit placement.
Distribution power losses can be considerably reduced by installing
Custom Power Devices or Controllers at suitable location. These controllers which are
also named Distribution Flexible AC Transmission System (D-FACTS) are a new
generation of power electronics-based equipment aimed at enhancing the reliability and
quality of power flows in low-voltage distribution networks. ). D-FACTS mean FACTS
(Flexible AC Transmission Systems) (Hingorani, 1993) that are diverted to distribution
systems.
quality of supplied voltage, etc. some of power quality improvement techniques are given
as below.
1.3.1. Shunt Capacitors
Regulation of the power factor to increase the transmission capability and reduce
transmission losses. Shunt capacitors are primarily used to improve the power factor in
transmission and distribution network, resulting in improved voltage regulation, reduced
network losses, and efficient capacity utilization. .Improved transmission voltage
regulation can be obtained during heavy power transfer conditions when the system
consumes a large amount of reactive power that must be replaced by compensation.
At the line surge impedance loading level, the shunt capacitor would decrease the
line losses by more than 30%.In distribution and industrial systems, it is common to use
shunt capacitors to compensate for the highly inductive loads, thus achieving reduced
delivery system losses and network voltage drop.
Benefits
Other Application
Harmonic filters
power can be made by the use of a tap changer in the shunt reactor .It can be possible to
vary the reactive power between 50 to 100% of the needed power.
Benefits
Simple and robust customer solution with low installation costs and minimum
maintenance
No losses from an intermediate transformer when feeding reactive
compensation from a over voltage level
Self regulation
1.3.4. Filters
Harmonic filters may be used to mitigate, and in some cases, eliminate problems
created power system harmonics. Non linear loads such as rectifiers, converters, home
electronic appliances, and electric arc furnaces cause harmonics giving rise to extra losses
in power equipment such as transformers, motors and capacitors. They can also causes
other, probably more serious problems, when interfering with control systems and
electronic devices. Installing filters near the harmonic sources can effectively reduce
harmonics.
These filters consist of capacitor banks with suitable tuning reactors and damping
resistors. For small and medium size loads, active filters, based on power electronic
converters with high switching frequency, may be a more attractive solution.
Benefits
Eliminates harmonics
Other applications
Shunt capacitors
Flicker, the random. The random voltage variations can also be disturbing to other
process equipment fed from the same grid. The proper mitigation of flicker is therefore a
matter of power quality improvement as well as an improvement to human environment.
Benefits:
Other applications:
1.3.6. STATCOM
Static Compensator, when connected to the grid, can provide dynamic voltage
support in response to system disturbances and balance the reactive power demand of
large and fluctuating industrial loads. A Static Compensator is capable of both generating
and absorbing variable reactive power continuously as opposed to discrete values of fixed
and switched shunt capacitors or reactors. With continuously variable reactive power
supply, the voltage at the Static Compensator bus may be maintained smoothly over a
wide range of system operation conditions .This entails reduction of network losses and
provision of sufficient power quality to the electric energy end- users.
Static Compensator uses voltage source converters to improve furnace
productivity similar to a traditional Static Var Compensator while offering superior
voltage flicker mitigation due to fast response time. Similar to Static Var Compensator,
the Static Compensator can elegantly be used to restore voltage and current balance in the
grid, and to mitigate voltage fluctuations generated by the traction loads.
Benefits
Eliminated flicker
Harmonic filtering
Voltage balancing
Other Applications
11
12
13
14
Chapter II
15
capacitor bank in a typical system event that causes swells. To compensate the voltage
sag or swell in a power distribution system, appropriate devices need to be installed at
suitable location. These devices are typically placed at the point of common coupling
(PCC) which is defined as the point where the ownership of the network changes.
17
the poor power quality [24] and reliability of supply affecting factories, offices and
homes. Power quality and Reliability are becoming important issues for critical and
sensitive loads after introducing the term of Custom Power by Hingorani in early 1980s.
Custom power is formally defined as the employment of power electronic
or static controllers in distribution systems rated up to 38 kV for the purpose of supplying
a level of reliability or PQ that is needed by electric power customers who are sensitive to
power variations. Custom power devices or controllers [6] include static switches,
inverters, converters, injection transformers, master-control modules and energy-storage
modules that have the ability to perform current-interruption and voltage-regulation
functions with in a distribution system.
The power electronic controllers that are used in the custom power
solution can be a network reconfiguring type or a compensating type. The network
reconfigurating devices are usually called switchgears which include current limiting,
current breaking and current transferring devices. The solid state or static versions of the
devices are called: solid state current limiter (SSCL), solid state breaker (SSB), and solid
state transfer switch (SSTS). The compensating devices compensate a load, i.e. its power
factor, unbalance conditions or improve the power quality of supplied voltage, etc. These
devices are either connected in shunt or in series or a combination of both. This class of
devices includes the distribution static compensator (D-STATCOM), dynamic voltage
restorer (DVR), and unified power quality conditioner (UPQC) [2]. Among compensating
devices, a Dynamic Voltage Restorer can deal with voltage sags and swells which are
considered to have a severe impact on manufacturing places such as semiconductors and
plastic products, food processing places and paper mills.
Custom Power Devices is classified into three categories by their
structures such as Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR), Distribution STATCOM
(DSTATCOM) and Solid-State Breaker (SSB). Two of the devices DSTATCOM and the
DVR share a similar architecture. Both are based on the voltage source converter. DVR is
connected in series with the line where as DSTATCOM is in shunt with the line across
the load. Among these devices, the main purpose of DVR that injects voltage in series
with a distribution feeder is reducing the effect of short-term voltage sags, dips, swells
and momentary interruptions.
18
2.3. Family Custom Power Devices: The family of emerging power electronic devices being offered to achieve
these Custom Power [2-3] objectives includes:
(a) Distribution Static Compensator (D-STATCOM) to protect the distribution system
from the effects of a polluting, e.g. fluctuating, voltage sags, swells, transients or
harmonics non-linear (harmonics producing), and load.
(b) Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) to protect a critical load from disturbances, e.g.
sags, swells, transients or harmonics, originating on the interconnected transmission or
distribution system.
(c) Solid-State Breaker (SSB) to provide power quality improvement through
instantaneous current interruption thereby protecting sensitive loads from disturbances
that conventional electromechanical breaker cannot eliminate.
(d) Solid-State Transfer Switch (SSTS) to instantaneously transfer sensitive loads from
a disturbance on the normal feed to the undisturbed alternate feed.
2.3.1. Distribution Static Compensator (D-STATCOM)
The D-STATCOM is a solid-state dc to ac switching power converter that
consists of a three-phase, voltage-source forced air-cooled inverter. In its basic form, the
D-STATCOM injects a voltage in phase with the system voltage, thus providing voltage
support and regulation of VAR flow.
The D-STATCOM can also be used to reduce the level of harmonics on a
line. Because the D-STATCOM continuously checks the line waveform with respect to a
reference AC signal, it always provides the correct amount of harmonic compensation.
By a similar argument, the D-STATCOM is also suitable for reducing the impact of
voltage transients. The amount of load that can be supported is determined by the MVA
19
rating of the inverters, and the length of time that the load can be maintained by the
amount of energy storage provided.
The D-STATCOM is available in ratings from 2 to 10 MVA in modular 2MVA increments. These are similar in performance to SVC. Using only capacitors or
inductors or batteries, these devices can draw / supply both leading and lagging currents.
They have a very good response time and are more suitable for special industrial loads
like arc furnaces.
2.3.2. The Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)
The DVR is a solid-state dc to ac switching power converter that injects a
set of three single-phase ac output voltages in series with the distribution feeder and in
synchronism with the voltages of the distribution system. By injecting voltages of
controllable amplitude, phase angle and frequency (harmonic) into the distribution feeder
in instantaneous real time via a series injection transformer, the DVR can "restore" the
utility of voltage at its load-side terminals when the quality of the source-side terminal
voltage is significantly out of specification for sensitive load equipment. The reactive
power exchanged between the DVR and the distribution system is internally generated by
the DVR without any ac passive reactive components, i.e. reactors and capacitors. For
large variations (deep sags) in the source voltage, the DVR supplies partial power to the
load from a rechargeable energy source attached to the DVR dc terminal. The DVR is
available in ratings from 2 to 10 MVA in modular 2-MVA increments.
The DVR is capable of generating and absorbing the voltage
independently controllable real and reactive power. It consists of three-phase voltage
source inverter, injection transformer, DC LINK and Rectifier for charging the DC LINK
or Battery. As you know, Rectifier is generating the harmonic problem in distribution
lines. Rectifier or devices for charging DC LINK is useless in this proposed system by
their structure.
2.3.3. Solid-State "Instantaneous" Current Interruption
Current interruption technology, utilizing high power Solid-State
Breakers (SSB), to solve most of the distribution system problems that result in voltage
20
sags, swells, and power outages. When combined with a current limiting reactor or
resistor, the SSB can rapidly insert the current limiting device into the distribution line to
prevent excessive fault current from developing from sources of high short circuit
capacity, e.g. multi-sourced distribution substations. At the power levels associated with
15-kV and higher voltage class systems, commercially available Gate Turn-Off (GTO)
thyristors and conventional Thyristors (SCRs) can be used for the AC switch.
The SSB consists of two parallel-connected circuit branches: a solid-state
switch composed of GTOs and a solid-state switch using SCRs in series with a current
limiting reactor or resistor. The GTO switch is the main circuit breaker used to clear
source-side faults. It is rated for the maximum normal line current, but not rated for fault
currents. It is normally closed and conducts current uninhibited until the magnitude of the
current reaches a pre-set level at which point it opens rapidly interrupting the current
flow.
2.3.4. Solid-State "Instantaneous" Load Transfer
Introducing a line of Solid-State Transfer Switches capable of providing
uninterruptible power to critical distribution-served customers. Solid-state, fast acting
(sub-cycle) breakers can instantaneously transfer sensitive loads from a normal supply
that experiences a disturbance to an alternate supply that is unaffected by the disturbance.
The alternate supply may be another utility primary distribution feeder or a standby
power supply operated from an integral energy storage system. In this application, the
SSB acts as an extremely fast conventional transfer switch that allows the restoration of
power of specified quality to the load within 1/4 cycle.
The SSTS consists of two three-phase SSB's, each with independent
control. The status of the three individual phase switches in each SSB will be individually
monitored, evaluated, and reported by continuous real-time switch control and
protections circuits. The operation of the two SSB's will be co-ordinates by the transfer
switch control circuit that monitors the line conditions of the normal and alternate power
sources and initiates the load transfer in accordance with operator selectable criteria.
The SSTS can be provided with either SCR or GTO switches depending
upon the specific load transfer speed requirements. SSTS voltage and current ratings are
21
being developed for 4.16 to 34.5 kV and 300 to 1200 System protection practices are
accommodated in the SSTS available control modes depending upon the critical load
requirements and utility preferences/practices.
In this project report D-STATCOM, a member of Custom power
controllers family, is considered.
22
Voltage source converters are of two types viz. series voltage controller and
shunt voltage controller. However D-STATCOM belongs to the shunt voltage controller.
In this project, the D-STATCOM is used to regulate voltage at the connecting bus.
23
24
(b)Principle of Operation
D-STATCOM is to suppress voltage variation and control reactive power
in phase with system voltage. It can compensate for inductive and capacitive currents
linearly and continuously.
The VSC converts the dc voltage across the storage device into a set of
three-phase ac output voltages. These voltages are in phase and coupled with the ac
system through the reactance of the coupling transformer. Suitable adjustment of the
phase and magnitude of the D-STATCOM output voltages allows effective control of
active and reactive power exchanges between the D-STATCOM and the ac system. Such
configuration allows the device to absorb or generate controllable active and reactive
power.
The controller of the D-STATCOM is used to operate the inverter in such a way that
the phase angle between the inverter voltage and the line voltage is dynamically adjusted
so that the D-STATCOM generates or absorbs the desired VAR at the point of
connection. By varying the amplitude of D-STATCOM output voltage can control the
reactive power exchange between the inverter and the AC system. If the amplitude of the
output voltage is increased above that of AC system voltage, the inverter generates
reactive power for the AC system. If the amplitude of the output voltage is decreased
below that of the AC system, the inverter absorbs the reactive power. If the output
voltage is equal to the AC system voltage, the reactive power exchange is zero, but
actually they have a little phase difference to compensate the loss of transformer winding
and inverter switching, so absorbs some real power from system.
The real power exchanges between the inverter and the AC system can be
controlled by altering the phase angles between the inverter output and the AC system
voltages. The inverter supplies real power to the AC system if the inverter output voltage
is made to lead the corresponding AC system voltage. Conversely, the inverter absorbs
real power from the AC system, if the inverter output voltage is made to lag the AC
system voltage.
There are two techniques for controlling the STATCOM. The first
technique, referred to as phase control, is to control the phase shift to control the
STATCOM output voltage magnitude. The other technique referred to as Pulse Width
25
Modulation (PWM) on the other hand allow for independent control of output voltage
magnitude and phase shift (phase angle of the output voltage); in this case, the DC
voltage is controlled separately from the AC output voltage.
The name is an indication that STATCOM has a characteristic similar to
the synchronous condenser, but as an electronic device it has no inertia and is superior to
the synchronous condenser in several ways, such as better dynamics, a lower investment
cost and lower operating and maintenance costs.
With the advent of D-STATCOM, better performance can be reached in areas such as:
Dynamic voltage control in distribution systems;
Power oscillation damping;
Transient stability improvement;
Ability to control not only reactive power but, if needed, also active power (with a DC
energy source available).
Such device is employed to provide continuous voltage regulation using
controlled converter. The advantage of this type of compensator has over conventional
SVCs is the improved speed of response. This speed of response means that such a
device is ideally suited to application with a rapidly varying load.
26
Chapter III
PROPOSED METHOD
27
3. PROPOSED METHOD
3.1. Radial Distribution System Load Flow Method
3.1.1. Introduction
The most frequent study of an electrical power system, whether a transmission
or a distribution systems, corresponds to the analysis of the operating steady state
conditions. Efficient computer load flow methods have been developed based on busbar
admittance matrix and busbar impedance matrix. But these are designed thinking on
transmission systems, so that their application to distribution systems usually does not
provide good results.
Load flow is a very important and fundamental tool for the analysis of any
power system and is used in operational as well as planning stages.
Load flow analysis of distribution system has not received much attention unlike
load flow analysis of transmission systems. However some work has been carried out on
the load flow analysis of distribution network. Distribution Power Flow is an important
tool for the analysis of distribution system and it is used in the operational as well as in
planning stages.
Such a load flow method must be able to model the special features of distribution
systems in sufficient detail. The well-known characteristics of an electric distribution
system are
1) Radial or weakly meshed structure,
2) Multiphase and unbalanced operation,
3) Unbalanced distributed load,
4) Extremely large number of branches and nodes and
5) Wide-ranging resistance and reactance values.
Generally, distribution networks are radial and the R/X ratio is very high compared
to a transmission system. This makes the distribution system ill-conditioned. That is why
the conventional load flow method such as Newton-Raphson,(NR)[18] and the Fast
Decoupled Load Flow(FDLF)[19] method and their modification are not suitable for
solving the load flow problem of such an ill-conditioned system. For most of the cases
28
NR and FDLF methods failed to converge in solving the load flow problem of
distribution system or converged in high iterations.
In this paper, a modified load-flow technique is considered for solving
radial distribution networks. The proposed method involves only the evaluation of a
simple algebraic expression of receiving-end voltages. The proposed method is very
efficient. It is also observed that the proposed method has good and fast convergence
characteristics.
In this paper, a modified load-flow technique is considered for solving
radial distribution networks. The proposed method involves only the evaluation of a
simple algebraic expression of receiving-end voltages also node and line identification
[25] utilized in load flow has been proposed. The proposed method is very efficient. It is
also observed that the proposed method has good and fast convergence characteristics.
Two standard radial distribution systems consisting of IEEE-15 and IEEE29 nodes are considered for solving radial distribution system.
3.1.2. Mathematical formulation
3.1.2.1. Assumption
We assumed that the three-phase radial distribution networks are balanced and can be
represented by their equivalent single-line diagrams. This assumption is valid for 11kV
rural distribution network in India and elsewhere. Distribution lines have small line shunt
capacitance (different from the shunt capacitor banks that are considered as loads) is
considered.
3.1.2.2. Solution Methodology
The load flow method of radial distribution network can be solved in three sets of
equations.
1. Identification of the nodes beyond all the branches.
2. Determination of branch currents.
3. Determine the nodal voltages.
Procedure to determine the voltage at each bus
The distribution load flow method is used to calculate the voltage at each bus and
total real and reactive power losses.
29
VS
PLk+jQLk
ILi
PLS+jQLS
I Lk (k ) =
PLk ( k ) jQLk ( k )
V * (k )
for k = 2, 3,. nb
(3.1)
Where PLk(k) and QLk(k) are active and reactive power of load connected to node k,
respectively.
The charging current at node k is
30
I Ck (k ) = y0 (k ) *V (k ) ,
for k = 2, 3 nb
(3.2) Here shunt admittance yo is considered as small.
Branch current
Branch Current I(n) is equal to the sum of the load currents of all the nodes beyond
that branch n plus the sum of the charging currents of all the nodes beyond that branch n
i.e.,
I (n) =
nb
nb
I Lk (k ) + I Ck (k
k =n
+1
(3.3)
)
i =n
+1
(3.4)
(3.5)
(3.6)
At first identification of the nodes beyond all the branches is realized through an
algorithm
2
(1)
3
(2)
4
(3)
5
(4)
(5)
(7)
(6)
(8)
( i indicates branch );
ip is the node count (identifies the number of nodes beyond a particular branch);
IN (ip) is the node identifier (helping to identify nodes beyond all the branches);
N (i)
1) = ie(1, ip + 1) will help to identify all the nodes beyond branch 1. This will help to find
the exact current flowing through branch 1. Similarly, consider branch 2, i.e. i = 2; the
receiving-end node of branch 2 is 3, i.e. RE (i) = RE (2) =3.
Therefore, ie(i, ip + 1) = ie(2, ip + 1) will identify all the nodes beyond branch 2.
No node will be repeated while identifying nodes [25] beyond a particular branch.
Identification of nodes beyond all the branches, which helps in computing the exact
current flowing through all the branches, has been explained using an algorithm.
3.2.1. Algorithm 1: Identification of nodes beyond a branch
Step 1.read the system data.
Step 2. i =1
Step 3. k = i + 1, set ip = 0
Step 4. nc = 0
if {RE (i) = SE(k)} and {ip = 0} go to step 10
Otherwise go to step 12
Step 5. if {ip = 0} go to step 10
Otherwise go to step 6
Step 6. it = 1
Step 7. if {RE(i) = ie(i, ip+1)}then nc = 1
Otherwise go to step 8
Step 8. it = it +1
If {it ip} go to step 7
Otherwise go to step 9
Step 9. if {nc = 1} go to step 12
Otherwise go to step 11
Step 10. ie (i, ip + 1) = RE(i)
Step 11. ip = ip +1
IN(ip) =1
ie(i, ip + 1) = RE(i)
N(i) = ip + 1,
Step 12. s = s + 1
If {s nb} go to step 6
Otherwise go to step 13
By using this algorithm we can find the identification of nodes beyond all branches.
Table: 3.2 Identification of nodes beyond all branches for fig.3.2
------------------------------------------------br
nodes beyond branch
------------------------------------------------1
2 3 4 6 5 8 7 9
2
3 4 6 5 8 7 9
3
4 5 8 9
4
5
5
6 7
6
7
7
8 9
8
9
-------------------------------------------------The load current and charging current of each node are calculated by using
Eqs. (3.1) and (3.2) and identification of nodes are determined. Then it is easy to
calculate the branch current is given by
nb
nb
I (i) = IL{ie(i, k )} +
k )}
k =1
IC{ie(i,
(3.7)
k =1
The voltage of each node is then calculated by using Eqn. (3.4). Real and
reactive power loss of each branch is calculated by using Eqs. (3.5) and (3.6),
respectively.
The convergence of the proposed method is that if, in successive iterations
the difference between the real and reactive power delivered from the substation is less
than 0.1kW and 0.1kVAr, then it has converged.
tolerance (10 p.u) the solution is reached go to step 8 else, repeat step 5 to 7 until
convergence is reached.
Step 7: Read the results
In this modified load flow method line charging capacitance is also taken
into account in step 4 in the above algorithm which is actually neglected in the load flow
method presented in reference 5.
The proposed method can be used to find out the voltages of nodes, DStatcom current, phase angle and injected reactive power by D-STATCOM. These are
used to determine the load currents in the proposed load flow method, and power losses.
Here the bus voltage magnitude in the node where D-STATCOM is located is set to a
nominal value of 1p.u.
VS
ILi
PLk+jQLk
PLS+jQLS
Fig 3.3: Single line diagram of two bus system of a distribution system
Subscript L in PLk and QLk refers to the load connected to bus k.
Where R and X are resistance and reactance of the branch. PLk and QLk are the
active and reactive powers of node k. ILi is the current flowing in the line
3.4.3. Phasor diagram
The phasor diagram of the two buses of the distribution system shown in Fig.3.4.
-jXILi
-RILi
Vs
VK
ILi
VS = VK ZI Li
(3.8)
and VK
is the current
and I Li
Vk
VS
PLk+jQLk
ILi
PLS+jQLS
Fig 3.5: Single line diagram of two buses of a distribution system with DSTATCOM consideration.
In this diagram, the shunt injected current Istat corrects the voltage sag by
adjusting the voltage drop across the system impedance. The value of Istat can be
controlled by adjusting the output voltage of the converter.
3.4.5. Phasor diagram method:The phasor diagram of the two buses of the distribution system after installing
th
-jXILi
ID-stat
-RILi
Vs
VK
new
ILi
-jX ID-stat
-RID-stat
Vsnew
Fig 3.6: Phasor diagram of voltages and currents of the system shown in Fig.3.5
new
K
Li
+ = V (R jX )I
Snew
( R + jX )
I
D Stat
+ new
2
(3.9)
And the phase angle of injected D-STATCOM current (ID-stat) from phasor diagram is
I D stat =
+ new
2
(3.10)
new
Snew
I Li
flow calculations.
1 = ID-Stat, = .
2
new
Separating the real and imaginary parts of
we get
bcos 2
bsin = u c
1
1 1
2
= u1 c2 1 sin 2
c2 1 cos 2
(3.11)
+ c1 1 cos 2
(3.12)
1 =
and
b sin 2 u1
c1 sin 2 c2 cos
2
(3.13)
(3.14)
b sin 2 u2
1 =
c2 sin 2 + c1 cos
2
Where 1 = ID-Stat,
By equating Eqs. (3.13) and (3.14), it can be shown that
(u1c2 u2c1) sin 2 + (- u1c1 u2c2) cos 2 + bc1=0,
(3.15)
(3.16)
Where
P1 = (u1c2 u2c1),
P2 = u1c1 + u2c2
There are two roots for and therefore, two values are calculated for 2 and 1 , but
only one is acceptable. To determine the correct answer, these roots are examined under
boundary conditions in the load flow results:
If b = VSnew = VS, then 1 = ID-Stat = 0 and
2 = new =
After testing these conditions on load flow, correct answer is selected.
And then we know that 2 = new and also we assume = sin 2 , then
(3.17)
D-Stat.
(3.18)
Where
VSnew = VSnewnew
(3.19)
ID-Stat = I D Stat
new
(3.20)
After finding reactive power, current and voltage, load flow is run using Matlab code.
The real power injected by the D-STATCOM is equal to zero (i.e.,
Pinj=0) and the bus voltage magnitude in the node where D-STATCOM is located is set
to a nominal value of 1p.u.
The phase angle at the compensated node and the reactive power
injection of D-STATCOM are calculated by Eqs. (3.17) and (3.18), respectively. If the
reactive power generated (or absorbed) by the D-STATCOM, Qinj, exceeds the rating of
the D-STATCOM device, it is fixed at this value (i.e., Qinj=Srat).
Step 5: Then repeat step.2 and again place D-STATCOM at another location and repeat
step.3 and 4 to find out Voltages and losses at all nodes.
Step 6: Read the results and find out the node at which minimum losses is obtained and
it is selected for optimum location for D-STATCOM.
In this modified load flow method line charging capacitance is also taken
into account in the above algorithm which is actually neglected in the load flow method
presented in reference [5].
Chapter IV
11
11
12
15
13
10
7
1
12
14
4
13
5
9
14
6
10
Fig 4.1: One line diagram of IEEE-15 bus radial distribution system
Branch
Sending end
Receiving end
Resistance
Reactance
bus
bus
R(ohms)
X(ohms)
1.3531
1.3235
1.1702
1.1446
0.8411
0.82271
1.5235
1.0276
2.5573
1.7249
10
1.0882
0.734
1.2514
0.8441
2.0132
1.3579
1.6867
1.1377
10
11
1.7955
1.2111
11
11
12
2.4484
1.6515
12
12
13
2.0132
1.3579
13
14
2.2308
1.5047
14
15
1.1970
0.8074
No of buses: 15, No of lines: 14, Base Voltage: 11KV, Base KVA: 100KVA
Ql
44.0999
44.0999
70
71.4142
140
142.8285
44.9909
44.9909
140
142.8285
140
142.8285
70
71.4142
70
71.4142
44.9909
44.9909
140
142.8285
70
71.4142
44.9909
44.9909
70
71.4142
140
142.8285
No of buses: 15, No of lines: 14, Base Voltage: 11KV, Base KVA: 100KVA
Voltage Magnitudes
in p.u
1.0000
0.9720
0.9574
0.9516
0.9506
0.9589
0.9567
0.9576
0.9685
10
0.9673
11
0.9506
12
0.9463
13
0.9449
14
0.9493
15
0.9492
Without D-STATCOM, and running load flow method the total real and
reactive power loss of this system are 60.0628 kW and 55.5749 kVAr, respectively.
Node no:
Voltage
Magnitudes
after
th
compensation in p.u at 10 node
1.0000
0.9780
0.9677
0.9623
0.9614
0.9655
0.9634
0.9643
0.9750
10
1.0000
11
0.9506
12
0.9468
13
0.9457
14
0.9601
48.2240
45.0755
55.6690
51.6311
48.5986
44.7036
41.0954
38.6371
46.2655
43.5056
47.2820
44.0329
54.9474
50.8193
50.2550
46.4612
10
37.9444
34.8113
11
44.3756
41.1492
12
48.9887
45.4502
13
44.9764
41.1875
14
48.8523
45.3901
19
20
19
21
20
21
22
18
1
50
26
27
25
22
23
23
24
25
26
10
11
10
11
12
13
12
28
27
24
14
13
15
14
16
15
17
16
18
17
sending
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
2
19
20
21
3
23
24
6
26
27
receiving
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Resistance
1.8216
2.2270
1.3662
0.9180
3.6432
2.7324
1.4573
2.7324
3.6432
2.7520
1.3760
4.1280
4.1280
3.0272
2.7520
4.1280
2.7520
3.4400
1.3760
2.7520
4.9536
3.5776
3.0272
5.5040
2.7520
1.3760
1.3760
Reactance
0.7580
0.9475
0.5685
0.3790
1.5160
1.1370
0.6064
1.1370
1.5160
0.7780
0.3890
1.1670
0.8558
0.7780
1.1670
0.7780
0.7780
0.9725
0.3890
0.7780
1.4004
1.0114
0.8558
1.5560
0.7780
0.3890
0.3890
No of buses: 29, No of lines: 27, Base Voltage: 11KV, Base KVA: 100KVA
51
Pl
Ql
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
140.00
80
80
100
80
90
90
80
90
80
80
90
70
70
70
60
60
70
50
50
40
50
50
60
40
40
40
90
50
60
60
50
40
40
50
50
50
40
50
40
40
40
30
30
40
30
30
20
30
20
30
20
20
20
No of buses: 15, No of lines: 14, Base Voltage: 11KV, Base KVA: 100KVA
52
Voltages in p.u
Node no
Voltages in p.u
1.0000
17
0.8477
0.9797
18
0.8470
0.9603
19
0.9603
0.9505
20
0.9592
0.9444
21
0.9577
0.9228
22
0.9565
0.9100
23
0.9505
0.9041
24
0.9484
0.8946
25
0.9464
10
0.8837
26
0.9100
11
0.8755
27
0.9094
12
0.8720
28
0.9091
13
0.8635
14
0.8563
15
0.8524
16
0.8504
53
Voltages in p.u
Node no
Voltages in p.u
1.0000
17
0.8490
0.9973
18
0.8472
0.9954
19
0.9949
0.9942
20
0.9942
0.9932
21
0.9928
0.9901
22
0.9909
0.9875
23
0.9937
0.9861
24
0.9922
0.9837
25
0.9890
10
0.9801
26
0.9890
11
0.9779
27
0.9885
12
0.9768
28
0.9879
13
1.0000
14
0.8563
15
0.8540
16
0.8516
54
Table 4.10: Real and Reactive power losses of 15 bus distribution system after
installing the D-STATCOM at each node is given.
Nodes
222.9651
89.3485
230.7026
92.6054
223.2182
89.4897
224.9190
90.1879
228.1189
91.5345
215.7298
86.3536
216.4618
86.6710
208.2909
83.2839
10
198.3834
79.4189
11
438.0603
176.1914
12
227.4905
91.9262
13
194.3258
78.7030
14
238.3141
95.6078
15
261.5701
104.4960
16
200.5714
81.1681
17
210.3367
84.9354
18
232.4672
93.3656
19
233.6183
93.8158
20
232.2015
93.2887
21
233.7131
93.9616
22
225.6816
90.5424
23
232.0193
93.1783
24
233.6178
93.8242
25
232.6227
93.4192
26
218.8908
87.7012
27
231.1892
92.8270
28
232.8760
93.5262
55
The minimum losses are obtained i.e., 194.3258 kW and 78.7030 kVAr
of real and reactive power losses respectively, when the device is placed at node -13
shown in table 4.10.
Thus D-STATCOM improves the voltage of both nearby downstream
nodes and nearby upstream nodes, especially the nodes located between D-STATCOM
and the source.
Therefore, in the two examples i.e., a IEEE 15-bus and IEEE 29-bus
th
and 13 respectively.
56
Chapter V
CONCLUSION
57
5. CONCLUSION
A simple and modified load-flow technique has been proposed for solving
radial distribution networks. The method has good and fast convergence characteristics
compared with some other existing methods. Later D-STATCOM is applied to proposed
load flow calculations in 15- and 29-bus IEEE test systems. The optimum location for DSTATCOM is identified based on minimum losses. The results indicated that the
proposed model can be applied for large distribution systems. The computer program is
developed using the Matlab.
58
REFERENCES
59
REFERENCES
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Distrib. J
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63