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Work in progress
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Energy from Biomass

A4Review of Combustionand
GasificationTechnologies

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PeterQuaak

HarrieKnoef
Hubert Stassen

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WORLD BANK TECHNICAL

PAPER NO. 422

EnergySeries

Energy from Biomass

A Reviewof Combustionand
GasificationTechnologies

PeterQuaak
HarrieKnoef
HubertStassen
The WorldBank
Washington,D.C.

Copyright K 1999
The International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development/THE WORLD BANK
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Manufactured in the United States of America
First printing March 1999
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ISSN:0253-7494
Peter Quaak, Harrie Knoef, and Hubert Stassen work for the Biomass Technology Group, Enschede,
the Netherlands.
Libraryof Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Quaak, Peter.
Energy from biomass: a review of combustion and gasification
technologies / Peter Quaak, Harrie Knoef, Hubert Stassen.
p. cm. - (World Bank technical paper; 422. Energy series)
ISBN 0-8213 4335-1
1. Biomass energy. I. Knoef, Harrie. II. Stassen, Hubert E.,
1942- . III. Title. IV.Series.
TP339.Q23 1998
662'.88-dc2l
98-31271
CLP

ENERGY SERIES
No. 240 Ahmed, RenewableEnergyTechnologies:
A Reviewof the Status and Costsof S electedTechnologies
No. 242 Barnes, Openshaw, Smith, and van der Plas, WhatMakesPeopleCookwith ImprovedBiomassStoves?A Comparative
InternationalReviewof Stove Programs
No. 243 Menke and Fazzari, ImprovingElectricPowerUtility Efficiency:Issuesand Recommendations
No. 244 Liebenthal, Mathur, and Wade, SolarEnergy:Lessonsfromthe PacificIslandExperence
No. 271 Ahmed, Technological
Developmentand PollutionAbatement:A Study of How EnterprisesareFindingAlternativesto
Chlorofluorocarbons
No. 278 Wijetillekeand Karunaratne, Air QualityManagement:ConsiderationsforDevelopingCountries
No. 279 Anderson and Ahmed, The CaseforSolarEnergyInvestments
No. 286 Tavoulareas and Charpentier, CleanCoalTechnologiesforDevelopingCountries
No. 296 Stassen, Small-ScaleBiomassGasifiersforHeat and Power:A GlobalReview
No. 304 Foley, PhotovoltaicApplicationsin RuralAreasof the DevelopingWorld
No. 308 Adamson and others, EnergyUse,Air Pollution,and EnvironmentalPolicyin Krakow:Can EconomicIncentivesReally
Help?
No. 325 Bacon,Besant-Jones,and Heidarian, EstimatingConstructionCostsand Schedules:Experiencewith PowerGeneration
Projectsin DevelopingCountries
No. 362 Foley,Floor, Madon, Lawali, Montagne, and Tounao, TheNiger HouseholdEnergyProject:PromotingRural
FuelwoodMarketsand IrllageManagementof Natural Woodlands.
No. 421 Bom, Foster, Dijkstra, and Tummers, EvaporativeAir-Conditioning:Applicationsfor EnvironmentallyFriendly
Cooling

Contents
Foreword .x.....
Abstract ..

..

xiii

Acknowledgments.........................

xv

Abbreviationsand Acronyms.........................

xvi

Units and Prefixes.........................

xvii

I.

Introduction .1

2.

Biomass as a Fuel
Typesand Sourcesof Biomass
ThermalPropertiesof Biomass
MoistureContent
Ash Content.3
VolatileMatter Content
ElementalComposition
Heating.Value.3
BulkDensity.4
FuelCharacteristics
BiomassCharacteristicsRelatedto the Environment
Contaminants
NitrogenContent
VolatileHydrocarbons

3.

.2
.2
.2
.2
.3
.3
.4
.4
.4
.5
.5

Combustion Systems and the Steam Cycle

.7
Principles.7
The Furnace.7
Utilizationof the ThermalEnergyContainedin the Flue Gas
FurnaceTypes.10
Fixed.Bed.Systems.10
RecentDevelopmentsin Fixed-BedSystemsof Lessthan 5 MW. .12
Flue-GasCondensation.13
Fluidized-BedSystems.13
Emissionsfrom Fluidized-BedSystems.15
EmissionsReduction.15
Process-IntegratedMeasures..................
SecondaryMeasuresto ReduceEmissions.16
The SteamCycle.18

.8

15

Energy from Biomns

Componentsof the SteamCycle.........................................................

SteamBoilers.........................................................
SteamEngines.........................................................
SteamTurbines.........................................................
Condensers.........................................................
WaterTreatment.........................................................
Optimizingof SteamCycles.........................................................
Applicationof SteamCyde .........................................................
CombinedHeat and Power.........................................................

20
20
21
21
22
22
23
24
25

4.

GasificationSystems.........................................................
26
Introduction .........................................................
26
FixedBedGasifiers.........................................................
27
Updraftor CountercurrentGasifiers.........................................................
27
Downdraftor CocurrentGasifiers.........................................................
28
Cross-DraftGasifiers.........................................................
28
Open-CoreGasifier.........................................................
28
Comparisonof Fixed-BedGasifiers.........................................................
29
Developmentsin Fixed-BedGasifiers.........................................................
29
Technicaland OperationalProblemswith Fixed-BedGasifiers.....................................................
31
Fluidized-BedGasifiers.........................................................
31
Principles.........................................................
31
PressurizedFluidized-BedGasification.........................................................
32
Comparisonof Fixed-Bedand Fluidized-BedGasifiers..............................
........................... 33
GasTreatment.........................................................
33
Tar Removal.........................................................
33
Dust Removal.........................................................
34
GasEngines.........................................................
34
GasTurbines.........................................................
35
Combined-CycleSTIGand STEG.........................................................
38
Heat Generation.........................................................
39

5.

Combustion Versus Gasification ..........................................

.
............. 40
HeatApplications.........................................................
40
Retrofittingof Fossil-Fuel-FiredFurnaces.........................................................
40
Installationof a Prefurnace.........................................................
40
Installationof a Gasifier.........................................................
41
Conversionof Furnaces.........................................................
41
PowerApplications.........................................................
41
Conceptsin the 1 MW Range.........................................................
42
Comparisonof Gasificationand the Steam-CycleConceptin the 1 MWdRange............. ...........
43
Conceptsin the 5 MW Range.........................................................
47
Comparisonof Gasificationand Steam-CycleConceptsin the 5 MW, Range............... ..............
47
SensitivityAnalysis.........................................................
48

6.

Conclusions .........................................................

vi

52

Energyfrom Biomass

References .........................................................................

54

Annex 1: Formulas for Quantification of Biomass Properties .......................................................

Moisture Content .........................................................................
Ash Content .........
................................................................
Heating Values.........................................................................

56
56
56
57

Annex 2: Stoichiometric Air Requirements in the Combustion Process ..............

.........................
58

Amount of Air to Be Supplied to the Combustion Process ..................................................................58

Primary Air .........................................................................
58
Secondary Air .........................................................................
58
Combustion Products .........................................................................
59

Annex 3: Conversion of Heat into Power .................................

........................................ 60

Annex 4: Theory of Gasification .........................................................................

61

Annex 5: Financial Analysis of 1 MWeiSystems ......................................................................... 63

Annex 6: Financial Analysis of 5 MWei Systems ......................................................................... 71
Figures
2.1 BiomassComposition..........................................................................
2
2.2 CalorificValueof Biomass(Lowerand HigherHeatingValue)as a Functionof MoistureContent ...4
3.1 BasicProcessFlowfor BiomassCombustion..........................................................................
7
3.2 AdiabaticFlameTemperatureas a Functionof BiomassMoistureContent and Excess
Air Factor (X).........................................................................
8
3.3 AdiabaticFlameTemperatureas a Functionof BiomassAshContent,MoistureContent, and
ExcessAir Factor.........................................................................
9
3.4 CalculatedBoilerEfficiency(basedon HHV) as a Functionof BiomassMoistureContent
(StackTemperature,200C).........................................................................
10
3.5 A Sloping-GrateCombustionSystem.........................................................................
11
3.6 SuspensionBurnerfor PulverizedCoal .........................................................................
11
3.7 Spreader-StokerSystemwith an IntegratedWaterTubeBoiler.......................................
1.....................I
1
3.8 CombustionSystemwith UnderscrewFeedingSystem.........................................................................
12
3.9 CyclonicCombustionSystem.........................................................................
13
3.10 CigarBurner ..........................................................................
14
3.11 Fluidized-BedCombustionSystem.........................................................................
14
3.12 StagedCombustionSystem.........................................................................
16
3.13 "Hose Filter"Typeof BagFilter.........................................................................
17
3.14 ElectrostaticPrecipitator.........................................................................
17
3.15 The Principleof Scrubbing.........................................................................
17
3.16 Exampleof a ScrubbingPlant.........................................................................
18
3.17 Exampleof a Multi-Cylone.........................................................................
18
3.18 EnergyTransformationsin a SteamCycle.........................................................................
20
3.19 Schematicof a SteamSystem.........................................................................
20

vii

EnergyfromBiomass

3.20 An Inclined-Grate Combustor with a Connected Three-Draft Firetube Boiler .............. ....................
21
3.21 Water-Tube Boiler .................................................................
21
3.22 Isentropic EfficiencyVersus Capacity for Small-ScaleTurbines ...........................................................22
3.23 Cycle with Steam Reheating After the First Turbine ........................................
......................... 23
3.24 Cycle with Feed Water and Air Preheaters .................................................................
24
4.1 Updraft or Countercurrent Fixed-Bed Gasifier .........................
........................................ 27
4.2 Downdraft or Cocurrent Fixed-Bed Gasifier ....................
.............................................
28
4.4 Open-Core Gasifier .................................................................
29
4.3 Cross-Draft Fixed-Bed Gasifier.................................................................
29
4.5 Downdraft Gasifier with V-Shaped Throat and Internal Heat Exchange...................... .......................
29
4.6 Small-Diameter Gasifier.................................................................
30
4.7 Gasifier with Tar Collection .................................................................
30
4.8 Delacotte Gasifier .................................................................
30
4.9 Fluidized-Bed Gasifier .................................................................
32
4.10 Tar Accumulation on Valveand ValveStem .................................................................
34
4.11 T-Type Mixing System for Mixing Producer Gas with Combustion Air ....................... .......................
35
4.12 Basic Gas Turbine (A) and Two-Shaft (B) Configurations ................................................................. 36
4.13 Gas Turbine with Exhaust Gas Heat Recovery.................................................................
36
4.14 Gas Turbine with Heat Recovery,Intercooling, and Reheat .................................................................37
5.1 SensitivityAnalysis of Concepts in the 1 MWeRange .....................................................
............ 46
5.2 SensitivityAnalysis of Concepts in the 5 MW, Range ......................................................
........... 50
Tables
2.1 Elementary Composition of Typical Biomass as Derived from Ultimate Analyses ............. ..................
3
2.2 Typical Characteristics of Different Biomass Fuel Types Presently Used Commercially
for Energy Generation .................................................................
5
2.3 Sulfur and Chloride Content of Some Biomass Materials .................................................................. 6
3.1 Comparison of Fixed-Bed Combustion Systems...........................
...................................... 13
3.2 Advantages,Drawbacks, and Energy Use of Flue-Gas Treatment Systems .................... ......................
19
4.1 Characteristics of Different Types of Gasifiers.................................................................
31
4.2 Typical Characteristics of Fixed-Bed and Fluidized-Bed Gasifiers....................................................... 33
4.3 Specifications for Use of Producer Gas in Engines ....................................
............................. 35
4.4 Gas Turbines Suitable for Low-CalorificGases.................................................................
37
4.5 Quality Requirements for Gas Turbine Fuel Gas ...........................
...................................... 38
5.1 Gasifier/Engine Concept in 1 MWeRange with Indicative Capacities ............................ .....................
42
5.2 Steam-Cycle Concept in 1 MWe Range with Indicative Capacities ......................................................43
5.3 Characteristic Data of Gasifier/Engine and Steam-CycleConcept .......................................................44
5.4 Operational Aspects of Gasifier/Engine and Steam Cyde ................................................................... 45
5.5 Electricity Production Costs: Steam versus Gasifier (Range: < 1 MWJ) ........................ ......................
45
5.6 Electricity Production Costs: Steam versus Gasifier for SmallApplications
Based on CHP Concepts (Range: < 1MW1l) .........................
....................................... 45
5.7 Steam Cycle Concept, 5 MW , with Indicative Capacities ................................................................ 48
5.8 Gasifier/STEGConcept with Indicative Capacities ................................
................................ 48
5.9 Characteristic Data of Gasifier/STEGand Steam-CycleConcepts in the 5 MWe Range ........... ..........
49
5.10 Electricity Production Costs Based on CHP Concepts in the 5 MWd Range .................. .....................
49
................................ 49
5.11 Electricity Production Costs in the 5 MWeiRange ................................
A4.1 Composition of Gas From Commercial Wood and Charcoal Gasifiers ...............................................62
A5.1 Steam Cycle (Appr. 1 MWe;Power generation/vacuum condenser) .....................................................63

viii

Energyfrom Biomass

A5.2
A5.3
A5.4
A6.1
A6.2
A6.3
A6.4

Steam Cycle (Appr. 1 MW; CHP atm condenser) ..................................................

Gasifier/Engine (Appr. 1 MWe;Power generation) ..................................................
Gasifier/Engine (Appr. 1 MWe;CHP) ..................................................
Steam Cycle (Appr. 5 MW,; Power generation/vacuum condenser) ..................................................
Steam Cycle (Appr. 5 MWe;CHP) ..................................................
Gasifier and STEG (Appr. 5 MWe;Power generation STEG) ..........................
........................
Gasifier and STEG (Appr. 5 MWe;CHP STEG) ..................................................

65
67
69
71
73
75
77

ix

Foreword
Energy,essentialfor development,is oftenin short supplyin countrieswith the greatestbiomassresources.
However,biomassis a renewableenergyresourcewhosepotentialhas not been fullyexploited.
Thereare severaleconomicbenefitsin developingcountriesto the use of biomassresources.The scarcityof
hard currencyin the indebtedcountries obligesthem to look for indigenous,cost-effectivefuelsubstitutes
that reducethe needfor fuelimports.Conversionof crop residuesinto energyincreasesthe valueof agricultural output.Thecostsof gettingrid of municipalwastesarenot negligibleand are mountingin themegacities
of the developingworldwhere land resourcesare constrained.
Abenefitof usingbiomassin placeof fossilfuelsis that CO2 emissionsare cut as a result.Thisis becausethe
biomassactsas a carbonsink when it is growing.Replacingfossilfuelswith sustainablebiomassfuelis thus
one option that countriesmaywishto considerin restrainingCO2 emissions.
The use of biomassresiduesas an energyresourcefacesimpedimentsto larger-scaledeployment.Seasonal
availabilityand high costsof handling are reasonsin someplacesas are the costsof competingfuels.
Another reason,and whythis report waswritten, is that informationon modern technologiesthat convert
biomassto usefulenergyhas not been sufficientlywidelydisseminated.This report thereforereviewsthe
state of the art ofbiomasscombustionand gasificationsystems,alongwith their advantagesand drawbacks.
Bydisseminatingthis informationmorewidely,the reportcan helpbring about a surgein investmentin the
use of thesetechnologiesand thus enabledevelopingcountriesto exploittheir biomassresourcesbetter and
help closethe gap betweentheir energyneeds and their energysupply.
JamesBond
Director
Energy,Mining and
TelecommunicationsDepartment

xi

Abstract
Biomassmaterialshavepropertiesthat differfrom those of conventionalsolid fuels such as coal.A major
differenceis the high content ofvolatilematterin biomassmaterials(up to 80percent),whereascoalhasless
than 20 percent (anthracitecoal sometimesevenhas a negligiblevolatilecontent).The designof a combustion or gasificationsystemdepends heavilyon the specificbiomass material-its morphology,moisture
content,and mixof contaminants.Thelast determineswhich flue-gascleaningsystemswillbe applied.
Combustionsystemsbased on steam cyclesare technicallymature and commerciallyavailable.Eventhe
most advancedconcepts(basedon fluidized-bedcombustion)are technicallyproven.
Gasificationsystemsare commerciallyavailable.However,small-scaleapplicationsneed much supervision
and sufferfrom frequent interruptions. Current developmentof gasificationsystemsis directedtoward
increasingtheir performanceand reliability.
Advancedintegratedgasificationand combinedheat and powerconceptsare promisingbut still not demonstrated.Ademonstrationplant has been built but is not yet in fiiuloperation.
Comparisonshavebeen made betweengasifier/engineand steam-cycleconceptswith capacitiesof 1 MWe.
Production costsfor the gasifier/enginecapacitiesfor the consideredbase are lowerthan that of the steam
cycle.However,some uncertaintyis involvedin assumptionsof the base case,and sensitivityanalysesshow
that changein those assumptionsis largerthan the differencein costsbetweenthe two concepts.Therefore,
on cannot concludein generalthat on conceptis more attractivethan the other. Rather,feasibilitystudies
must be performedin each caseto determinewhich systemis most suitable.

xii

Acknowledgments
BTGpreparedthis report withinthe frameworkof the ESMAPprogrammeof the WorldBank.The authors
wouldliketo thankWlllemFloorand his colleaguesof the WorldBankfor their support and for providing
valuablecommentson the draft report.Thanksalso go to the followingcolleaguesof BTGwho haveassisted
in gatheringinformation:WolterPrins,RolandSiemons,ReneVenendaal,Eric v.d. Heuvel,JohnVos,Bert
Wagenaar,Bertv.d.Beld,and HansJurgenKoele.Wearealso gratefulto Mrs. MarjaBakkerfor her secretarial
assistance.Prof.dr.ir.W.P.M.vanSwaayofTwenteUniversityand Prof.dr.ir.A.A.C.M.Beenackers
of Groningen
Universityareacknowledgedfor their advice.Finally,the authorswouldliketo thankthe NetherlandsOrganizationfor Energyand Environment,Novem,for guidingthe ideaof this projectin the initialstages.

xv

Abbreviations
andAcronyms
General
CEE

Central and Eastern European Countries

Technicalterms
AC

ash content (of biomass)

CHP

combined heat and power

LHV

lower heating value

HHV

higher heating value

MC

moisture content (of biomass)

Ti

efficiency

excessair factor

(p

mass flow

t}

phi

Subscripts
boil

boiler

comb combustion
d

on a dry basis

daf

on a dry and ash-free basis

e, el

electric

gen

generator

th

thermal

on a wet basis

wt

on basis of weight

xvi

UnitsandPrefixes
Length

Temperature

OC

meter

Area
m2

degreesCelsius

Prefixes
square meter

mili (10-3)

Volume

c
k

centi (10-2)
kilo (103 )

liter

Mega (106)

m3

cubic meter

Giga (109)

Weight
g

gram

kg

kilogram

tonne (1,000kg)

T
Tera(1012)
norN before m3 (with gas volume), indicates
norm condition of a gas (i.e.,1 bar, 0C)

Time
d

day

hour

second

yr

year

Energy
J

joule (newton-meter)

kWh

kilowatt-hour(3,600,000J or 3.6 MJ)

Power
W

Watt (=J/s)

xvfii

1.Introduction
Use of wood and other forms of biomassas fuels
for generatingelectricityand heat has become a
focusof renewedinterestin manyparts of theworld.
Biomassis an indigenous,often cheap, and above
allrenewablefuel.Theincreasingavailabilityof biomass, combined with the recent developmentof
technologiesto use it efficientlyand with lowlevels
of emissions,promiseto makebiomassan increasinglyattractivefuel option.
Althoughbiomassis beingusedin industrialapplications in Centraland Eastern Europeand in developing countries, the systems in operation are
oftenold,inefficient,and poorlymaintained,resulting in wasteand pollution.Yetbiomass,in contrast
to fossilfuels,has a unique potentialfor makinga
positiveenvironmentalimpact. That is, in a plan
for sustainablebiomass production and use, the
carbon dioxide(CO2 ) emitted wouldbe absorbed
by the growthof new biomass.

Biomass can be burned without emitting large

amounts of nitrogen oxides(NO,). Moreover,because the sulfur content of biomass is very low,
emissionsof sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) will alsobe low,
especiallycomparedwith the emissionsfrom coalfired combustion.In addition, using biomassas a
fuelwould mobilizepreviouslybothersomeor environmentallydetrimental resources (such as agricultural residues and residues from the woodworking industries).
This publicationprovidesinformationon the state
of the art of biomasscombustionand gasification
systemsand spells out the advantagesand drawbacksof each.Its ultimate purpose is to encourage
investorsand industriesto adopt efficientequipment and operational methods that will enable
them to take advantageof hitherto underutilized
biomassfuels.

2. Biomassasa Fuel
An assessment of the use of biomass as a fuel requires a basic understanding of the types and
sources of suitable biomass and of their basic composition, characteristics, and performance.

Thermal Properties of Biomass

Types and Sourcesof Biomass

of biomassare as follows:

One of the most important biomass fuels is wood.

Of course, trees may be collected from forests and
simply logged into appropriate sizes for direct use
as fuel. But wood is often too valuable to burn, and
woodworking industries are able to make better use
of trees by processing them into construction materials. True residues such as bark, sawdust, and
misshapen or odd-sized pieces are frequently more
economic to use as fuel.After serving as a construction material, however, wood may become available as "demolition wood" and can be used as a
fuel at that time. In industrial countries, this type
of wood is considered waste and therefore available at low or even bargain prices. Unfortunately,
this wood may contain contaminants from paints
and plastics or pieces of iron.
Many agricultural residues can be used as fuels.
They include straw from grains; husks from rice,
coconuts, or coffee; stalks from maize or cotton;
and bagasse from sugar cane. In addition, forestry
and landscape conservation activitiesgenerate biomass such as thinnings and verge grass. Using these
biomass residues as fuels may solve the environmental problem of how to dispose of them. Moreover,the potential for using residues as a source of

energymaycreatenewincentivesto growcropsthat

Each type of biomass has specific properties that

determine its performance as a fuel in combustion
or gasification devices or both. The most important properties relating to the thermal conversion

*
*
*
*
*
*

Moisture content
Ash content
Volatile matter content
Elemental composition
Heating value
Bulk density

In the available literature, different indicators are

often used to quantify the properties listed above,
causing confusion. Hence, the definition of these
indicators and the relationships between them are
emphasized here. In defining the properties of biomass, it is important to note that it consists of water, ash, and ash-free matter (Figure 2.1), and that
the proportion of each is critical in evaluating the
suitability of biomass as a fuel.

Figure2.1: BiomassComposition

ae
Wet
Ash

Dryand

matst-ere

are now only marginally profitable.

Cultivation of biomass specificallyfor direct use as
a fuel-known as energycropping-may create new
incentives for the agricultural sector, particularly
in countries that suffer from overproduction of
crops. Future energy-cropping activities may involve cultivation of fast-growingwood speciessuch
as poplar, willow, or miscanthus in moderate climates, and sugar cane or sweet sorghum or other
suitable species in tropical areas.

basis

Dyand
bais

Source:BTG (1995).

Moisture Content
The moisture content of biomass is the quantity of
water in the material, expressed as a percentage of
the material's weight. This weight can be referred

EnergyfromBiomass

to on a wet basis, on a dry basis, and on a dry-andash-freebasis.

If the moisture content is determined on a "wet"basis, the water's weight is expressed as a percentage of
the sum of the weight of the water, ash, and dryand-ash-free matter. Similarly,when calculating the
moisture content on a "dry" basis (however contradictory that may seem), the water's weight is expressed as a percentage of the weight of the ash and
dry-and-ash-free matter. Finally,the moisture content can be expressed as a percentage of the "dryand-ash-free" matter content. In that last case, the
water's weight is related to the weight of the dry biomass.Because the moisture content affectsthe value
of biomass as a fuel,the basis on which the moisture
content is measured must alwaysbe mentioned. This
is particularly important because biomass materials
exhibit a wide range of moisture content (on a wet
basis), ranging from less than 10 percent for cereal
grain straw up to 50 to 70 percent for forest residues.

tion. For example, melted ash may cause problems

in both combustion and gasificationreactors. These
problems may vary from clogged ash-removal
caused by slaggingash to severeoperating problems
in fluidized-bed systems.

Volatile Matter Content

Volatilematter refers to the part of the biomass that
is released when the biomass is heated (up to 4000
to 500C). During this heating process the biomass
decomposes into volatile gases and solid char. Biomass typically has a high volatile matter content (up
to 80 percent), whereas coal has a low volatile matter content (less than 20 percent) or, in the case of
anthracite coal, a negligible one.

Elemental Composition
The composition of the ash-free organic component
of biomass is relativelyuniform. The major components are carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Most biomass also contains a small proportion of nitrogen.
Table2.1 presents the averagerange of percentages.

Ash Content
The inorganic component (ash content) can be expressed in the same way as the moisture contenton a wet, dry, or dry-and-ash-free basis. In general,
the ash content is expressed on a dry basis.
The inherent ash value-an integral part of the plant
structure, which consists of a wide range of elements-represents less than 0.5 percent in wood, 5
to 10 percent in diverse agricultural crop materials,
and up to 30 to 40 percent in rice husks and milfoil.
The total ash content in the biomass and the chemical composition of the ash are both important. The
composition of the ash affects its behavior under
the high temperatures of combustion and gasifica-

Heating Value
The heating value of a fuel is an indication of the
energy chemically bound in the fuel with reference
to a standardized environment. The standardization
involvesthe temperature, state of water (vapor or liquid), andthe combustion products (CO2, H20, etc.).
These standard conditions are widelyavailablein the
literature on the measurement of heating values.
The energy chemically bound in the fuel is given by
the heating value of the fuel in energy (J) per
amount of matter (kg). This energy cannot be measured directly, but only with respect to a reference
state. Reference states may differ, so a number of
different heating values exist. The best known are

Table 2.1:ElementaryCompositionof TypicalBiomassas Derivedfrom Ultimate Analyses

Element

Symbol

Weightpercent (dry and ash-free basis)

Carbon

44-51

Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulfur

H
0
N
S

5.5-6.7
41-50
0.12-0.60
0.0-0.2

Source:BTG (1987). Thermochemical conversion of biomass to energy, UNIDO, Vienna.

EnergyfromBiomass

the lower heatingvalue (LHV)and higherheating

value (HHV).For the LHV,the referencestate of
water is its gaseousstate; for the HHV,the referencestate of wateris its liquid state.
Biomassalwayscontains some water,which is releasedasvaporupon heating.This impliesthat some
of the heat liberatedduring the chemicalreactions
isabsorbedbythe evaporationprocess.Forthis reason, the net heating value (LHV)decreasesas the
moisture content of the biomass increases (even
apart from the fact that a higher moisturecontent
itselfimpliesa lower content of combustiblematter,whichon a wetbasisalsodecreasesthe net heating valueper kilogram of biomass). Figure2.2 illustrates the relationshipbetween calorificvalue
(LHVand HHV) and moisturecontent.

20,000-

'

10,000

-.

;;

*.

Moisture
content
(%/6)

similar with regard to higher heating values, biomass fuels have large differenceswith respect
to physical (moisture content and bulk density),
chemical (volatile matter content and ash content),
and morphological (size and size distribution) characteristics.These fuel characteristicsaffectthe choice
of conversion technology: "easy' fuels such as char-

LHV

coal or wood blocks can be made to work in a large

,Although
.

Note

Fuel Characteristics

;;2"*.

-5,000
-

20

40

60

------

so

100

HHV

varietyof equipment,whereas"difficult"fuelssuch
LHVLowerheatingvalue;
HHV=higherheatingvalue. as ricehusksor bagassecallfor veryspecificand of-

At a moisture content of approximately 87 percent

(wet basis) the LHV would be zero. In practice, the
maximum allowable moisture content must be 55
percent (wet basis) to ignite the fuel and extract energy from it.

The only effect of moisture content on HHV is

the lower content of combustible matter per kilogram of biomass fuel. The heat of evaporation
is recovered completely by condensation of the
water vapor when the flue gases are brought into
the reference state belonging to HHV.

Bulkdensityrefersto theweightof materialper unit

of volume.Forbiomassthis is commonlyexpressed
on an oven-dry-weightbasis(moisturecontent;MC
= 0 percent)or an as-isbasis,with a corresponding
indication of moisture content (MCW).Similarto
biomassmoisturecontents,biomassbulk densities
show extremevariation,from lows of 150 to 200
kg/m3 for cerealgrain strawsand shavingsto highs
of 600to 900 kg/m3 for solid wood.

high-quality coal.

.2

BulkDensity

Together,heatingvalueand bulk densitydetermine

the energy density-that is, the potential energy
availableper unit volumeof the biomass.In general, biomass energy densities are approximately
one-tenth that of fossilfuelssuch as petroleumor

Figure2.2:CslorlflcVaiue of Bblmas
(Lower and Higher HeatingValue)asa
Functionof MoistureContent
g
15,X00
-

In practice,heatingvaluesare givenon wet, dry,or

dry-and-ash-freebasis. For all biomass types the
value of HHV on a dry-and-ash-free basis
(HHVdaf)is in the order of 20,400kJ/kg( 15percent) (BTG1995a).Annex 1 provides formulasto
calculatethe biomassfuelproperties on this basis.

ten expensivetechnological solutions, either in conversion equipment or in fuel preparation facilities.

Some biomasstypes that presently are used commerciallyfor energygeneration, together with their natural moisture content (MCW),ash content (ACd),and
resulting LHVs, are listed in Table 2.2.

BiomassCharacteristicsRelatedto the
Environment
Contaminants
Fresh-biomass-materials
contain very few components that can cause environmental problems.
Sulfurrandchlorine,however,maybe present in small
amounts, and may contribute to the formation of

Enrg fromBlomass

acidrainwhentheyareconvertedintoSO2 and HC1

during combustion.Table2.3 indicatesthe content
of sulfurand chlorineof somebiomassmaterials.

quantitiesof NO, formedcan be limited by using

lower combustion temperaturesand stagedcombustion (technologiesthat are discussedlater).

Nitrogen Content
Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2 , collectivelyreferredto as NOX)also contributeto the formation
of acidrain.Twotypes ofNO. formationtakeplace
during combustion:ThermalNO.formation takes
place at temperatures above 9500 C from the nitrogen containedin the combustion air. FuelNO.
formation occurs at lower temperatures from the
nitrogen contained in the fuel. In general, the

Volatile Hydrocarbons
In combustion and gasificationprocesses,volatile
hydrocarbons,
referredto collectivelyas CxHr,are
formed.These components can be burned when
they are containedover time in a hot combustion
zone.In well-designedcombustionsystems,emissionsof CxHyare very low.However,in poorly designedcombustiondevicesor openfires,CxH emissionsmaybe considerable.

Table 2.2: TypicalCharactedaicsof Dliferent BonmasFuelTypesPresentyUsed

Commercally for EnergyGnenaton
Type

LHVw (kJ/kg)

MCw (%)

ACd (%)

Bagasse
Cocoahusks
Coconutshells
Coffeehusks
Cottonresidues
Stalks
Gin trash
Maize
Cobs
Stalks

7,700-8,000
13,000-16,000
18,000
16,000

40-60
7-9
8
10

1.7-3.8
7-14
4
0.6

16,000
14,000

10-20
9

0.1
12

13,000-15,000

10-20

2
3-7

5,000
11,000
15,000
15,000
9,000-15,000
14,000
12,000
8,400-17,000
25,000-32,000

63
40
15
15
13-15
9
10
10-60
1-10

Palm-oilresidues
Fruit stems
Fibers
Shells
Debris
Peat
Ricehusks
Straw
Wood
Charcoal

1-20
19
4.4
0.25-1.7
0.5-6

SourceAuthor.

EnergyfromBiomass

Table 2.3:Sulfurand ChlorideContent of SomeBiomassMaterials

(WeightPercent
onDryBasis)

BiomassMaterial
Maize
Wood
Bark
Straw
Grass
Source:
Schmidtandothers,1993.

Sulfur

Chlorine

0.05
0.01
0.05
0.07
0.18

1.48
0.01
0.02
0.49
0.88

3. Combustion
Systems
andthe SteamCycle
Combustion is the most direct process for converting biomass into usable energy, and it is used in
many applications.Ignition of biomass materials requires high temperatures (at least 550'C; TNO
1992), so the most difficult aspect of the combustion process is to start it. Once ignition has taken
place, however, assuming sufficient air supply is
guaranteed, combustion will proceed. In fact, it may
be difficult to stop the process before complete combustion of the material has taken place.
Despite its apparent simplicity, combustion is a
complex process from a technological point of view.
High reaction rates and high heat release and many
reactants and reaction schemes are involved.
Fundamental research has provided some insight
into the chemical reactions governing the combustion process, and recent applications of the basic
principles have led to new technologies designed to

is characterized by small blue flames or glowing

of the char pieces.
In order to analyze the combustion process a (conceptual) division is made between the furnace (the
place where the fuel is burned) and the heat exchanger(the place where the heat from the flue gas
is exchanged for a process medium or energy carrier, such as water, steam, or air). In practice, some
radiant heat exchange always takes place between
the furnace and heat exchanger, but for simplicity,
it is assumed in this conceptualization that all heat
is transported by the flue gases (Figure 3.1).

Figure3.1:BasicProcessFlowfor Biomass
Combustion
Flue gas

meet current emissionand efficiencystandards.

The principles of combustion, available furnaces
and systems, and recent developments in furnace
and related technologies are described in what follows. In addition, the final part of the chapter treats
steam cycles,which are applied to produce power
from combustion of biomass.

Principles

Fumace

Boiler

Fuel
Ar

Thermalenergy

Source:Authors.

In the combustion process, the following stagescan

be distinguished:
* Drying. This phase involves evaporation of the
contained water.
* Pyrolysisand reduction. This is the thermal decomposition of the fuel into volatile gases and
solid char.
* Combustionof the volatilegasesabovethefuel bed.
The volatile gasesproduced by pyrolysis and reduction burn above the fuel bed, showing yellow flames.
* Combustion of the char in the fuel bed. The solid
char is combusted on the grate, and its burning

The Furnace
In the combustion process, which takes place in the
furnace, chemical-bound energy in the fuel is converted into thermal energy, which becomes available in the form of hot flue gas. This hot flue gas is
thus the useful output of the furnace.
The energy contained in the fuel that is not transferred to the flue gas (in the form of thermal energy)
is lost. Such losses derive from the followingfactors:

Energy
fromBiomass

* Heat losses to the environment (by heat transmission through the furnace walls).
* Release of hot ash (the thermal energy stored in
the ash thus is not used).
* Unburned particles in the ash (the chemical energy in these particles is not released).
* Unburned pyrolysis gases and carbon monoxide (CO) in the flue gas (these still contain chemical energy).

Figure3.2: AdiabaticFlameTemperature
asa Functionof BiomassMoisture
Content and ExcessAir Factor(X)
(AssumedAsh
Content /0 Percent)

2,000

E
(D

The efficiency of the furnace (or the combustion

process) can be defined as follows:

C
0

Equation I

flcomb

thermal energy available in thefluegas

chemicalenergy in the suppliedfuel

-s_
01.0

1.5

The combustion efficiencyis mainly determined by

the completeness of the combustion processand the
heat loss from the furnace.
The completeness of combustion means the extent
to which the combustible particles of the fuel are
burned. This is an important indicator for combustion quality. For best results, more than the theoretically minimal amount of air is required. The excess air factor, lambda (X), indicates the ratio between the real air supply and the air that is theoretically needed for combustion. At stoichiometric
combustion(X = 1) supplied air is just sufficient to
burn all combustible particles.
The higher the value of lambda, the lower the temperature of the flue gas leaving the furnace. For the
efficiency of the heat exchanger (discussed in the
next paragraph), it is important that the flue-gas
temperatures are as high as possible. Theoretically,
the highest flue-gas temperatures will be obtained
using X = 1. But, in practice, values of X > 1 are
always applied. In Figure 3.2, the theoretical furnace temperature at complete combustion, without

2.5

3.0

3.5

4.0

4.5

Mc,
0.1
-

Based on the LHV of the biomass as received (on a

wet basis-LHVW), typical combustion efficiencies
range from 65 percent in poorly designed furnaces
up to 99 percent in well-insulated, sophisticated
combustion systems.

2.0

. .

-0.4

0.2 --------

0.3
0.5

Note:Assumedash content, 10percent. 1 excessair factor.

MC,, = moisturecontent,wet basis.
Source:Authors.

any heat losses and heat transfer by radiation (the

adiabaticflame temperature),is calculated as a function of lambda and the moisture content of the fuel.
The value of lambda has a dominant influence on
the adiabatic flame temperature. The influence of
the moisture content is also present, but it is less
sensitive (roughly by a factor of 4) in the considered ranges of both moisture content and lambda.
The influence of the ash content can be neglected,
as demonstrated in Figure 3.3.
The optimal value for lambda depends on the furnace, the type of fuel, and the applied firing system.
Typical values for wood in well-designed systems
range from 1.6 < X < 2.5. In poor designs, the value
for lambda may be as high as 4 to 5. (The stoichiometric amount of air and the calculation of LHV
can be measured according to the formulas presented in Annex 2.)

Utilizaton ofthe ThermalEnergy

Contained
in the FlueGas
The conceptual heat exchanger from Figure 3.1 may
be a boiler, a process heater, or any heat exchanger
that switches thermal energy from the flue gas to

Energy
fromBiomass

Figure 3.3: Adiabatic Flame Temperature

as a Function of BiomassAsh Content,

Typicalboiler efficienciesbased on LHV range from

60 to 95 percent, and 50 to 90 percent based on HHV

MoistureContent,and ExcessAir

efficiencies.
The main losses of the boiler are in the hot flue gas
exiting from the stack. Without specially designed

2,000-

i*

EL

9^*

1,000
oo
E

heat gas
exchangers,
temperature
the departing
cannot bethetoo
low since itofcontains
water
vapor,NO., HCI,SO2, and (if the fuelcontainssulfur) some tar components. If the flue gasin the boiler
is cooled too much, water vapor will condense, absorbing HCI, S02, and NO. In such cases,the latter
two compounds form acid components such as

MC, 10%

Mc. 0%flue

....

Mc,,=40%

8:

.o
.0
.0

11.5

,0
2.0

,.0
2.5

3.0

5
3.5

4.0

4.5

H 2 SO3 and H 2 NO 4 , whereas the first compound

be-

Note:1 = excessair factor. MC.,= moisture content, wetbasis.

ACd= ash content, dry basis.

comes an acid. In this way unneeded acid solutions

are created in the condensate that may severely corrode the boiler. Therefore, the flue-gas temperature
in the outlet is in practice always kept higher than
1200C (between 1200and 2000C and in poor designs
even higher). The allowed boiler-outlet temperature

Source:Authors.

for a particular case can be calculated from the ex-

Ash Content

ACd=1%

ACd= 20%

the process medium (e.g., water, steam, or air). The

useful output of the heat exchanger is in the heated
medium. Because manyapplications of thermalheat
are for heating water or producing steam, the heat
exchanger will next be considered as a boiler. Such
considerations, however, can be made analogously
for any other type of heat exchanger installed after
a furnace.
Energy losses from the boiler result from the flue
gas that still contains thermal energy being released
to the environment by the stack. (The stack of the
plant is the vertical pipe from which the flue gases
are released. The stack requires some height to assure mixing of the flue gases with the ambient air
and to prevent harm to people at or near to the
plant.) Losses also come from heat transmission
through the insulation of the heat exchanger. The
efficiencyof the boiler (or the heat exchanging process) is shown in the following equation:
Equation 2

act fuel composition (determined by a final chemical analysis) and the applied excessair (X).
The difference between the flue-gas inlet and outlet temperatures determines the fraction of the heat
contained in the flue gases that is transferred to water or steam. Consequently, the higher the boiler
inlet temperature of the flue gases (which results in
a large temperature difference between inlet and
outlet), the greater the energy transferred to the water or the steam, and the higher the boiler efficiency.
Figure 3.4 shows the theoretically calculated boiler
efficiency (based on HHV) as a function of moisture content and lambda for a stack temperature of
200C. The more excess air, the more sensitive the
calculated efficiency is to the stack temperature.
Special heat exchangers are discussed in the section
on components of the steam cycle. These are applied to cool the flue gases to temperatures below
100C (down to 50C) in order to minimize heat

thermalenergyavailablein the waterorsteam

loss through the stack. They are even capable of recovering some condensation heat from water vapor contained in the flue gas.

thermalenergyin the enteringflue gas

lo'

At this point, it is important to note that the efficiency for specific boilers depends not only on the

EnergyfromBiomass

Figure 3.4: Calculated Boiler Efficiency

(based on HHV) as a Function of Biomass
Moisture Content (Stack Temperature,
200C)

Fixed-bed systems include manual-fed systems,

spreader-stoker systems, underscrew systems,
through-screw systems, static grates, and inclined
grates (which themselves may be static or moving).

>~

Fluidized-bed systems are basically of the bubbling

or circulatingvarieties.

0
5,

c80
o

70
60

--

Both fixed-bedsystemsand fluidized-bedsystems

are discussed below.

_._

Systems
Fixed-Bed

Fixed-grate systems were for many years the most

_______________________________common
devices for combustion of biomass. In its
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
simplest form, a fixed-grate system consists of a
grate in a combustion room (thereby forming the
furnace). Primary air, for combustion of the char
Mc,
(the material that remains after pyrolysis, the re10%
-20% -30%
lease of the volatile fuel gases from the biomass), is
- - - 40%
--50%
supplied under the grate. Secondary air, for combustion of the volatile gasesthemselves, is supplied
Note: Based on higher heating value (HHV). Stack temperaabove the grate. Combustion of the char on the grate
so

-. .

40 -

ture is 2000 C. I = excess air factor.

Source:Authors.

stack temperature but also on the flue-gas inlet temperature (determined by lambda and moisture content of the fuel). When comparing boiler efficiencies,one should always check to see that the data in
question refer to the same process conditions. Otherwise,it is impossibleto compare the performances
of the boilers.
In most applications, the furnace and boiler are
closelyintegrated, and, in practice, such installations
are referred to jointly as the boiler. The efficiency
of such combined devices is the average of the combustion (or furnace) efficiency (as described in
equation 1) and the boiler efficiency (as described
in equation 2).

Furnace
Types
Combustion systems are of either fixed-bed or fluidized-bed varieties. Fixed-bed technologies date
from the firststeam systems;fluidized-bedtechnologies, in contrast, have only become availableduring
the last 25 years.Fixed-bed systemsare basicallydistinguished by the types of grates and the way the fuel
is supplied to or transported through the furnace.

I0

provides heat for the continuing pyrolysis of newly

added fuel above the char. Typicalcombustion temperatures in fixed-grate systems range from 850 to
1,400C. Traditionally, ash is removed manually
from fixed-bed systems, although automatic ash
removal systems are now available.
Fixed-bed biomass combustion systems look like
fixed-bed combustion systems for coal, but the actual furnace designs are different. In particular,
the comparatively high content of volatile matter
in biomass requires large combustion rooms
above the grate in biomass-fired furnaces. For the
same reason, biomass furnaces require a higher
proportion of secondary to primary air than do
coal-fired furnaces.
The inclined grate was originally developed during
the 1920s and 1930s for coal combustion systems.
The fuel is supplied at the top and moves downward during the combustion process. The ash is removed at the bottom.
During the 1940s,the first moving or sloping grates
were introduced. In this type of furnace, the residence time of the pieces of fuel is more or less fixed
by the speed at which the grate elements move.

EnergyfromBiomass

Consequently, the maximum size of the fuel pieces

is limited. With uniform fuel, specific combustion
capacity (heat release per square meter of grate)
could be increased significantly, allowing for more
compact construction. In more sophisticated versions, different stages of the combustion process
take place in different zones, allowing for better
control and acceptance of fuel that is generallywet-

Figure3.6:Suspension
Burnerfor
PulverizedCoal
tarat burer

e inlet

Airduct
Ashscraper

ter than in the simple versions (see Figure 3.5).

Moving inclined grates are often used in (municipal) waste incineration

systems.

Ash
t ^

Figure

3.5: A Sloping-Grate Combustion

~~~~~~~~~Air
Inlet

Ashdischarge'

outlet
valve

System
Source: TNO (1992).
Hogluel

2
Tefiary

iI
Screw
alr \
| t;
feeder
1

h/

JiBd^ /
2

1 l,

For relatively small operations, special feeding sys-

tems, including screw feeders and spreader stokers,

have been developed. With spreader stokers, which

Secondary
rarmeyaeir
admitted
under
entiregrate,except

ai

...

3sp

dumpsectlon

Fixed,bared-tube
slopinggrate

tides move in suspension through the gas above the

(see Figure 3.7).

. I
ograte

Crying Gasificatlon
and
zone
bumingzone

Finalburnout
zone

ReciprocatingDump
grate

resemble suspension burning, fuel particles are fed

into the furnace above the reaction zone. Combustion takes place partly during the time that the par-

Figure3.7:Spreader-StokerSystemwith
an Integrated Water Tube Boiler

grateI
SUPER
HEATER

Source: TNO (1992).

sresa

STEAM
DRUM

OU0T

STACK

A further increase in specific capacity (per volume

reactor) of coal-fired power plants is realized by the
firing of pulverized coal in a suspension burner (Figure 3.6). With this type of burner, an oil-type combustion flame is obtained. This type of suspension
burner has also been developed for biomass. According to TNO (1992), one drawback of this
burner might be its need for a high air excess rate
and, therefore, its relatively low efficiency. Whether

this statement can be applied to each biomass suspension burner is unclear.

FUELW
CNVER

MULTIPLE

FUEL

AIR

/HET
FUELCHUTE._
FUEL

s
ASRU
HA

OVERFIRE
AETER
t

-1
Ai

F.

FA

Source:TNO (1992).

11

Energyfrom Biomass

Screw-feeder systems are developed for small- to

medium-sized fuel particles. The underscrew system is meant for fuel sizes in the range of 40 x 30 x
15 mm (length x width x height). The fuel is pushed
up in the center of the combustion zone and ash is
removed from the sides, manually or automatically
(Figure 3.8).

on dividing overall combustion into relevant

stages: pyrolysis of the biomass, combustion of the
pyrolysis gases, and combustion of the char.

Lessthan5 MW*,

With regard to enhancing combustion, some special techniques have been developed for more or
less dedicated applications. For example, cyclonic
combustionsystemsare suitable for burning particulate waste wood and agricultural residues, typically
of regular size and shape and relatively low moisture content. The systems comprise a cylindrical
chamber into which the combustion air is introduced. The cyclonic combustion air mixes the suspended particulates, allowing efficient combustion.
The hot combustion gases pass from the cylindrical chamber through the boiler or other heat removal devices. The flue gas is cleansed of ash before passing through an exhaust stack and into the
atmosphere (Figure 3.9).

The main developments in combustion systems

are aimed at reducing the emissions of NO,, CO,
and CHY and at increasing efficiencyby minimizing excess air. The applied techniques are based

A second example can be found in Denmark-the

so-calledcigarburnersystem(Figure 3.10),which operates on a large scale to produce heat (for district

The through-screw system is meant for larger fuel

pieces (approximate length of 100 mm and diameter of 50 mm). The fuel is burned while being
screw-fed through the combustion zone. The remaining ash is dropped into the ash deposit. This
type of system is especiallysuitable for dealing with
fuels that have a high ash content. Table 3.1 compares the fixed-bed systems.
RecentDevelopmentsin Fixed-BedSystemsof

Figure3.8:CombustionSystemwith UnderscrewFeedingSystem
A. CROSS-SECTIONBOILER

13~~~~~~~~1

~~~~~~~~~~~~1
.Stokerscrew

2-

S::-10

B. TOP-VIEWBOILER

p9

_IBIZI~D
_. _)
-

Source:TNO (1992).

12

2. FireValve
3. Primaryair inlet
D 4.J Secondary
1 iI_14
air inlet
5. Secondaryair inlets
6. Fuelgasoutlet
7. Watersupply
8. Waterreturn
9. Ashdoor
10. Sprinklerconnection
11. Inspectionhatch
12. Explosionvalveand connection
oil or gas bumer
13. Fuelgascleaningfilter

4
__

-7

14. Ash bucket

Energy
fromBiomass

Table 3.1:Comparisonof Fixed-BedCombustionSystems

System

Fuelsize (mm)

Maximum
moisture
content (percent)

Staticgrate
Underscrew

< (pl0Ox 300

< 40 x 30x 15
> 20 x 20x 10
< qP50x 100
< 300x 100x 50
< 5 x 5x 5
< 40 x 40x 40

50
40
40
40
50
20
50

Throughscrew
Movingbed/inclinedgrate
Suspensionburning a
Spreader-stoker

Fuel supply

Ash removal

manual/automatic
automatic
automatic
automatic
automatic
automatic
automatic

manual/automatic
manual/automatic
manual/automatic
automatic
automatic
manual/automatic
manual/automatic

a. Gas fueledignitionburner requiredfor startup purposes.

Source.TNO (1992);BTGin-houseinformationfor 'Ashremoval"and "Spreader-stoker."

Figure 3.9: Cyclonic Combustion System

as 50C, which causes some of its water vapor to

condense. Because biomass fuels tend to be wet, the
flue gases may contain large amounts of water vapor representing a considerable amount of energy.
The heat recovered from the flue gas is used in lowtemperature applications such as preheating district
heating water. Since the flue-gas condensate tends
to be corrosive, special materials such as stainless
steel or plastics must be applied. In current designs,
the flue-gascooling is combined with flue-gas cleaning using a scrubber, which removes or neutralizes
most of the corrosive contaminants in the gas.
Additional heat gains from such systems are reported as high as 25 percent, resulting in overall efficiencies (based on LHV) of 105 to 108 percent.

Source:TNO (1992).

Fluidized-BedSystems
heating) and power (which is supplied to the national
grid). In Denmark, research has alsobeen carried out
for small- and large-scale combustion of straw that
includes grate burning systems, suspension bumers,
and fluidized-bed combustion systems (the last two
are still at the pilot stage).

Flue-Gas Condensation
In Denmark and Finland, flue-gas cooling systems
havebeen developed that can be installed before the
stack. In these systems, gas is both cooled and
cleaned (TNO 1992; Nussbaumer 1991;VTT Energy 1994). Flue gas is cooled to temperatures as low

In a fluidized-bed combustor, the fuel is burned in

a hot (typically 7000to 1,000C)bed of sand, limestone, or other noncombustible material that is kept
in turbulent suspension by fans.
The systems comprise a combustion chamber containing a sand bed that acts as the heat-transfer
medium. The bed is fluidized by blowing air
through a perforated bottom plate. This forces the
sand upward. Depending on the air velocity,a bubblingfluidized bed (BFB) or a circulatingfluidized
bed (CFB) is created. In a bubbling fluidized bed
(Figure 3.11), the reactor is divided into (a) a zone
containing freely moving sand particles supported

13

Energy
fromBiomass

Figure 3. 10: Cigar Burner

2"

3~~

i-i

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Straw storage
Automatic feed system
Fuel supply canal
Supply of combustion air
Combustion room
Ash removing system
Heat exchanger/steam production

8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

Off gas cleaner

Chimney
Off gas cleaning (flue ash)
Hot water outlet for district heating
Return water
Ash container

Source: TNO (1992).

Figure3.1 1: Fluidized-Bed Combustion

System
Steam

aas ;

Biomass
feedFlue

whereas the heavy partides

1~A
AAA

Air

XBecause
of the intensive mixing in fluidized beds,

Economizer

the heat exchange rates are high, and complete combustion can be realized using low excessair factors
(1 = 1.2 to 1.4). The furnace and heat exchanger

(boiler) are strongly integrated: the walls of the fur-

_VCIo
\v.ater
77<

burn until they are

light enough to join the circulation stream.

wX
\ /Cyc/one
_

particles (except the large, heavy fuel partides) flow

upward with the gas stream, are separated from it
in the cyclone, then rechanneled into the reactor.
The light fuel partides burn during circulation,

nace are constructed from tubes in which water is

heated or evaporated and bywhich the bed is cooled.
Combustion temperatures commonly range from

y
;

Ash

750 to 950C; a temperature of 850C is often used.

Source: TNO (1992).

The most important features of fluidized-bed combustion are as follows:

by upward-streaming air (giving the impression

of a bubbling fluid) and (b) a "freeboard" zone
above the fluidized bed. In a circulating fluidized
bed, the air velocity is so high that bed and fuel

* Flexibilityto changes in fuel properties, sizes,and

shapes.
* Acceptance of fuel moisture content up to 60
percent.

14

Energy
fromBiomass

Acceptance of fuel ash content up to 50 percent

or even higher.
These features make the technology particularly attractive for biomass combustion, and for this application the technology is superior to fixed-bed
combustion. Other advantages of the fluidized bed
systems over fixed bed systems are as follows:
* Compact construction that causes high heat exchange and reaction rates because of intensive
mixing in the bed.
Low excess-air factor (approximately 1.2 to 1.4),
implying low heat losses from flue gases leaving
the stack.
Because of the high velocities, turbulent mixing in
circulating fluidized-bed combustion systems is
even more intensive than in bubbling fluidized-bed
systems.For heat exchange, circulating-bed systems
have all the advantages.
The circulating bed is also more flexible than the
bubbling bed, since the circulation rate of the bed
material can be used as an additional control. To
adapt to high-calorific fuels, for example, allowing high heat rates in the heat exchangers will increase circulation. For low-calorific fuels, the opposite is true.

EmissionsReduction
If flue gases from combustion processes contain
unwanted polluting contaminants, reduction of
emissions can be realized by (a) process-integrated
measures that safeguard against the production of
contaminants, or (b) secondary, end-of-pipe
(postcombustion) technologies to remove contaminants from the flue gas.
Process-Integrated Measures
Process-integrated measures are addressed to optimize the combustion process and minimize production of unwanted contaminants.
At temperatures lower than 850C,incomplete combustion occurs, resulting in the unwanted emissions
of CXHy,including tars. If the moisture content of
the fuel is higher than 50 percent and the combustion air is not preheated, problems may occur in
reaching the required combustion temperature.
Drying of the fuel improves combustion performance but may entail additional costs if natural drying (on the field, for example) is not used.
The size of the fuel pieces, apart from moisture content, also determines the quality of the combustion
process. When the fuel is not uniform in size, it is
should be shredded into small, uniformly sized
pieces. Shredding, however, implies additional costs
that must be weighed against the expected benefits.

Emissions
from Fluidized-BedSystems
Because of the nature of the fluidized-bed system,
the flue gas is intensively mixed with dust and particles. Removal of particles and dust from the flue
gases is therefore an essential part of a fluidizedbed system. Circulating fluidized-bed systemshave
one or more cyclones that are a standard means for
removing the heavy (bed material and fuel)particles
from the flue-gas stream. In bubbling fluidized-bed
installations, the basic dust removal from the flue
gases is performed by cyclones. For the final treatment, bag filters may be used.
The stagedair supply and the application of flue-gas
recirculation result in low levels of NO, production.
NOXcan be reduced by injecting NH3 into the bed.
This is similar to the selectivenoncatalytic reduction
(SNCR) reaction schemes applied in deNO, systems
(seesubsection,SecondaryMeasuresto ReduceEmissions, below).

Continuous operation at designed load levels results in the highest system performance and the fewest emissions (Nussbaumer 1991). Extra emissions
occur because of variations in load or frequent
startups and shutdowns. If load variations cannot
be avoided, proper control of the system is required.
Not only should the fuel supply should be controlled, but the primary and secondary air flows
must be adjusted properly. Control systems meant
for improving combustion conditions in systems
that operate under varying loads became available
only recently and development work on this topic
is still going on.
The capacity of a system that must operate under
varying loads should not be too large. It is advisable to consider the actual peak capacity requirements to avoid installing systems that will run at
less than full load much of the time. If the process

15

EnergyfromBiomass

truly requires a peak capacity that is significantly

higher than the average load, installation of a separate peak-load device (running on conventional
fuel) should be considered.

Figure 3.12: Staged Combustion System

Measures to improve the combustion process are

interrelated and can be summarized as follows
(TNO 1992):
* Appropriate combustion temperatures (higher
than 850C) are advisable.The combustion zone
should alsobe physically separated from the heat
extraction zone (Nussbaumer 1991).
* The residence time of all flue gases (taking into

account the effectsof residencetime distribution) in the combustion zone should be longer
than 1.5 seconds.
* Control systems that properly adapt the combustion air/fuel ratio during load changes should
be used.
* Good mixing of fuel and combustion air is essential.
Thermal NOXistypically formed in combustion systems at temperatures higher than 1,400C.Since the
temperatures attained in most biomass combustion
systems range from about 900 to 1,200C,the systems produce only small amounts of NO.. However, nitrogen available in the fuel can be oxidized
into NO during the combustion process, and it is
this that causes the relatively high NOx emissions
from biomass combustion systems.
Techniquesto reduce emissions of NO, are currently
under development. These techniques are based on
staged combustion in physically separated rooms
(Nussbaumer 1991, 1994). This enables lowering
emissions of CO and CxHymore effectivelythan in
conventional systems.An experiment using an electricallyheated reduction chamber has achievedsome
reduction of NOX,but whether this can be realized
practically (i.e.,without resorting to additional electric heating) is still not satisfactorily proven.
The staged combustion process may nonetheless be
of interest because of its potential. In it, the total
combustion process is divided into two or even
three physically separated parts (reactors), shown
in Figure 3.12.

16

-Y

Source:TNO (1992).

In the first reactor, the fuel is pyrolized and the

remaining char is burned. The heat from the
char combustion is used to pyrolize the fuel. The
air supply just covers the oxygen need for the
combustion of the char (X = 0.5 to 0.8, related
to overall combustion air needs).
* The formed pyrolysis gases are burned in a second room using excess air, which results in an
overall excess air factor of approximately 1.5.
With this type of system more complete combustion of the fuel is realized, resulting in low
emissions of CO and unburned volatiles.
* Reduction of NOXmay be realized by dividing
the combustion process of the pyrolysis gases
into a second and a third stage.
* If a second and a third stage are applied, the second stage acts as a reduction zone (X = mately
0.8 related to the overall combustion air supply) in which the formed NO. is reduced to N2
(and H2 0 and CO), whereas it is in the third
stage that the gases are burned completely using excess air (overall X = 1.5) (Nussbaumer
1994; TNO 1992).
Secondary Measures to Reduce Emissions
A secondary measure is to install a flue-gastreatment
systemafter the combustion room (in most casesjust
before the stack) to removeunwanted enissions from
the flue gas.In the biomass com approxibustion processes,removal of dust is especiallyimportant. The
most common systems for dust removal are bag filters, electrostatic precipitators, scrubbers, and mechanical separators such as (multi) cyclones.

EnergyfromBiomass

A bag filter contains bags of woven textiles, through

which flue gases pass. The size of the retained
particles is determined by the tightness of the weave
of the textiles. Figure 3.13 shows tubular bags, or
hoses, which are closed at the bottom. The flue gas
flows from the outer to the inner side of the hose,
forming a layer of dust on the other side. This is
removed by periodically shaking the bags, causing
the caked dust to fall into the hopper below. From
there the dust is transported to a dust container.

Figure3.14:Electrostatic Precipitator

C:t

Cleaeldgma

Conaminatedgas

ASp=raelecroe
,
ePrecplatl
electrode

C
A

C. Isolators
D. Sedimeentremoval

Figure3.13:"Hose Filter" Type of Bag

Filter

Source:.NO (1992).

followsa winding trajectory, passingbetween the elements of the tray. The inertia of the droplets force
their movement more or less in a straight line, causing them to be caught by the tray elements.

'IO
/dust I.0

Source:TNO (1992).

Electrostatic precipitators (Figure 3.14) consist of

vertical plates and parallel wireslocated between the
plates. The wires are called the dischargeelectrodes;
the grounded vertical plates are referred to as collection electrodes.The wires are put on a high negative
voltage, 20 to 100 kV,typically 40 to 50 kV (El Wakil
1985).Around the wires, negativelycharged gas ions
are formed that are forced by the elecelectricfield to
move to the collectorplates.On their way to the plates
these ions may collide with dust particles, charging
them negatively.The negativelychargeddust particles
move to the collector dust particles and are removed
from the gas stream by drip trays.The flue-gasstream

A scrubber (Figures 3.15 and 3.16) is a device in

which flue gases are washed by a fluid (water)
sprayed in the flue gas stream. The droplets catch
particles and are removed from the gas stream
by drip trays. The flue-gas stream follows a winding trajectory, passing between the elements of the
tray. The inertia of the droplets force their movement more or less in a straight line, causing them
to be caught by the tray elements.
Multicyclones (Figure 3.17) are devices built from
small cyclones to which air is introduced tangentially, causing a "whirlwind." The particles are removed from the gas stream by centrifugal force and
collected in hoppers located under the cyclones.The
gas stream leaves the cyclones on the upper side.

Figure3.15:The Principleof Scrubbing

I
drIp tray

..

prIued

alr

ahing liquid

4
(a) .r

washlnglqd

(b)

Ltodriptray

Source:TNO (1992).

17

Energy
fromBiomass

Figure 3.16: Example of a Scrubbing Plant

sewy
w 8;;

ro -

IAl
m A
w

----- t ;>. X

:t

ltreatment
systems.

St.k

(77 P25

Multicyclones can resist high temperatures

(500C) and are simple to operate, but they are
less effective than the other systems. They are often used for pretreatment upstream from the other
systems. Table 3.2 compares the different flue-gas

/12

Selective and nonselective catalytic reduction systems (SCR and SNCR, respectively) are being considered for reducing NO. and are currently under
investigation. For these systems, a reducing agent
(NH3 ) is needed. The SNCRprocess takes place between 8500 and 950C with a high excess of NH3
supply (excess factor = 5). The NO, reduction is
approximately 50 percent. The deNOxperformance
of the SNCRcan be improved when it is integrated
in the reduction stage of the three-stage combusK 4 Verfl.o,tion process.Using an acceptable excessof NH3 (rest
emission NH3 is 30 mg/Nm 3 , 11 percent 02), an
NO, reduction of 80 percent can be realized.
_

The SCRprocess takes place at a temperature of approximately 300C in a catalyst bed. With
stochiometric NH3 supply, a reduction of NOXof 90
percent can be achieved.Becauseof the required temperature, the SCR device must be installed between
the heat exchangers,where the thermal energy from
the flue gasesis exchanged for a process medium.

Source: TNO (1992).

Figure 3.17: Example of a Multi-Cyclone

_pwcmeJThe SteamCycle
_

Ch.an Mroutht
Ut

Wnlemte

_..

~i.

-.

An important application of thermal energy obtained from a combustion system is to generate elecwaZl
11 using
p Tub aplsteam
latricity cycle.The whole chain of enOV
V"
ergy transformation involved in a steam cycle is
I 1lbne
UVlshown
in Figure 3.18. A simplified process scheme
Indmse L1ais presented in Figure 3.19.

S.Wid

-ft

From these schemes, the following main compoDSlh

nents can be identified: the furnace and boiler,
\whichare in most cases strongly integrated and referred to as the boiler; the turbine; the condenser;
and the boiler feed-water pump.
The cycle is as follows:

Source: TNO (1992).

I8

* The boiler feed-water is pressurized by the boiler

feed-water pump and fed into the boiler.
* In the boiler, the water is evaporated and superheated.

Energy
fromBiomass

Table 3.2: Advantages,Drawbacks,and EnergyUse of Flue-GasTreatment Systems

Treatment
system
Electrostatic
precipitator

Advantages

Drawbacks

Highefficiency(approx.95 %)
Resistantto 300C

Needfor high voltages

Efficiencydependenton

Low pressure drop (0.2-0.4 kPa)

flue-gas quantity

Bagfilter

High efficiency(95-99.9%)
Lowpressuredrop (0.6-1 kPa)

Not resistantto high

temperatures
Replacementof bags (every

Scrubber

Rest emission is adjustable (high

pressure drop -> low emissions)
Hot gases can be cooled and
cleaned
No fire risk
High temperature resistance
Compact construction
Low costs
Low pressure drop ( 1-3 kPa)
High reliability

Multicyclone

2-3 years)
High energy consumption
Efficiency < 95%
Need for water treatment

Low efficiency
Efficiencydependent on
flue-gas quantity
Constant flue-gas
conditions required

Energy
consumption
per 1,000 m3
0.2-0.4kWh
0.2-0.4 kWh

3-10 kWh

0.2 kWh

Source: Author.

* The superheated steam from the boiler is fed

into the steam turbine, where it expands to a
low pressure and temperature, which is determined by the condenser.
* Next, the expanded steam (which may have already passed saturation and may contain water)
is fed from the condenser into the deaerator.
* In the deaerator, the noncondensible gases,
which may be dissolved in the feed water, are
removed to prevent their accumulation elsewhere in the system.
The deaerator needs some heating; as shown in Figure 3.19, some steam from the evaporator is used
for that purpose.
It should be noted that a steam engine rather than
steam turbine can also be considered. At low capacities (< 500 kW), steam engines may be an alternative to steam turbines because of low efficiency
of turbines in this range. Furthermore, in simple
cyclesthe condenser maybe omitted by simply discharging the expanded steam. The major drawbacks
of this simplified system are its low cycle efficiency
and need for continuous fresh (treated) water.

Because of fundamental thermodynamic principles

(see Annex 3), it is impossible to convert all thermal energy in the steam into power on the turbine
shaft (which drives the generator). In the steam
cycle,this restriction is manifested by the unavoidable fact that the water vapor has to be condensed
(releasing heat) to close the cycle. The cycle efficiency is determined by the following factors:
* Boiler efficiency.
* Steam conditions entering the turbine (both the
temperature and the pressure should be as high
as possible).
* Turbine efficiency.
* Cooling conditions in the condenser (both the
temperature and the pressure should be as low
as possible).
* Feed-water heating system.
The turbine-powered generator efficientlyconverts
mechanical energy into electrical energy. Typical
values range from 85 to 98 percent.
Combining all individual components, the overall efficiency ranges from 5 to 40 percent. At this point

19

Energy
fromBiomass

Figure3.18:EnergyTransformationsIn a Steam Cycle

Chemical
energy

Thermal
energy

Thermal
energy

I _ Boller
hot flue

T1 boll

~~~~gas

Losses:
* hotash
* unbumed
fuel
* heatlossto the
environment

Electric
energy

Mechanical
energy

steam

Generator
shaft

_power

Losses
* fluegasto thestack
* heatlossto the
environment

T1 gen

Losses
* heatreleased
by
thecondenser
* turbineloss

Losses
* internal
heat
production
in
thegenerator

Source:Authors.

Figure3.19:Schematicof a Steam System

Vent
Deaerator

Combustion
air fan

(F*

Ocf

1.

Fumace

[!t

~~

LF1

'_ J

Economizer

Superheater

Fuel

Evaporator
FuelBlow
down
Blwdonpump

Load

Kate

r Condenser

Feed-water Condensate
pump

Source:Authors.

some equipment in the cyclealso useselectric power.

The boiler feed-waterpump and the combustion air
fan, in particular, consume a considerable amount
of electricity(referredto asparasiticpower).The overall efficiencyis correctly calculated in equation 3.

Components of the Steam Cycle

Steam Boilers
Steam boilers are usually either of the fire-tube or
the water-tube type. Fire-tube boilers have water
and steam outside and hot flue gas inside the pipes;
in water-tube boilers, it is just the reverse.

Equation3
Fire-tube boilers contain a larger water volume in

net electricoutput
-

relationto their steam capacityand thereforehave

______fiuel_inpu

1O$~
fuel input

net electricoutput

Fuelinput

=Tcomb

XXf,LHVy,,

,el

Ilboil

a larger buffering capacity for absorbing fluctuatTlgen X

-

Tlgen

Pparositic

20

with respectto boiler feed-waterquality.

x LHVf,,

with:
=

ing steam demands than water-tube boilers. Furthermore, they usually have lighter requirements

massflowof the enteringfuel

Fire-tube boilers (Figure 3.20) are used to produce steam in relatively low steam conditions. The
steam pressure ranges from 1 to 35 bar; the steam

Energy
fromBiomass

Figure3.20:An Inclined-GrateCombustor
with a ConnectedThree-Draft Firetube

Figure3.21:Water-Tube Boiler

Boiler

STEAM
DRUM

SUPER
HEATER

~~

CHUTE

STEAM

EOVERI
RFIRE

ASHREMOVALDUMPING BOILER
SCREW
GRATE
SHELL

FIREUBES

Source:

NV(1992).

Source:ATNO(1992).

SteamEngines
temperature is limited to approximately 450C.
The capacities range from small (1 to 10 kW) to
large (25 MW). Fire tubes in the boilers are arranged either vertically (as in the boiler in Figure
3.20) or horizontally.
Water-tube boilers (Figure 3.21) are designed for
high steam pressures and temperatures (up to 150
bar and 580C, respectively) and large capacities.
To compensate for large fluctuations in the demand,
water-tube boilers (for control and safety reasons)
should have a relatively large steam drum. Capacities range from about 2 MW up to 2,000 MW, or
even higher for fossil fuel applications. (Because of
the restrictions in biomass fuel availability, the capacity of biomass fueled boilers will in practice be
limited to 100 to 200 MW.) However, no firm rules
can be given in terms of type and capacity of steam
boilers, since the final selection will be governed by
many variables.
The installation of a (chemical) feed water treatment plant is usually necessary for reliable boiler
operation, because the boiler feed water must conform to certain standards. Ideally,the water should
have as few salts, alkaline materials, oil, carbon dioxide, iron, and copper as possible. It should also
be free of oxygen.

The dassic steam power device is the reciprocating

piston engine, which is characterized by high reliability,low speed, low maintenance, simple control,
and good load-following characteristics.
However, piston steam engines tend to be expensivebecause of their relatively massiveconstruction.
In addition, larger piston engines have relativelylow
efficiencies compared with steam turbines. This is
not necessarily true for small engines in the 100 to
200 kW range. The overall efficiency of a 150 kW
steam cycle with reciprocating steam engine is
higher (17 percent) than that of a comparable steam
cycle with a steam turbine (15 percent).
Because of its low efficiency,the piston steam engine has been used mainly in operations that have a
relatively high process-steam demand. However,in
many applications-for example, in the textile industry-the oil content of the exhaust steam, which
prevents its use in cogeneration, is a big disadvantage. Small reciprocating steam engines are still
available from a few firms in Brazil, the United
States, Australia, and Germany.
SteamTurbines
Steam turbines are sophisticated devicesin whichthe
steam expands from high pressure (in biomass-fired

21

EnergyfromBiomass

power plants up to approximately 70 bar) and high

density (approximately 20 kg/m3 ) to very low pressures and densities (0.1 bar and 0.06 kg/m3 , respec-

Figure 3.22: IsentropicEfficiencyVersus

Capacityfor Small-ScaleTurbines

tively).Thepressureratiois nearly700-fold,and the

increase in volume is about 300-fold. The diameter
of the steam turbine itselfincreasessignificantlyfrom
the high-pressurestagesto the low-pressurecondensing stages.The amount of required materialsinvolved
in construction of the low-pressure(condensing)sec-

Isentropic
efficiency
(%)

_Mi__tn

Singlestageradialturbine
70

tion is thereforeconsiderablyhigherthan that of the

Singlestageaxialturbine
(Curts)

__.

medium- and high-pressure sections.Application of

only a back-pressure turbine (without a condensing

low-pressuresection)maythereforemeanconsiderablylowerinvestments.The resultis that the fullexpansion potential of the steam is not used, leading to
lower power production and lowerelectric efficiency.
This type of turbine maybe utilized in cogeneration
concepts, where heat delivery at temperatures between 100and 150C is required.
A steam turbine is best expressedin terms of its isentropic efficiency.Apart from the thermodynamic
meaning, this can be interpreted as the actual power
obtained from steam expansion in the turbine, divided by the maximum power that can be theoreticallyobtained from the steam expansion. This theoretical maximum depends on the inlet steam pressure and temperature and the outlet steam pressure.
Small-scaleturbines contain only one stage (one row
of blades), in which complete expansion of the
steam takes place. Because of this relatively simple
construction the isentropic efficiencyof these single
stage turbines is relatively low. Application of multiple stages make the turbine more efficient but also
expensive, especially in at small scales. In Figure
3.22,the isentropic efficiencyversus the scale is presented for different types of small-scale turbines.
Small single- or multiple-stage back pressure and
condensing steam turbines in a capacity range from
100 to 5,000 kWe, are available from manufactures
in France,Germany,Great Britain, Japan,the United
States, Russia, Sweden, and several other countries.
Condensers
During power generation, steam that leaves the turbine is condensed in a condenser at very low pressures (approximately 0.1 to 0.2 bar) and tempera-

22

0.5

1.0

2.0

30

4.0

Capacity(MW)

Source: Nussbaumer (1994).

tures. The lower the temperature, the more power

generated. In practice, this temperature is between
40 and 60C, depending on the available cooling
media (either water or air) and their temperatures.
Water-cooledcondensers rely on water that isheated
then returned to rivers or lakes. For environmental
reasons, the return temperature must not be so high
as to harm the ecosystem. Typically,temperatures
rise 5 to 10"C. The water can also be recycled in a
cooling tower, where part of it is evaporated, causing the rest to cool.
Instead of water, air can also be applied to cool the
condenser. Because of the lower specific values for
heat transfer in air-cooled equipment, these type
of condensers are large and therefore expensive.
Water Treatment
Water treatment is a complex and highly necessary
process for steam cycles. For the purposes of this
study, the following brief remarks are appropriate.
Water used in steam cycles must be treated to prevent malfunctioning that could damage the boiler,
the turbine sections, or both. Natural water contains the following elements requiring treatment:
* Partides (> 0.1 mm), to be removed by filtration.
e Colloidal particles (0.1 to 0.001 mm), to be
removed by flocculation, coagulation, and
filtration techniques.
* Dissolved (gas) molecules, to be removed in a
deaerator.

EnergyfromBiomass

* Positive and negative ions (minerals), to be removed in a ion exchanger or in an evaporation

unit.
* Organic matter, to be removed by a combination of the above-mentioned techniques.
The consequences of insufficient water treatment
may be as follows:
* Scaling,which overheats the material and damages the boiler;
* Erosion by particles;
* Foaming, which disrupts the valves, unbalancing the turbines;
* Salt deposits, which lead to corrosion in boiler
parts and/or the turbine;
* Corrosion, caused by oxygen and CO2 in the
water.
The extent to which the water has to be treated depends on the required steam conditions and the level
of water extraction/supply during operation. The water treatment system is divided into treatment of the
water to be supplied to the steam cycle(the make-up
water), and the water returning from the condenser.
It is clear that water-treatment systems form an essential part of steam-cycle systems. Ready-to-use
(skid-mounted) water-treatment packages for
make-up water are commercially available.
A deaerator continuously removes noncondensible
gases from the water. These gases may have come in

by air leakages in the condenser and other sections

that are below atmospheric pressure. From the
boiler drum, some of the water is continuously discharged (or blown down), to reduce the concentration of the dissolved salts and the contaminants
picked up in the cycle.
Optimizingof Steam Cycles
The basic steam cycle (as presented above in Figure
3.19), can be optimized to increase the conversion
efficiencyfrom heat to power. The thermodynamic
principles of this optimization are (a) using combustion heat at the highest possible temperature
level to obtain the maximum efficiencies,and (b)
using low-temperature heat for low temperature
heat requirements (see Annex 3). The combustion
heat is released to flue gases with a boiler entrance
temperature of 9000to 1,600C, depending on the
furnace conditions. The steam temperature in advanced steam cycles, however, is limited to only
560C. This temperature determines the limit on
the conversion efficiency,so the thermodynamic potential of the flue gases is not fully utilized.
Reheating steam (after a first expansion section)
in a turbine is a way to use the combustion heat
twice at a reasonably high temperature (300 to
560C), thus increasing thermodynamic efficiency
(see Figure 3.23).
The water from the condenser must be heated to
boiler entrance conditions. This water can be heated
by steam that has only a slightlyhigher temperature

Figure3.23:Cyclewith Steam ReheatingAfter the First Turbine

tvent
Deaerator mTI
air fan

Fumace
Make-up

Load

eheater
Superheater Evaporator
Economizer

Fuel

COnoo

water/air

aater

V
Btow down

Feed-water
pump

Condenser

Condensate
pump

Source:Authors.

23

EnergyfromBiomass

in feed-waterpreheaters.Advanced steam cyclescontain turbines from which steam is extracted at different temperature levels to meet the distinct heat
requirements of the feed-water preheaters (see Figure 3.23). From a thermodynamic viewpoint, this
method of feed-waterheating is optimal, since steam
is put to maximum use, first for electricity production then for heating function.

smaller scale (< 5 MWe) the cycletends to be complicated and therefore comparatively inconvenient.
Complexity of steam cycles, in particular, is caused
by many auxiliaries, including the following:

The low-temperature heat contained in flue gases

leaving the boiler can be used to preheat combustion in an air preheater (Figure 3.24). By preheating the combustion air, higher furnace temperatures can be obtained. This makes make more heat
available for super- and reheating steam. By reducing the heat loss to the stack, cycle efficiency
is increased.

Fresh water supply and the need for water treatment; for closed cycles, only a small supply of
extensively treated water is needed. For open
cycles,it is just the reverse.
A deaerator or a deaerating condenser is needed
continuously to remove gases from the water.
However,deaeration requirements decreasewith
lower steam pressures.
Cooling water or an air-cooled condenser or
cooling tower (requiring a continuous fresh water supply to compensate for the evaporated
water) is needed.

Application of Steam Cycle

The steam cycleis a proven technology used in most
large-scale thermal power plants. However, on a

Since power failures can cause boiler explosionsand

other serious consequences, power for internal consumption requires a stable supply of electricity.

Figure 3.24: Cycle with Feed Water and Air Preheaters

Combustion

airfan

Evaporator

Furnace
Fu[+

h
L1

Exhaust
-

Superrheater

Load
Blowdown

Feed-water
pump

Deaerator
tvent

tMake-up
water

iCooling

water/air

Condensate
pump
Source:Authors.

24

EnergyfromBiomass

Finally, the equipment used in a steam cycle must

resist pressures and temperatures and therefore
fulfill high standards of quality and strict safety
regulations.
Steam systems are relatively expensive. A small
steam cycle may cost 5 to 10 times more than a diesel engine of the same capacity. Larger systems are
relativelyless expensive.On the other hand, the economic life time of steam equipment is long, and the
fuel may be cheap, so a steam cycle may be worth
applying. For each case, however, in-depth economic and financial analyses are required.

Combined Heat and Power

Basic physical laws make it impossible to convert
heat from a heat source completelyinto power. Heat
supplied on a high temperature level is partly converted into power. The remaining heat is then released at low temperatures. In steam cycles, the
maximum power output is obtained by applying
high steam temperatures and low condenser temperatures (as discussed above in the section Optimization of Steam Cyclesand in Annex 3). In pure
power production plants, heat from the condensers is released into the environment.

In practice many heat applications use heat at only

modest temperatures-for example, space heating
(500to 90C); food industries (800to 150C);paper
industry (1000to 150C);and chemicalprocesses.For
these applications, cogeneration,combining production of heat and power,maybe used.Although higher
temperatures mean lesselectricityproduced per given
amount of steam, the temperature levelsof the abovementioned applications are low enough for efficient
electricity production via cogeneration.
Acogeneration concept based on a steam cycleisvery
easyto design.Insteadof a condensingturbine, abackpressure turbine can be applied, delivering steam at
the required conditions. A turbine with a controlled
extraction facilityfor deliveryof process steam offers
more flexibility,since the amount of extraction steam
can be controlled to meet the actual heat demand,
with the remaining steam directed to the condensing
stagesof the turbine to produce power.
Currently,many cogeneration plants havebeen built
to replace heat-only boilers. Operation of these
plants may be governed by the actual heat demand,
and electricity that is produced is delivered to the
grid. From a thermodynamic viewpoint, this is an
optimal method of operation.

25

4. Gasification Systems
Introduction
The production of a combustible gas from carboncontaining materials is already an old technology.
So-called dry distillation or pyrolysis (heating of
feedstock in absence of oxygen, resulting in thermal decomposition of the fuel into volatile gases
and solid carbon) was first practiced on a commercial scale in 1812by a gas company in London.
The first commercial gasifier (of the up-draft type;
see below) for continuous air-blown gasification of
solid fuels was installed in 1839, yielding what is
currently known as "producer gas." Gasifiers were
then developed for different fuels and industrial
power and heat applications up to the 1920s,when
oil-fueled systems gradually took over systems fueled by producer gas.
In anticipation of unreliable petroleum supplies,
compact gasifier systems (of the more advanced
down-draft type; see below) for automotive applications were developed in Europe between 1920and
1940. During World War II, tens of thousands of
these gasifierswere in use in Europe and elsewhere;
they were largely decommissioned after the war,
when inexpensive liquid fuels once again became
widely available.
The energy crisis of the 1970s brought renewed interest in gasification. The technology was perceived
as a relatively cheap indigenous alternative for
small-scale industrial and utility power generation
in developing countries that suffered from high
petroleum prices prevailing on the world market
and that had sufficient sustainable biomass resources. In the beginning of the 1980s, at least 10
(mainly European) manufacturers
offered
small-scale wood and charcoal-fueled power plants
(of up to approximately 250 kWe,), and at least four
developing countries (Philippines, Brazil, Indonesia, and India) started gasifierimplementation programs based on locally developed technologies.
Dozens, perhaps hundreds, of biomass gasification
systems were installed through donor-financed

26

projects and local entrepreneurs in a large number

of developing countries.
In Western countries, coal gasification systems attracted interest during the 1980s as an alternative
to using natural gas and oil in (dedicated) heat applications. Technological development mainly applied to fluidized-bed gasification systems for coal,
but it also was relevant for biomass in the range of
10 to 100 MWth. Currently, development of gasification systems is directed to production of electricity and heat in advanced gas-turbine-based cogeneration units. The theory of gasification is explained
in Annex 4.
Gasification of biomass looks simple in principle,
and many types of gasifiers have been developed.
The production of a gaseous fuel from a solid fuelwith attractive properties such as easyhandling and
combustion that produce little excess air and low
levels of contaminants (and possibly can be used in
internal combustion engines)-makes gasification
very appealing.
However, the biomass fuels used in gasifiers vary
widely,and hence include many reactants and many
possible reaction paths. The reaction rates are relatively high. All these factors contribute to the complex nature of gasification and make the process
hard to control and operate satisfactorily (Stassesn
1995;van Swaay and others 1994).
The seemingly successful implementation and utilization of small-scale gasifiers during the world
wars have motivated many manufacturers and entrepreneurs to attempt small-scale applications of
a seeminglyproven technology.But during wartime,
fuel specifications remained relatively strict. Bunker problems with feed flow were alleviated by vibrations during transport. But in that wartime environment, the run-time between cleaning and repair was very short, with many difficulties tolerated
in order to provide motorized transport in the absence of liquid fuels. It came as no surprise to see

EnergyfromBiomass

these machines removed as soon as liquid fuels again

became available (Schlaepfer 1933).

Figure 4.1: Updraft or Countercurrent

Fixed-Bed Gasifier

The old stationary applications for power genera-a-eed

tion came equipped with extremely robust, slowspeed engines. In recent applications, modern,
cheap, mass-produced, and contaminant-sensitive
high-speed machines have been installed.

L
> Gas

However, a few successful power gasifiers with a

capacity below 1 MWe have been reported.
On a larger scale (> 2-3 MWth) sophisticated devices can be built that may prove to be economical.
Fluidized-bed gasifiers are especiallypromising, in
particular when such devices are included in advanced power generation. These concepts are in a
development stage and are expected to be proven
technology within fiveyears.
In this chapter, the principles of gasification, and
old and new types of gasifiers,are discussed for both
power and heat applications.
A characteristic of the various gasifiers is the way
in which the fuel is brought into contact at the gasification stage. Four types of reactors exist: updraft
or countercurrent
gasifiers; downdraft or
cocurrent gasifiers; cross-draft gasifiers; and fluidized-bed gasifiers.

Fixed Bed Gasifiers

Updraft or Countercurrent Gasiflers
The simplest type of gasifier is the fixed-bed countercurrent gasifier (figure 4.1). Here, the biomass is
fed at the top of the reactor and moves downward
as a result of its conversion and removal of ashes.
Air is taken in at the bottom, and gas leaves at the
top. The biomass moves counter to the gas flow and
passes successivelythrough drying, distillation, reduction, and hearth zones. In the drying zone, the
biomass is dried. In the distillation or pyrolization
zone, it is decomposed into volatile gases and solid
char. The heat for pyrolization and drying is mainly
delivered by the upward-flowing producer gas and
partly by radiation from the hearth zone.
In the reduction zone, many reactions occur (involving char, carbon dioxide, and water vapor) in

Dryingzone

Dsiltozn

Reduction
zone

Hearthzone

Grate
Ash

Source:FAO (1986).

which carbon is converted and carbon monoxide

and hydrogen are produced as the main component
of the producer gas. In the hearth zone, the remaining char is combusted, providing heat, carbon dioxide, and the water vapor for reactions occurring
in the reduction zone (these chemical reactions are
described in Annex 4).
The major advantages of this type of gasifier are its
simplicity,high charcoal burnout, and internal heat
exchangethat leads to low gas-exittemperatures and
high gasification efficiencies. Because of the internal heat exchange, the fuel is dried at the top of the
gasifier.Therefore, fuels with a high moisture content (up to 60 percent, wet basis) can be used. Furthermore, this type of gasifiercan evenprocess relatively small fuel particles and accepts some size
variation in the fuel feedstock.
Major drawbacks are the high amounts of tar and
pyrolysis products that occur because the pyrolysis
gas does not pass the hearth zone and therefore is
not combusted. This is of minor importance if the
gas is used for direct heat applications in which the
tars are simply burned. But when the gas is used for
engines, extensive gas cleaning is required.

27

EnergyfromBiomass

Downdraftor CocurrentGasfifers
In a downdraftreactor,biomassis fedat thetop, and
the airintakeis at the top or the sides.Thegasleaves
at the bottom of the reactorand movesin the same
direction(figure4.2).Thezonesare similarto those
in the updraft gasifier,but the order is somewhat
different.The biomassis dried in the drying zone,
then pyrolizedin the distillationzone.Thesezones
are mainlyheated by radiation(and partlyby convection)heat from the hearth zone,wherea part of
the charis burned.Pyrolysisgasesalsopassthrough
thiszoneand areburned aswell.Theextentto which
the pyrolysisgasesare actuallyburned dependson
design,biomassfeedstock,and the skillsof the operator.Afterthe oxidationzone,the remainingchar
and the combustionproducts-carbon dioxideand
watervapor-pass to the reductionzonewhereCO
and H2 areformed (seeAnnex4).
Hence,the main advantageof a downdraftgasifier
is productionof a gaswith low tar contentsuitable
for engines.In practice,however,a tar-free gas is
seldomif everachievedduring the operatinglife of
the equipment.The main reason seemsto be that
Figure4.2:Downdmftor CocurrentFixedBedGasif4er
Feed

Drawbacksof the downdraft gasifiermaybe summarizedas follows:

* High amountsof ash and dust particlesremain
in the gasbecausethe gashas to passthe oxidation zone,where it collectssmallash particles.
* Fuel requirementsare relativelystrict; fuelmust
be uniformlysizedfrom 4 to 10cm so as not to
blockthe throat and allowpyrolysisgasesto flow
downwardand heat from thehearth zoneto flow
upward;therefore,pelletizationor briquettingof
the biomassis often necessary.
The moisture content of the biomass must be
lessthan 25 percent (on a wet basis).
The relativelyhigh temperature of the exit flue
gasresultsin lower gasificationefficiency.
(Cross-DraftGasifiers
Cross-draftgasifiersareadaptedfor the useof charcoal (figure4.3). Charcoal gasificationresults in
extremely high temperatures (1,500C and higher)

Drying
zone

in the hearth zone,which can leadto local material

problems.Advantagesof the systemlie in the small
scale at which it can be operated. In developing
countries, installationsfor shaft power under 10
kWe,are used. This is possiblydue to the simple
gas-cleaningtrain (a cyclone and a bed filter). A
drawbackis the minimaltar-convertingcapability,
resultingin the need for high-qualitycharcoal.

Distillation
zone

Open-CoreGasifler

-Hearth zone

Open-core gasifiers (figure 4.4) are especially de-

Hearth
zone

Air

not all gasespass through the hottest zones.Also

their residencetime in the combustionzone may
be too short. In each particular design,other features that help realizea high conversionrate of the
pyrolysisgasesare included.This type of gasifieris
used in powerproduction applicationsthat range
from 80 to 500kWeor more.

Air

signed to gasifyfine materialswith low bulk density (for example, rice husks). Because of the low

------

Reduction
zone
Grate
Gas

bulk density of the fuel no throat can be applied.

This avoids bridging of the fuel, which may hamper or even stop the fuel flow. Special devices such

as rotating grates may be included to stir the fuel

Ash pt
Source: FAO (1986).

28

and remove the ash. Rice husk gasifiersin particu-

lar requirecontinuousash removalsystemsbecause

of the high ashcontentof ricehusks (approximately

EnergyfromBiomass

Figure 4.3: Cross-Draft fixed-Bed Gasifier

Feed

Becauseof the varietyof gasifier designswhich have

been developed for each type of gasifier,this can
hardly be called typical, though it indicates the typical differencesbetween the three basic types of fixedbed gasifiers.

DevelopmentsIn Fixed-BedGasifiers
Dryingzone
_____

iS
pThe
Distillation
zone
Hearthzone
_ !2+ zone
Hearth
3

Air

c----

. _

Gas

Reduction
zone

Grate
-

-.

Burningchar
Ash pit

Only a few commercial updraft power gasifiersare

in operation today, all of them in South America.
situation differed completely in the 1940sand
1950s, when, for example, a considerable number
of systems in Europe relied on diverse fuels such as
wood residues and agricultural wastes. The last European updraft power gasifier (in Germany) closed
down for environmental reasons (water pollution
from tarry residues). Hence, most current fixed-bed
gasifiersare of the downdraft type.

Source:FAO(1986).

Most downdraft gasifiers have a V-shaped "throat'

(see figure 4.5), introduced in the 1920s.The hearth

Figure 4.4: Open-Core Gasifier

zone is in the narrowest part of the throat. The purpose of the throat is to create a concentrated high-

Feed/ air

temperature zone and force through it all pyrolysis gases to crack the tar. Air is fed directly into
this zone by either a central air-supply pipe or air
inlet nozzles located in the walls of the throat. In
choosing throat diameter, a balance must be struck
Dryingzone
Distillationzone
Hearthzone

Figure4.3:DowndraftGasifierwith
V-ShapedThroat and Internal Heat
Exchange

Reduction
zone
Rotatinggrate
Gas4-

11 c

Fee

Ash

7-Water
lock
Gas+

Source:Authors.

Dryingzone

55 percent of the initial fuel volume). The bottom

of the gasifier is set in a basin of water, which acts
as a transport medium for the removal of the ash.

Distillationzone

Comparison of Fixed-Bed Gasifiers

For the updraft, downdraft, and open-core gasifiers, some operating characteristics applying wood
as feedstock are presented in Table 4.1.

Hearthzone

Air

LIGrt

Reduction
zone
A

port
P

Source.
Authors.

29

Energyfrom Biomass

between (a) decreasing the risk of tar-loaded gases

escaping from the oxidation zone and (b) an optimal flow rate of the fuel and the gas velocities in
the throat. The latter should not be so high that
the ash is swept up and collected by the gas stream,
causing high dust content.
In recent designs,the reactor may be double-walled.
The producer gas is fed through the space between
the walls, allowing an exchange of heat between the
producer gas, the fuel in the pyrolysis,and the reactor drying zone (see figure 4.5). The effectivenessof
this heat exchangeis considerablyimproved with the
use of small reactor diameters,which enlarge the surface of the heat exchange considerably (figure 4.6).

Figure4.7: Gasiflerwith Tar Collection

Feed

Gas

Tar
ryingzone
Distillation zon,
zone

Hearthzone
-Reduction zon(
S ~~Grate
Ash port

Ash pit

Figure4.6:Small-DiameterGasifier
Feed

Source:Authors.

Gas4-1

Dryingzone
zone
Distillation
Hearthzone
Air~~~~~~~

Figure 4.8: Delacotte Gasifier

~Air
zone
Reduction

Ash Pit AshPit

Fe

~~~Gas r

Source:Authors.

Dryingzone
Distillation
zone
Hearthzone

In some designs, the pyrolysis gases that condense

on the cover are drained through a pipe and collected in a tank (figure 4.7).
In the Delacotte gasifier (figure 4.8), the pyrolysis

Air

gases are collected at the top of the gasifier and

partly combusted and partly cracked in a separate
reactor. The flue gases are fed into the hearth zone
of the gasifier and used to partly burn and partly
gasify the charcoal. A relatively tar-free producer
gas results.

30

Reduction
zone

Grate
\or
Ash pit

Source:Authors.

EnergyfromBiomass

TechnicalandOperationalProblemswith
Fixed-BedGasifiers
Despite different ingenious gasifierdesigns, a fixedbed gasifier that produces a tar-free producer gas
still does not exist. Although Table4.1 shows a turndown ratio for each basic type of gasifier, the partial operation is unsatisfactory for most gasifiers.
Explosions. Explosions may occur when combustible gasesleak through the fuel feeding system, the
ash discharge system, or any other leakage point.
After shutdown of a gasifier,combustible gaseswill
remain in the equipment. If the gasifier is ignited
again without firstventing the equipmentwith fresh
air, the combustible gases still present may explode.
To reduce such risks, gasifiers should be located in
well-vented rooms or in the open air. Operators
should be taught about the risks of gasification
equipment, especiallyduring startup and shutdown.
Fuel Blockages. Fuel blockages may occur in the
throat of the gasifier.These blockages are caused by
an inappropriate combination of fuel properties
(such as morphology), size distribution, ash content and behavior, bulk density, and the flow properties of the derived char.The gasifierdesign should
be adapted to the fuel properties.

gasifier (the throat). This corrosion can be caused

by the combination of high temperatures and contaminants in the feedstock. The design thus should
be adapted to lower the temperature or to use heatresistant materials.
Tar Production. It is impossible to avoid production of tar. Excessivetar production may be caused
by inappropriate fuel properties such as morphology, size distribution, and moisture content and
inappropriate flow of the char. During periods of
variable- or partial-load operation, excessive tars
may also be produced. The design of a gasifier
should be appropriate to the fuel properties, and
plants should operate as much as possible under
steady-preferably full-load-conditions.

Fluidized-Bed Gasifiers
Principles
Fluidized-bed gasification was originally developed
to overcome operational problems of fixed-bed gasification of fuels with high ash content, but it is suitable for the larger capacities (larger than 10 MWth)
in general.The features of fluidized-bed gasification
are comparable with those of fluidized-bed combustion. Compared with fixed-bed gasifiers,the gasification temperature is relativelylow-approximately
750 to 900C. In fixed-bed gasifiers, the tempera-

Corrosion. Corrosion may be a problem, especially

on surfaces in the high-temperature areas of the

ture in the hearth zone may be as high as 1,200C,

and in charcoal gasifiers it may be up to 1,500C.

Table 4.1:Characteristicsof DifferentTypesof Gasifiers

Characteristic

Downdraft

Updraft

Open-core

Fuel (wood
Moisture content (% wet basis)
Ash content (% dry basis)
Size (mm)
Gas exit temp (oC)
Tar (g/Nm3 )

12(mac. 25)
0.5 (max. 6)
20-100
700
0.015-0.500

43 (max. 60)
1.4 (max. 25)
5-100
200-400
30-150

7-15 (max. 15)

1-2 (max. 20)
1-5
250-500
2-10

Sensitivityto load fluctuations

sensitive

not sensitive

not sensitive

Turndown ratio
hHG filll load (%)a
hCGfull load (%)b
Producer gas LHV (kJ/Nm3)

3-4
85-90
65-75
4.5-5.0

5-10
90-95
40-60
5.0-6.0

5-10
70-80
35-50
5.5-6.0

a. hHGHot gas efficiency.Thistakes into accountthe heat containedin the gas;for heat applications.
b. hCGCold gas efficiency.The gas willbe cooled afterleavingthe gasifierto ambienttemperature;for engineand powerapplications.
Source:Van Swaayand others (1994);BTG(1995).

31

EnergyfromBiomass

The fuel is fed into a suspended (bubbling fluidized

bed) or circulating (circulating fluidized bed) hot
sand bed. The bed behaveslike a fluid and is characterized by high turbulence. Fuel particles mix quickly
with the bed material, resulting in rapid pyrolysis
and a relativelylarge amount of pyrolysisgases. Because of the low temperatures, the tar-conversion
rates are not very high.

therefore it is only feasible in large-scale operations

such as the coalgasificationpowerplantinBuggenum,
the Netherlands.For most large-scalebiomass applications,however,an oxygenfactory is not expectedto
be economic.

Figure4.9: Fluidized-BedGasifier
-~

Gas

The advantages of fluidized-bed reactors in comparison with fixed-bed reactors are as follows:
* Compact construction because of high heat exchange and reaction rates due to intensive mixing in the bed
* Flexibility to changes in moisture and ash content and other fuel characteristics; ability to deal
with fluffy and fine-grained materials that have
high ash content, low bulk density, or both
* Relativelylow ash melting points due to the low
reaction temperatures.

Biomass
l

Ash

The drawbacks are as follows:

* High tar and dust content of the producer gas
* High producer-gas temperatures, which leave alkali metals in the vapor state
D Incomplete carbon burnout
a Complex operation because of the need to control the supply of both air and solid fuel
* Need for power consumption for the compression of the gas stream.

T
Air, oxygen, or steam
Source:Authors.

PressurizedFluidized-BedGasification
The carbon burnout in circulating fluidized-bed
gasifiersis considerably better than in bubbling fluidized beds.
The flexibility in particle size of the fuel is not
high compared with fluidized-bed combustion.
For gasification, relatively fine fuel particle sizes
are preferred.
A schematic of a fluidized bed gasifieris givenin figure 4.9.In the figure,steam or pure oxygeninstead of
air are shown as fluidizingand gasifyingagents.If gasification is done with pure oxygen,the caloricvalue of
the producer gas will be higher becauseof the absence
of nitrogen (which of course is present in air). However, production of pure oxygen is expensive,and

32

For power production in relativelylarge-scale applications (>= 5 MWe) gas turbines seem to be attractive prime movers. When used in a gas turbine, the
producer gas has to be fed into the combustor at high
pressures (10 to 25 bar, depending on the gas turbine design). As a consequence,the hot producer gas
from an atmospheric gasifier must be cooled and
compressed,resultingin a high levelof internal power
consumption. The cooling of the gas is necessary
because (a) the temperature of the gas increasescompression, (b) the temperature resistance of compressors is limited, and (c) hot gases take up large volumes, requiring additional work for compression.
The alternative is to gasify under pressurized conditions, delivering producer gas at the pressure of

EnergyfromBiomass

the gas-turbine combustor. The advantages of this

approach are as follows (BTG, 1993):
* Low level of internal power consumption
* Compact design, implying low specific investment costs
* Decrease of ash sintering.

cause corrosion and erosion of cylinder walls and

pistons. When the gas is used in a heat application,
requirements for gas quality are not strict, especially
when the gas remains at high temperatures during
transportation to the burner (this prevents tars and
alkali metals from condensing).

Tar Removal
The drawbacks are as follows:
* The process of feeding fuel into the gasifier is
complex.
* The approach requires high-temperature producer gas cleaning devices;this technology is still
under development and unproven commercially.
* The installation is complex and consequently requires substantial investment for low capacity.
Both pressurized and atmospheric gasifiersare currently used in advanced biomass gasificationdesigns.

Comparison of Fixed-Bed and

Fluidized-Bed Gasifiers
Table 4.2 summarizes a number of important
technical and operational parameters for the different systems.
Gas Treatment
Before the producer gas can be used in a gas engine
or turbine, it must be cooled and cleaned of tars,
alkali metals, and dust. Tars may condense on valves
and fittings,hampering the ability of valvesto function properly, whereas alkali metals, dust, and tars

The classicalway to remove tars is to cool the gas,

which causesthe tars to condense.A condenser may
be built from wide pipes and cooled on the outside
by the surrounding air.When this is done, tars condense on the walls of the pipes and can be drained
offat the bottom. This type of tar condenser is quite
large for the amount treated and is therefore not
suitable for treating large volumes of gas.
Cooling the gas by spraying water into the gas
stream with a venturi scrubber causes the tars to
condense on the water droplets. The effectiveness
of the tar removal can be controlled by adjusting
the pressure drop over the spray nozzle, which influences droplet sizes of the water spray. Humidified packed beds are also applied to increase the
cooling surface in a tar-condensing device.The bed
material may consist of specially designed rings or
other shapes, but it could also consist, say,of simple
coconut fibers or even ping-pong balls.
In the direct water-cooled tar removal systems,some
of the dust, HCI, sulfur oxides, and-depending on
the temperature in the condenser-alkali metals are
also removed by the water.

Table 4.2:TypicalCharacteristicsof Fixed-Bedand Fluidized-BedGasifiers

Characteristic
Fuel: size(mm)
ash content (%wt)
Operatingtemperature (oC)
Control
Trundownratio
Constructionmaterial
Capacity(MWth)
Startuptime
Attendance
Tar contant (g/Nm3 )
LHV (MJ/Nm3 )

Fixed-bed downdraft

Fluidized-bed

10-100
<6
800-1,400
simple
4
mild + refractory
<2.5
minutes
low
<3
4.5

0-20
<25
750-950
average
3
heat-resistantsteel
1-50
hours
average
<5
5.1

Source:
VanSwaayandothers(1994);BTG(1993).
33

Energyfrom Biomass

A major drawback of direct water-cooled systems

is the tar-contaminated waste-water stream, which
needs treatment before disposal. If this waste-water stream is disposed of without cleaning, it will
cause severe environmental damage.
Tar cracking in a bed of char or a catalyst such as
nickel or dolomite at high temperatures (6000 to
1,000C)maybe an alternative to the wet-gas cleaning systems. In such devices,heavy tars in the producer gas are cracked into light, combustible gases
that will not condense at the normal operating temperatures of a gas engine. However, such tar-cracking systems are still in development and hence not
yet commercially available.

and must be almost free of dust and tars in order to

minimize engine wear and maintenance. Tars can
condense and clog the gas supply lines and the gasair mixer and accumulate on the intake valves.The
latter, in particular, leads to problems once an engine is restarted after cooling down. Any tar that
has accumulated on valvesor valvestems will harden
during cooling and prevent the valves from closing
(figure 4.10). Also, acids may cause severe corrosion and affect the lubricating properties of the oil.

Figure4.10: Tar AccumulationonValve

~~~~~~~~~~~I

Dust Removal
Dust-removal equipment for combustion flue gas
such as cyclones, bag filters, and electrostatic precipitators can also be used for cleaning producer
gas. Depending on the upstream processing of the
producer gas, the fabric of bag filters could become
clogged by tars and should be replaced regularly.
An alternative may be ceramic filters, which have a
high temperature and chemical resistance. One
drawback of ceramics is their sensitivity to varying
temperatures in different locations of the same object. Such variations may occur as a result of rapid
changes in the heat load, for example.
Packed beds filled with fine granular particles such
as sand, sawdust, and rice husks are also used for
dust removal. These beds are not as efficient as fabric filters but are relatively cheap and insensitive
to tar deposits. Furthermore, biomass filter materials may ultimately be used as fuel when the filter
bed is renewed.
The most common composition of a producer gas
cleaning chain is a cyclone, followed by a tar condenser, a packed filter bed, and (optionally) a fabric filter.

Gas Engines
Producer gas can be used both in spark ignition
("Otto") and injection ignition ("diesel") engines.
Engine-quality producer gas must have sufficient
heating value for technical and economic reasons

34

%~~~~~~~~

Source: TNO (1992).

Table 4.3 presents general specifications for the use

of producer gas in modern engines. To some extent, these specifications may vary with engine type.
Spark ignition engines can run entirely on gas. Good
mixing with combustion air should be assured; a Tshaped mixer is often used (figure 4.11). The control system should provide a constant gas/air ratio
with all loads. The maximum power output of an
Otto engine that runs on producer gas depends on
the gas heating value, ignition timing, and specific
engine characteristics, and is usually a lot less powerful using petrol or natural gas. Because of the high
compression ratio of diesel engines, a gas engine is
often converted into a diesel engine by replacing the
fuel injection device with a spark ignition device.
The efficiencyafter conversion is as much as 45 percent lower than in the original diesel engine.

Energyfrom Biomass

Table 4.3: Specificationsfor Use of Producer Gas in Engines

Gas characteristics

Unit of measure

Level

Heating value
Dust content

kJ/Nm3
mg/Nm3

Dust size
Tar content

puM
mg/Nm3

>4,200
<50
<5
<10
<500
<100
<50
<500

Hydrochloric acid
Acetic acid

ppm
ppm

Comment
acceptable
preferable
acceptable
preferable

Source:VanSwaayand others (1994).

Figure 4.1 1: T-Type Mixing System for

Mixing Producer Gas with Combustion Air

flame propagation speed of CO, so once the timing

is properly set, knocking should be unusual.
Gas Turbines

Air

Airfilter

Gas turbines are used by themselvesin a wide range

of applications, most notably for powering aircraft
but also in industrial plants for driving equipment

such as compressors, pumps, and generators, and in

electricalutilities for producing power for peakloads

Filter
F=uel-

vXs;

3g

,a32

as well as for intermediate- and base-load duties.

Diesel engines (not converted to spark ignition) can

only be partly operated on producer gas (dual-fuel
operation) and therefore alwaysconsume diesel fuel
at 10 to 25 percent of full-load consumption (van

The principle of a gas turbine is shown in figure

4.12,which depicts one- andtwo-shaftmodels. The
compressed air (typically 10 to 25 bar) reacts with
the fuel in the combustor. Hot pressurized flue gases
expand in the turbine, driving the compressor and
the additional load (generator). In the two-shaft
design, the turbine is divided. In one-shaft drives,
the compressor and the turbine) powers the generator. The two-shaft design provides flexibility in
allowing for different compressor and generator

Swaay and others 1994). The maximum power out-

rotational speeds.

Particulates
Source: Van Swaayand others (1994).

put of such an engine depends on the gas heating

value, the amounts of injected diesel fuel, and spe-

The hot flue gases from the combustor that enter

cific engine characteristics. The efficiency of a diesel engine operating in dual-fuel mode is as much
as 25 percent less than in a single (diesel) fuel mode.

the turbine section are considerably hotter (up to

1,250C) than the steam that enters a steam turbine
(525 to 560C).Therefore, high thermodynamic efficiency may be expected from gas turbines. However, departing flue gases still have high temperatures (450 to 700C). Their loss causes a considerable detriment to a simple-cyclesystem.Even so, recently developed large-scale gas turbines may reach
simple cycleefficienciesof as high as 40 percent. For
medium- and small-scale gas turbines, simple-cycle
efficiencyranges from 20 to 35 percent.

Engine knocking occurs when the combustion of

the gas in the cylinder continues after the ignition
stroke. Knocking may cause pressure oscillations
and damage to the engine. Low flame propagation
speeds or incorrect ignition timing may also cause
knocking. In producer gas, the relatively high flame
propagation speed of H2 compensates for the low

35

EnergyfromBiomass

Figure4.12: BasicGasTurbine (A) and Two-Shaft(B) Configurations

Fuel

Combustor

Fuel
Combustor

Compresso

Compresso

Powerturbine

~~~~~~~~~Load

Load

Air

Exhaust

Air

Exhaust

Source:Authors.

Efficiency of simple-cycle gas turbines can be increased by recovering heat from the exhaust gases.
This is done by heating the compressed combus-

Figure4.13:GasTurbine with ExhaustGas

Heat Recovery

tion air (figure 4.13).

The power consumption of the compressor can be

decreased by applying intercooling heat exchangers (air or water cooled). This reduces the temperature and volume of the gas and consequently the
gas compression. An additional option to increase
simple-cycle gas turbine efficiency is to reheat the
flue gases after they pass some turbine stages. Heat
recovery, intercooling, and reheating are depicted
in figure 4.14.

Combustion of low-calorific gases in a gas turbine

adds requirements to the design of the compressor/combustor

connection and combustor design

(British Coal Corporation & European Gas Turbines

1995). When pressurized gasification is applied,
typically 10 to 20 percent of the compressed air
stream is used in the gasifier to attain the required
gasifier inlet pressure. The pressure of this air is
raised to a slightly higher level by a booster compressor. The bleed of compressed air puts additional
requirements on the air offtake system.

36

Fuel

Combustor

Regene

Compressor

Exhaust

Turbine

Shaft
Load

Air

Source:Authors.

The lower heating value (LHV) of producer gas is

five to seven times lower than the LHV of natural
gas. Hence, to obtain equivalent firing temperatures,
the flow of fuel gas has to increase substantially.This
means that the incoming fuel and air streams have
the same order of magnitude. Because of the high

EnergyfromBiomass

Figure4.14: GasTurbinewith Heat Recovery,Intercooling,and Reheat

Fuel
Regenerator{,

Fuel

Combustor

Combustor

Compressors
Exhaust
Shaft

Load
Turbine

Turbine

IntercoolerIntercooler
Source:Authors.

flow rates of fuel gas compared with the flow of air,

the aerodynamic characteristics of the fuel injector
are important.

NH3 contained in the producer gas. This is formed

in the gasifier from the fuel nitrogen.
When pressurized gasifiers are used, the fuel temperature delivered to the gas turbine is higher than
in conventional gas turbine applications (typically
400 to 600C). These high temperatures affect the
selection of fuel control valves,pipework materials,
and instrumentation.

The high level of inerts in the fuel gas tends to reduce the range of stable air to fuel mass ratios. However, this is offset by the high concentration of hydrogen in the flue gas, which burns over a much
wider range of air-to-fuel ratios than other combustible components.

Currently, only a few turbine manufacturers offer

gas turbines suitable for combustion of low-calorific gases that are obtained from biomass gasification (see Table 4.4; Enviropower 1995).

Furthermore, the high level of inerts reduces combustion temperature in a wayanalogous to steam injection or flue gas recirculation in natural-gas-fired
turbines, thus suppressing thermal NO, formation.
Unfortunately, the low thermal NO, formation is
offset by the formation of NO, from combustion of

Becauseof the limited experience with biomass producer-gasturbines, gas quality requirements are still

Table 4.4:GasTurbinesSuitablefor Low-CalorificGases

Gas turbine type
Allisson,Ruston
Mitsubishi,MWI51
GE,Frame 6
Westinghouse,CW251
GE, Frame6A

PowerMWei

Simple-cycleefficiency(percent)

5
21
43
50
70

28
24
33
33
31

Source:Author.

37

Energyfrom Biomass

not clear. An indication of current requirements set

by gas turbine manufacturers is given in Table 4.5.

Table 4.5: Quality Requirements for Gas

Turbine Fuel Gas
Gas
characteristic

Unit of
measure

MinimumLHV
Particles
Alkalimetals

MJ/Nm3
ppm
ppm

Source:
Author.

Level

For these reasons, and the fact that the water and
steam are kept in a closed cycle,the STEG, despite
higher investment costs, is preferable to the STIG.
In modern gas plants, overall efficiency of a STEG

3-11
may be more than 55 percent, with and 60 percent
<2-30
reachable within a few years. This progress is made
<0.2-1.0
possible by using dedicated materials and advanced
Source. Authorbladecooling systems to raise the inlet temperature
of gas turbines.

Application of pressurized gasifiers with gas turbines is advantageous because it forestalls the need
for a large producer gas compressor. The gasification air can simply be extracted from the combustion air compressed by the gas turbine. However,
the full advantages of such a system are obtained
only when high-temperature gas treatment systems
(ceramic filters, for example) are applied. These systems are still in the development phase, and a reliable system is currently not commercially available.
The absence of effectivehot-gas treatment systems
is one of the major bottlenecks in the development
of pressurized-gasifier/gas-turbine systems.

Combined-CycleSTIG and STEG

The heat contained in flue gases exiting from a gas
turbine that has no recovery system, according to
figure 4.13, can be used to produce steam. This
steam can be injected into the so-calledSTIG (steam
injected gas turbine) or into a separate steam turbine in the so-called STEG (steam and gas turbine)
concept. The STIG concept requires continuous
supply of water, as the steam is released into the environment. The advantage, however, is its simplicity relative to the STEG.
In the STEG concept, the steam is used in a closed
steam cycle. The overall electrical efficiency of this
concept is higher than in the STIG concept:
* High steam pressures can be applied.
* The steam can be expanded to vacuum conditions.

38

The efficiencyof steam expansion in a steam turbine is higher than that of steam expansion in a
gas turbine.

The heat exchanger used to produce steam from gas

turbine flue gases is called the heat recovery steam
generator (HRSG). Because of the relatively low
entry temperatures of flue gas, the design of an
HRSG is quite different from that of a steam boiler.
Typically,the HRSG consists of a flue-gas path containing finned pipe modules for the steam superheater sections, the evaporator section, and the
economizer section (feedwater preheating). The
HRSG should be made specificallyfor each gas turbine and combined-cycle concept.
For a combined heat and power application, a
backpressure steam turbine can be used to deliver
the process steam as required. A condensing/extraction turbine may provide flexibility in a CHP concept, as the steam can be extracted for use as process steam or expanded completelyto the condenser
and fully utilized for power production.
Currently, integrated designs for biomass gasification and combined cycling, integrated gas combined-cycle (IGCC) have been prepared. This concept offers the highest electrical efficienciesin thermochemical conversion of biomass. Estimated efficiencies range from 44 to 50 percent, with the higher
figure expected within fiveyears as a result of redesigned gas turbines.
However, few IGCC systems for biomass have been
realizedso far.In 1995,a concept based on a pressurized circulatingfluidized-bedgasifierand a 4MWegas
turbine was in demonstration at a plant in Varnamo,
Sweden.The total electricityproduction capacitywill

Energyfrom Biomass

be 6 MWe.Althoughtheplantisfinished,it is stillnot
operationalbecauseof technicalproblems.

Heat Generation
Usingproducergas in heat applicationis more or
lesscomparableto two-stagecombustion.The differenceis that somedistanceis createdbetweenthe
first stage(gasifier)and the secondstage (burner).
The hot producergasesareconductedthrough gas
pipes to the burner(s). To prevent problemswith
condensationof tar, it is important that the piping
is wellinsulatedand that the transport distanceis
not too long. The advantagesof the gasification/
combustionroute comparedwith direct combustion of the fuelare as follows:
Lowoverall(gasificationplus combustion)excess
airfactors,allowingfor relativelyhighefficiencies
* Lowlevelsof NOXemissions
x Lessfoulingof the heat exchangeequipment or
heatedproducts(in direct heatapplicationssuch
as drying or baking) as a resultof lessfly ash in
the combustiongases.
*

The disadvantageis the lossof heat in the gasifier

and transport piping. Good insulation and close
connection to the heat applicationwill minimize
this loss,however.
If it is necessaryto clean the gas to complywith
environmentalregulations,it maybe advantageous

to clean the producer gas instead of the fluegases

after combustion. The volume flow rate of the
formeris roughly50percentof thevolumeflowrate
of the latter,leadingto considerablecost savingsin
cleaningdevices.
Burnerperformance dependson the properties of
the gas.Changingfrom natural gasto producergas
meanschangingthe air-to-fuelratio.To obtainthe
sameheat release,the fuel gas flowhas to be increasedby further opening the fuelvalveor pressurizingthe producergas.
Flamestabilitydependson flamevelocityand flammabilitylimits.Althoughit ispossibleto getan idea
aboutflamestabilityfrom theoreticalobservations,
it is advisableto test a specificburner with the actual producergas beforeinstallingit.
Thesizeand temperature distributionofthe flame,
which affects the furnace efficiency,depends on
the composition of the producer gas and its dust
content.
The adiabaticflametemperature of LHVproducer
gas is lower (1,600C)than that of natural gas
(1,900C).High-temperatureapplicationssuch as
glass-meltingfurnacesmaynot be ableto use producer gas effectively.In most other applications,
however,therelativelylowadiabaticflametemperature willnot necessarilymean a drop in efficiency.

39

5. Combustion
VersusGasification
Heat Applications
In chapter 3, different aspects of combustion of biomass are presented and discussed in relation to different types of furnaces. Basically,the hot flue gases
leaving the furnace can be used directly or indirectly.
Direct combustion heat is used for baking (e.g.,
stones, bakery products, and cement) and drying
(e.g., food, wood, paper, and painted objects). Indirect heating processes use heat exchangers such
as boilers for the production of steam or hot water.
Designs based on direct heating may be cheaper
because of the absence of these heat exchangers.
However, direct contact between the product and
the hot flue gases may limit possible applications
of the direct heating process, because the contact
may result in physical or chemical interactions between the flue gases and the product. To some extent, this problem may be solved by using cleaning
equipment to reduce the levels of contaminants.
However, the temperature resistance of the available cleaning systems is limited, so the flue gases
would have to be cooled first to the operating temperature of the cleaning systems (approximately
3000 to 400C). This, of course, would result in a
considerable loss of the contained heat.
Gasification of biomass may be advantageous if direct heating by flue gases is considered. The advantages of using producer gas are as follows:
* A producer gas flame can easily be burned with
low NOXemissions.
* When strict emission levels on flue gas contaminants are required, producer gas can be cleaned
before use.
* A gas flame can easily be directed to a certain
heating zone.
* Each burner can be controlled easily (the process is similar to cooking on a gas stove).
The energy in the producer gas is to a large extent
chemicallybound energy (about 80 percent). If the
cleaning system requires cooling of the producer
gas, only thermal energy, which represents approximately 20 percent of the contained energy,
40

gets lost. By using an intensive gas-cleaning system in combination with a well-designed burner,
a clean flow of hot flue gases can be produced for
direct heat applications.
If the heat is applied in an indirect heating system
using heat exchangers (e.g., boilers), both gasification and combustion systems can be used.
In general, direct combustion systems may offer the
highest overall efficiency,whereas gasification may
offer the highest controllability.

Retrofittingof Fossil-Fuel-Fired
Furnaces
In some cases it can be attractive to convert fossilfuel-fired furnaces to biomass fuel rather than to
construct new biomass-fueled devices. When no
alternative exists, fossil-fuel conversion may be the
most effectiveway to prevent waste of capital goods.
A clear reason for such a conversion may be a sudden scarcityof fossilfuels that makes them extremely
expensive.This applies particularly to some Central
and Eastern European countries that can no longer
accesscheap fossilfuels from Russian resources and
now must import them. Some such countries, such
as Estonia (BTG 1995a) and the other Baltic states,
also have large biomass resources available in the
form of wood and peat. For these countries, retrofitting to biomass fuel is a serious option to decrease
dependency on foreign fossil fuels.
Policies for sustaining energy resources can also
stimulate conversion of equipment. In the United
States, the government offers tax credits if biomass
fuels are used.
The basic principles for boiler conversion are described below.

Installationof a Prefurnace
An additional furnace, the prefurnace, can be installed in front of the existing boiler/furnace device. This prefurnace is especially designed to

Energyfrom Biomass

burn biomass fuels. The hot flue gases from this

prefurnace are directed into the existing boiler/
furnace and pass through the boiler heat exchangers. In this way, the heat is completely released by
convection. In the original boiler/furnace, heat
exchange takes place through a combination of
convection and radiation. The heat exchangers in
the boiler are too small to reach their design capacity purely by convection heating. As a consequence, the maximum capacity is downgraded to
50 percent of its original value, depending on the
boiler design.
Installation of a Gasifier
A gasifier can be installed that fires producer gas in
the existing furnace/boiler. The radiation of a producer gas flame is comparable with a natural gas
flame and slightly less than that of an oil flame. In
gas- or oil-fired boilers converted to this technology, the same mechanisms of heat transfer (radiation and convection) remain, and therefore no
downgrading occurs. If coal-fired boilers are converted in this way,the capacity of the boiler is downgraded to approximately 80 percent of its original
capacity because of the higher radiative heat exchange in the original coal fired furnace/boiler.
In the United States, this type of retrofit is often
applied relativelyoften (even in coal-fired furnaces),
stimulated by government tax credits when biomass fuels are used instead of fossilfuels (AED 1994).
Conversion of Furnaces
Existing furnaces may also be converted to biomass
fuels by installing a grate and adapting primary and
secondary air supplies. This fuel must burn in the
space provided by the combustion chamber. The required residence time in the combustion chamber
should be approximately two to three seconds to
realize complete combustion. To keep the combustion temperature at the required high level,the combustion chamber walls can be covered with a refractory lining.
The downgrading of retrofitted gas- or oil-fired furnace/boilers depends on the devolatilization rate of
the biomass materials. If the material is pulverized
into small pieces, devolatilization is fast, and little
derating occurs. When lump fuel is used,
devolatilization is slow, and derating is high.

The combustion room for boilers originally fired

with coal is in most cases too small because of the
low volatile content in coal. In biomass, the volatile
content may be as high as 80 percent (on a dry basis),whereasincoal,acontentof30percentvolatiles
is considered very high. Since volatiles require an
especiallylarge combustion space, a retrofitted coal
furnace/boiler may have to be derated to as little as
35 percent of its original capacity, depending on the
original furnace design.
Supplying solid-fuel fired furnaces is more complicated than supplying gas- or oil-fired furnaces and
requires special attention in design and operation.
The required supervision during operation depends
strongly on the level of system automation. This can
range from complete manual operation to fuel supply systems that are virtually automatic.
Power Applications
Large-scale steam cycles for producing power are
used all over the world; the technology, including
combustion technology, is well developed.
Gasificationtechnology is far less mature and is still
in the development stage. Advanced gasification
cycles,which have not yet been realized on a commercial or even a demonstration scale, are promising, and much development work is going on to
make these cycles commercially available.
Small-scaleapplications are required if biomass (as
in most cases) is only available in limited quantities. This should also apply locally to avoid excessive transport costs. For steam cycles and gasification technology, work continues to develop reliable
and affordable small-scale equipment.
In this section, gasifierand combustion-based units
are compared, both for pure power and for combined
heat and power production. This comparison is done
for a 1 MWelcapacity and for a 5 MWelcapacity.
Capacities smaller than 1 MWej are not considered
because steam cycles in this range tend to be extremely expensive,whereascomparable gasificationbased systems are still not reliable.
For capacities higher than 5 MWei,much development work is being done in advanced integrated
41

EnergyfromBiomass

gasification and combined-cycle (IGCC) schemes,

with the aim of realizing a high level of integration
between fuel preparation and optimal power and
heat production. Currently,no realisticdata on costs
and performance of these schemes are available.

Conceptsin the I MW Range

In the 1 MWel range, the following concepts are
considered:
* A fixed-bed gasifier with a gas engine
* A steam-cycle concept based on a fixed-bed furnace and a medium-pressure steam boiler.
The considered fuel is a woody biomass with a moisture content of 20 percent (wet basis) and an ash
content of I percent (dry basis). Ashmelting points
are above 1,200C.The actual LHV is 14.2 MJfkg.
Fuel size is in the range of 50 x 50 x 100 mm.
Fuel supply is in both cases automatic and more
or less identical. A fuel supply system may consist
of a storage silo (buffer capacity for one to three
days) provided with a screw to force the fuel out
of the silo to a transport band. This band moves
the fuel into the fuel-supply hopper of the gasifier
and furnace.
Gasification Concept. The installation is built
from a downdraft fixed-bed gasifier combined
with an Otto-type gas engine. For the cleaning of

the producer gas, a multicyclone for separating

dust and a gas cooler for condensing tar is included. An indication of the capacity of each component is presented in Table 5.1.
The economic lifetime of the plant is estimated at
10 years; this is relatively low, but it is realistic for
this type of plant.
The Steam-Cycle Concept. The components and
related capacities of the considered steam cycle are
presented in Table 5.2. The steam condition delivered by the boiler is 28 bar saturated steam, which
is almost the maximum pressure that can be delivered by a fire-tube boiler.
Because of the reliability of steam-cycle equipment,
the life span of the unit is estimated at 15 years.
The steam cycle in the CHP concept differs from
the power generation concept with respect to the
turbine. Instead of a condensing turbine, a
counterpressure turbine delivers steam at atmospheric pressure. Condensation of this steam provides heat at a temperature level of 100C.
The power production capacity of the counterpressure turbine will be 80 percent lower than that
of the condensing turbine. Investments will be lower
as well, but the investment for the complete unit
expressed per kWewill be higher.

Table 5.1: Gasifier/Engine

ConceptIn I MW. Rangewith IndicativeCapacities
Capacity
Unit of
measure

Powergeneration and
CHP

Remarks

t/h

1.5

n.a.

MW
Nm3 /h
m3/h
MWth

4.1
3,100

n.a.
n.a.
n.a.
usefulheat in CHP option

Scrubber

m3/h

Gas engineand generator

MWe
MWth

4,200
I

Component
Fuel supplysystem
Gasifier:
Capacity
Gas production
Multicyclone:gas treatment capacity
Producer-gascooler

n.a. Not applicable.

Source:Author.

42

9,900

1.2
2.2

n.a.

n.a.
usefulheat in CHP option

EnergyfromBiomass

Table 5.2:Steam-CycleConceptin I MW. Rangewith IndicativeCapacities

Capacity
Component

Unit of measure

Powergeneration

CHP

Fuel suppysystem
Furnacewith staged combustion
Fire-tubeboiler:steamproduction

tVh

1.8

1.8

MWth
t/h

7.3

7.3

9.7

9.7

Multicyclone: gas treatment capacity

m3/h

18,000

18,000

Singlestageturbine and generator

Watercooledcondenser
Makeupwater treatment
De-aerator
Boilerfeed-waterpump
Flue-gasfan

Mwe
MwU
m3/h

1
5.5
0.1

0.8
5.7
0.1

m3/h
m3/h

9.7
18,000

9.7
18,000

Source:Author.

Comparison of Gasification and the

Steam-CycleConcept in the I MWM,Range
The steam cycleand the gasifier/engineconcepts can
be compared with regard to operational, energetic,
and financial aspects.
In a recent inventory of gasification technologies
(van Swaay and others 1994), the equipment is estimated at 1,700 $/kWe (1995 price level). From
this figure, total plant costs for installation (mechanical, electrical, piping, instrumentational, and
civils) are obtained by averaging the ratio between
total plant and equipment costs. Van Swaay and
others (1994) propose a ratio of 1.75. This estimate should be considered average, since actual
investments on realized installations may tend to
center around this figure.
For the steam-cycle concept, specific equipment
investment costs are estimated at 2,000 $/kWel.The
ratio between total plant cost versus equipment
cost is estimated at a ratio of two, higher than in
the gasification concept because of the more complex installation.
It is common for engineering companies to judge
the accuracy of estimates based on such "typical
and/or characteristic" values at 50 percent. In van
Swaayand others (1994), an even wider range of 50 percent to + 100 percent based on an investment
survey of "real life" projects is reported for Western
gasification equipment.

In general such a range is caused by differences in

equipment quality and specific site conditions that
have to be met. These include noise regulations,
safety requirements, required height of the stack,
level of automation, and fluctuations in currency
exchange rates that affect investment costs of foreign equipment.
An interesting observation also made in van Swaay
and others (1994) is that products from developing
countries maybe lower in investment costs by a factor of four compared with equipment manufactured
in the West.
Differences in manufacturing quality, however, are
significant between developed and developing
countries. It should also be noted that the ratio between total plant costs and equipment costs depends
strongly on each situation. The proposed ratio of
1.75 for gasifier/engine concepts may be on target
for developed countries but not for developing
countries, where wages are lower.
In Table 5.3, some characteristic data of both systems are compared. The investment costs for steam
cyclesare higher than for gasifiers,even though the
expected lifetime is longer. Although the electrical
efficiency for a steam cycle is lower, the heat production in CHP mode is higher. Maintenance is estimated to cost 5 percent of the equipment investment for both systems, which consequently are
higher for the steam cycle.

43

EnergyfromBiomass

Table 5.3:CharacteristicData of Gasifier/Engine

and Steam-CycleConcept
Gassifier/engine
Specificdata

Steam cycle

Unit of measure

Power

CHP

Power

CHP

Investment
Specificinvestment

$1,000

2,975

2,975

4,000

3,800

$/kWe

2,975

2,975

4,000

4,911

Expectedlifetime
Labor
Efficiency

year
person*year

10
1

10
1

15
1

15
1

0.17
-

0.17
0.58

0.14

0.11
0.79

Electric

Heat
Capacity
Electric

Heat
Maintenance
-

MWIAe
MWth
$1,000/year

0.8

3.4

5.7

85

85

100

95

Not applicable.

Note:Generaldataandassumptions
areasfollows:

Intereston loans
Laborcost
LHVfuel(wetbasis)
Fuelprice
Annualoperation

8 percent
$50,000
per personperyear
14.2MJ/kg
$40/tonne(i.e.,$2.82/GJ:
approximately
50percentof fossilfuelprice)
6,000h/year

Source: Author.

Some general aspects concerning operability are

mentioned in Table 5.4. The gasifier/engine installation is relativelysimple with respect to number of
components, but operation is difficult and may require regular deaning and removal of tar from critical parts of the plant. Instrumentation to measure
key process parameters for this type of equipment
is not yet developed to a usable level. This implies
that the operator should rely on a"feel" for the plant,
since, to a large extent, efficiencyof the plant is determined by the operator's skills and motivation.
The steam cycle is complex because it consists of
many components. Operation is straightforward
but requires skilled and motivated operators. Key
process parameters are measured directly, and operation procedures are well-defined.
For both plants, continuous operation is most productive. If partial use of the most optimal mode of
operation for both plants is mandated, the steamcyclecan be turned down to one-fifth to one-tenth
of the design load, whereas the gasifier engine rate
is limited to one-fourth of design capacity.

44

In CHP mode, steam can be condensed at a constant temperature (in the presented case 100C),
while the gasifier/engine delivers heat by warming
up water (in principle, other fluids are alsopossible)
from, for example, 70 up to 105C(for the engine).
The heat from the gas cooler is released at higher
temperatures, and its use increases the potential of
the gasifier engine unit to heat a fluid from, say, 700
up to 1200or 125C.
The design of a steam cyclecan easily be adapted to
deliver heat at higher temperatures (150C, for example, is common in process industries). However,
this will reduce electricity production.
In the case presented, the applied boiler steam pressure and temperature are modest because of the
application of a fire-tube boiler. A water-pipe boiler
would allow higher steam temperatures and pressures, resulting in higher electric efficiency.But investments would also increase significantly.
In Annex 5, a complete financial analysis is presented
for both the gasification and the steam-cycle-based

EnergyfromBiomass

Table 5.4:OperationalAspectsof Gasifier/Engine

and Steam Cycle
Characteristic
Turndownratio
Reliability
Complexity
Safety
Noiselevel
Startup/shutdown
Operability

Gasifier/engine

Steam cycle

3-4
Poorto reasonable
Moderate
CO danger
High,at medium frequencies
0.2-1 h
Difficult:skilledpersonnelrequired

5-10
High
High
High-pressuresteam
High,at high frequencies
1-3
Straightforward:skilledpersonnelrequired

Source:
Author.

power production units. The resultsare presented in

Tables 5.5 and 5.6.
The steam-cycle concept is 25 to 30 percent more
expensive than the gasifier concept because its
higher capital costs and lower overall efficiency (14
percent versus 17 percent) result in higher fuel and
maintenance costs.

Table 5.5:ElectricityProductionCosts:
Steam versus Gasifier (Range:
u
I MWCs
)
Cost element
Capitalcost
Fuelcost
Labor
Maintenance
Total
Source:Author.

Steam cycle
($/kWhe)

Gasifier/engine

0.08
0.07
0.01
0.03
0.19

0.07
0.06
0.01
0.01

($kwhe)

0.15

Table 5.6:Electricity Production Costs:

Steam versus Gasifier for Small
Applications Based on CHP Concepts
(Range: < I MW,1)
Cost element
Capitalcost
Fuel cost
Omitted fuelcost
Labor
Maintenance
Total
Source:
Author.

When both cyclesin a CHP are compared, the steam

cyde is still more expensive than the gasifier/engine
concept. The net fuel costs (fuelcostsminus expenses
for heat production) are roughly the same for both
concepts (0.03 $/kWh). In the case presented, the
price for heat is expressed minus fuel costs for heat
production. This is based on a boiler efficiencyof 90
percent, which is assumed to produce the heat if no
CHP units were installed.
Sensitivity Analysis. Because of the uncertainties
and assumptions about the general data that form
the basis for the financial comparison, a sensitivity
analysisis performed on annual hours of operation,
fuel price, and specific investment. The results of
this analysis are presented in Figure 5.1.
.
Sensitivity to annual hours of operation focuses on
a range between 4,000 and 8,000 h/year as a base
case. Within this range, the steam cycle has higher
kWhecosts than the gasifier/engineconcept, but this
difference is reduced as annual operating hours increase. The sensitivity is higher for the CHP concept because project income, which depends on
operation hours, is higher from the saleof both electricity and heat.

Steam cycle
($/kwhd)

Gasifier/engine
($/kwhe)

The sensitivity to fuel price is widely considered to

reflect the actual range in biomass fuels and, conse-

0.10
0.09
(0.06)
0.01
0.04
0.18

0.07
0.06
(0.03)
0.01
0.01
0.12

quently, fuel prices. Biomass may be available from

no cost up to a relatively high cost when energy
cropsare considered. Becauseof the lower efficiency,
the sensitivity to fuel price for the steam cycle is
somewhat higher for pure power generation and
more or less the same for CHP production. If the
fuel is free, the costs of generating pure power are

45

EnergyfromBiomass

Figure5.1:SensitivityAnalysisof ConceptsIn the I MW, Range

Powergeneration
(capacity
1 MWQ)

CHP(capacity
1 MW
0)

0.25 -

0.25 -

~_

0.20 -

_0.20-

0.15 -

010 -

0.OS -

0.10 -

0.05-

0.05 -

4,000 4,500 5,000 5,500 6.000 6,500 7,000 7,500 8,000

4,000 4,500 5,000 5,500 6,000 6,500 7,000 7,500 8,000

Operating
Hours

Operating
Hours

Steamcycle

- - - - Gasifierengine

Steamcycle - - - - Gasifierengine

Powergeneration
(capacity
1 MW0)

CHP(capacity
1 MW
0)

0.25 -

0.25 -

0.20 -

020 -

0.15

0.15

0.10 -

0.10 -

0.05 -

0.05 -

OM

1,000

2,000

3,000

0.00

4,000

5,000

6,000

1,000

Specific
investment
($/kW,)
U

SteamcycAe
Basecasesteamcycle

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

Specific
investment
($/kW,)
Steamcycle
* Basecasesteamcyde

- - -Gasifierengine
Basecasegasifierengine

Powergeneration
(capacity
1 MW0)

--*

- Gasifierengine
Basecase gasifierengine

CHP(capacity
1 MW0)

0.25 -

0.25 -

0.20 -

0.20 -

0.15 -0.15
0.0

0.1

0.05 -

0.05

0.00 -

0 .Q00

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Fuelprice($/ton)
Steamcycle

- - - - Gasffierengine

10

20

30

Steamcycle

Note:The basecasefor operationhours is 6,000hours per year;for fuel priceit is $40per ton
Source:Authors.

46

40

50

60

70

s0

Fuelprice($/ton)
- - - -

Gasifierengine

Energyfrom Biomass

almost the same for both. Although the CHP steam

cycle has higher costs than the gasifier engine, the
sensitivity is identical. The lower electrical efficiency
of the steam cycle and-consequently-the
low
level of electricity sales are in this case counterbalanced by greater heat production, resulting in almost the same fuel cost per electrical kilowatt hour.
The specific investment ranges from 0 to 6,000 $/
kW; the maintenance costs are not considered to
depend on the investment and are kept constant on
the level of Table 5.3. In the graph, the base cases
for both concepts are different and represented by
a designated symbol.
The sensitivity to specific investment costs is lower
for the steam cyclebecause of the longer lifetime of
the equipment.
For specific investment, the 0 $/kW represents the
production costs. The production costs for the
steam cycleare higher than those of gasifier/engines.
From this analysis,it can be concluded that the sensitivity of the kWhe costs for the different parameters in the considered range is much larger than
the differences between the two concepts. For example, if the number of annual operating hours for
the gasifier/engine is only 5,000h/yr because of frequent interruptions, while the steam cycle results
in 7,000 operating hours per year, the differencesin
these are bridged and become roughly the same for
both concepts.
Concepts In the 5 MW Range
In the 5 MWelrange, an upscaled version of the 1
MWel steam cycle and gasifier/engine can be considered. Regarding the steam cycle, higher steam
temperatures and pressures can be applied (up to
530C and 60 bar), and, when combined with a
multiple-stage turbine, this yields higher electric
efficiency.A conventional steam cyclein this capacity range may consist of a fixed-bed furnace and a
water-tube boiler.
In Finland, circulating and bubbling fluidized-bed
furnace/boilers in the range of 5 to 10 MWe have
been developed with equipment costs estimated at
1,300 $/kWe (VTT Congress 1995).

A factor of two is employed as the ratio between

total plant costs and equipment costs. This figure
should be considered average.A bandwidth of 50
percent for actual figures is also applicable for the
same reasons mentioned for the 1 MWe*The components and capacities are presented in Table 5.7.
The applied steam conditions are higher than in the
1 MWelcase: 530C and 60 bar.
Scaling up a gasifier/engine plant from 1 to 5 MWe
results in fiveunits of 1 MWe rather than 1 unit of 5
MWe. This is because a gasifier is difficult to scale
up. Thus, specific data for a fixed-bed gasifier/engine plant of 5 MWe are roughly the same as for the
1 MWesystem.
In this capacity range, a modern system would be
based on a fluidized-bed gasifier,combining a gas
turbine with an HRSG and a steam turbine (STEG;
Table 5.8). In Varnamo, Denmark, a plant of this
type is in the experimental phase. This technology
is expected to become of major importance in biomass-fueled power plant concepts and will therefore be considered here. Data for a conventional
gasifier/engine unit can easily be derived from the
1 MWe case that has been discussed.
Steam is produced at 450C and 60 bar. The lifetime of the system is expected to be 15 years. The
specific equipment costs are estimated at 1,400 $/
kWe,, and the ratio between total plant costs and
equipment costs is assumed to be 2. Those estimates
are based on Western equipment prices,since manufacturing this equipment is only feasible in highly
industrialized environments. Some of the equipment (boilers) can be produced in Central or Eastem European countries, which reduces the investment costs for these countries. The accuracy of the
investment estimate is plus or minus 50 percent.
Comparison of Gasification and SteamCycle Concepts in the 5 MW., Range
The general assumptions and data for the 5 MWe
concepts are presented in Table5.9. The investments
are in the same range and do not differ much. The
CHP is based on the same equipment as the power
generation concepts,exceptfor the steam turbine and
condensing systems.Becauseof the reduction in electrical capacity that results from use of a

47

EnergyfromBiomass

Table 5.7:Steam Cyde Concept,5 MW., with IndicativeCapacities

Capacity
Component
Fluidized-bedfurnace
Thermalcapacity
Fuel consumption
Water-tubeboiler: steamproduction
Multicyclone/bagfilter:gastreatment cap
Multiplestageturbine and generator
Watercooledcondenser
Makeup watertreatment
De-aerator
Boilerfeed-waterpump
Flue-gas fan

Unit of measure

Powergeneration

CHP

MWth
t/h
t/h
m3 /h
MWe
MWth

18.2
4.6
19.1
47,000
5
11.3

18.2
4.6
19.1
47,000
4
12.3

m3 /h

0.3

0.3

m3 /h

19.1

19.1

m3 /h

50,000

50,000

Source:Author.

Table 5.8:GasifierISTEGConceptwith IndicativeCapacities

Capacity
Component
Fluidized-bedgasifier
Gas production
Fuel consumption
Gasturbine
Heat recoverysteam generator
Steamturbine
Overallheat production
-

Unit of measure

Powergeneration

CHP

Nm3/h
t/h
MWe
t/h
MWe
MWth

7,500
3.6
3.2
15
1.6

7,500

3.6

3.2
15
0.9
8.2

Not applicable.

Source:Author.

counterpressure turbine, the specificinvestment cost

of a CHP unit is considerablyhigher,despitethe lower
investment for a steam turbine and condenser.
The expected lifetime of the equipment is 15 years
for both. The gasifier/STEG concept is the more
complex of the two because of the large number of
components involved.In both concepts, three persons are expected to operate the plant. The reliability of the steam-cycle concept is high, whereas the
reliability of the gasifier/STEG concept still must
be demonstrated. The most critical components are
the gasifier,gas treatment, and gas turbine.
For both pure power and combined heat and power
production electricity production costs are com-

48

pared in Tables 5.10 and 5.11. A complete analysis

is presented in Annex 6.
For gasifier-based systems, investment costs are
higher, but fuel costs are lower; for steam systems,it
is just the reverse.However,according to these tables,
production costs hardly differ at all. Even the CHPbased systemsgenerate the same production costs.

SensitivityAnalysis
A sensitivity analysis is performed using the same
parameters and bandwidths employed for the 1
MWe concepts: annual operating hours, fuel price,
and specific investment (Figure 5.2). As seen from
the figure, the differences between gasifier/STEG
and steam cycles are negligible in all graphs. As

EnergyfromBiomass

Table 5.9:CharacteristicData of Gasifier/STEGand Steam-CycleConceptsin the 5 MW.

Range
Gassifier/STEG

Specificdata

Unitof measure

Steam cycle

Power

CHP

Power

CHP

Investment
Specific investment

$1,000
$/kW,

14,000
2,800

13,400
3,350

13,000
2,600

12,000
3,064

Expectedlifetime
Labor

year
person*year

15
3

15
3

15
3

15
3

0.35
-

0.28
0.58

0.28

0.22
0.68

Efficiency
Electric

Heat

Capacity
Electric
Heat
Maintenance

MWe

MIWth

$1,000/year

3.9

8.3

12.3

350

335

325

300

Not applicable.
Note:Generaldata and assumptionsare as follows:
Intereston loans
8 percent
Laborcost
$50,000per person per year
LHVfuel (wetbasis) 14.2MJlkg
Fuelprice
$40/tonne(i.e.,$2.82/GJ:approximately50 percent of fossilfuel price)
Annualoperation
6,000h/year
Source:Author.
-

Table 5.10:ElectricityProductionCosts
Basedon CHP ConceptsIn the 5 MW 1

Range
Costelement

Steamcycle

Gasifier/engine

($/kWhe)

($IkWhi)

Table 5.11:ElectricityProductionCostsin
the 5 MW., Range
Costelement
Capitalcost

Steamcycle
($/kWh)

Gasifier/engine
($/kWh)

0.05

0.05

0.04
(0.00)

0.03
(0.00)

Capitalcost
Fuelcost

0.06
0.05

0.06
0.05

Fuelcost
Omittedfuelcost

Omittedfuel cost

(0.03)

(0.03)

Labor

0.01

0.01

Maintenance
Total
Source:Author.

0.01
0.10

0.01
0.10

Labor
0.01
0.01
Maintenance
0.01
0.01
Total
0.10
0.10
Note:Actual
poweroutputapproximately
4MWe
Source:Author.

with the 1 MWe,sensitivityto operating hours is

higher for the CHP than power conceptsbecause
of higher projectedincome from the sale of both
electricityand heat.
Becauseoflowerelectricalefficiency,
thesteamcycle
has slightlyhigher sensitivityto fuel prices,even
though the prices are the samefor both concepts.

This price sensitivityis less for CHP conceptsbecauseheat salesare coupledto the fuelprice.
Sensitivityto specificinvestmentcostsis high,but it
is thesameforpowerand CHP concepts.Production
costs(whichcanbe identifiedwhenspecificinvestment is equalto zero) are somewhatlower for the
CHPconceptsbecauseof the additionalsaleofheat.

49

EnergyfromBiomass

Figure5.2:SensitivityAnalysisof Conceptsin the 5 MWe Range

Powergeneration(capacity5 MWe)

CHP (capacity4 MWJ

0.25 -

0.25 -

0.20 -

0.20 -

0.15 -

0.15_

0.10 -

.1

0.05 -

0.05 -

0.00

0.00

4,000

4,500

5,000

5,500

6,000

6,500

7,000

7,500

8,000

4,000

4,500

5,000

OperatingHours
Steamcycle - - - - STEG

5,500

Powergeneration(capacity5 MW0)

6,500

7,000

7,500

8,000

CHP(capacity4 MW,)

0.25 -

0.25 -

0.20 -

0.20

0.15

0.15_

--

3,0.10

0.10

0.05 -

0.05 -

0.00

0.00
0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

1,000

2,000

3,000

Specificinvestment($lkW,)
Steam cycle

* Basecasesteamcycle

STEG

- --

Steam cycle

* BasecaseSTEG

* Basecasesteamcycle

5,000

6,000

STEG

- --

* BasecaseSTEG

CHP (capacity4 MWJ)

0.25 -

0.25 - ________________________

0.20-

0.20-

0.15 -

0.15 0.10

I.CO
4,000

Specificinvestment($/kW,)

Powergeneration(capacity5 MW0)

0.1~~-0

0.05 -

0.05 -

0.00 0

10

20

30

40

0.0050

60

70

Fuel price($1ton)
Steamcycle - - - - STEG

80

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Fuel price($tton)
Steamcycle - - - - STEG

Note:The basecasefor operationhours is 6,000hours per year;for fuelprice it is $40per ton

Source:Authors.

so

6,000

OperatingHours
Steamcycle - - - - STEG

80

Energyfrom Biomass

When 5 MWeand 1 MWeare compared,the production costs are considerablylower (roughly 30

percent) for the former. Moreover,the sensitivity
of the 5 MWeconceptsto changesin parametersis

also lower,except for specificinvestments.(Sensitivity of the gasifier/engineconcept is higher becauseof its shorter life span.)

sI

6. Conclusions
Biomass mateTialshave properties that differ from
those of conventional solid fuels such as coal. A
major difference is the high content of volatile matter in biomass materials (up to 80 percent), whereas
coal has less than 20 percent (anthracite coal sometimes even has a negligible volatile content). The
design of a combustion or gasification system depends heavily on the specific biomass material-its
morphology, moisture content, and mix of contaminants. The last determines which flue-gas cleaning
systems will be applied.
Combustion systemsbased on steam cyclesare technicallymature and commercially available.Even the
most advanced concepts (based on fluidized-bed
combustion) are technically proven.
Gasification systems are commercially available.
However, small-scale applications need much supervision and suffer from frequent interruptions.
Current development of gasification systems is directed toward increasing their performance and
reliability.
Advanced integrated gasification and combined
heat and power concepts are promising but still not
demonstrated. A demonstration plant has been built
but is not yet in full operation.
The main difficulties are in the gas-cleaning systems
(preferably at high temperatures) and meeting all
requirements set by gas-turbine manufacturers in
adapting gas turbines to low calorific gases.
The limited availability of biomass means that
small-scalepower plants will be preferred. However,
the smaller the cycle,the lower the overall efficiency.
Development work with steam cyclesaims to downgrade large steam-cycle systems to ranges between
1 and 10MWeand to increase the efficiencyof small
systems.Currently, fluidized-bed systemswithin this
range operate at mature steam conditions and reach
acceptable efficienciesof from 25 to 35 percent.

52

Comparisons have been made between gasifierlengine and steam-cycle concepts with capacities of 1
MWe. Production costs for the gasifier/engine capacities for the considered base are lower than that
of the steam cycle. However, some uncertainty is
involved in assumptions of the base case, and sensitivity analyses show that change in those assumptions is larger than the difference in costs between
the two concepts. Therefore, one cannot conclude
in general that one concept is more attractive than
the other. Rather, feasibility studies must be performed in each case to determine which system is
most suitable.
The steam cycle has a higher operational reliability
but requires higher investments. The gasifierengine
has a higher efficiency but lower reliability.
The CHP concepts for the steam cyclelead to derating maximum power output compared to pure
power generation. The derating depends on the
temperature level of the delivered steam. A CHP
concept based on the gasifierlengine concept requires no derating, but heat delivery is restricted by
the limited cooling temperature of the engine. A
common application might be heating a fluid from
700 to 1250C.
In the 5 MWe range, a steam-cycle concept and a
gasifier/STEG have been compared. The efficiency
of the gasifier/STEG is higher, but electricity production costs are comparable. The efficiency of
gasification-based systems is higher than that of
steam cycles, but the investment costs are also
higher. The steam-cycle concept is currently commercially available, whereas the gasifier STEG
demonstration phase was expected in 1995. Full
commercial availability of the STEG concept is
expected within five years.
The electricity production costs of the 5 MWe concepts are roughly 30 percent lower than those of
the 1 MWe concepts.

Energyfrom Biomass

The sensitivityto variationsin the number of annual operating hours and fuel price is lower than
that of the 1 MWeconcepts.

Theabove-mentionedconclusionsregardingelectricity production costs are only indications, as

in each case both systemsmust be specifiedand
costs analyzed.

53

References
AED. 1994. "Commercialization of Biomass
Projects: A Case Study of the Design, Development, and Application of a Biomass Gasifier to a Large Retrofit Market." Paper presented at the Sixth National Bioenergy Conference, Reno/Sparks, Nevada, October 2-6.
BTG (Biomass Energy Technologies). 1987."Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass to Energy."Prepared for UNIDO, Vienna, Austria.

Enviropower. 1995. "Biomass IGCC' Presented at

Seminar on Power Production from Biomass
II, Espoo, Finland, March 27-28. Organized
by VTT Energy, EC-DGXII, IEA Bioenergy
Agreement.
FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of the
United Nations). 1986."Wood Gas as Engine
Fuel."Forestry Paper 72. Rome, Italy.
Mukunda, H.S., and S. Dasappa. 1993."Open Top

_.___

.1993. UNDP/WB "Small-Scale Biomass Gas-

Wood Gasifiers.' In Johansson and others

ifier Monitoring Report."World BanktUNDP

Washington, D.C.

(editors), RenewableEnergy Sourcesfor Fuels

and Electricity.Washington, D.C.:Island Press.

1993."VerslagstudiereisbiomassaCFBver-

gassing in Zweden en Finland." Paper prepared for NOVEM,Utrecht, the Netherlands.

_.___

1994. "Vergassing van afval, evaluatie van de

installaties van Thermoselect en TPS/Greve/'

Paper prepared for NOVEM, Utrecht, the

Netherlands.

Th., ed. 1992. "Neue Konzepte zur

schadstoffarmen Holzenergie Nutzung'"Holz
Energie Symposium, October 23, ETH
Zurich, Switzerland.

Nussbaumer,

1994. "Neue erkenntnisse zur thermischen

Nutzung von Holz." Tagungsband zum 3

Holzenergie Symposium, October 21, ETH
Zurich, Switzerland.

. 1995. Biomass Energy Technologies. Course

manual on biomass energy technologies in

Arusha, Tanzania.

Schmidt et al. 1993. "Analysen von Biogenen

Brennstoffen." TU Wien, Austria.

. 1995a. "Estonia, Utilization of Wood and

Schlaepfer, P., and J. Tobler. 1933. "Theoretische und

Peat for Heat Supply." Paper prepared for

EBRD,London, United Kingdom.
British Coal Corporation and European Gas Turbines. 1995. "Combustion of Low Heating
Value Gas in a Gas Turbine." Presented at
Seminar on Power Production from Biomass
II, Espoo, Finland, March 27-28. Organized
by VTT Energy, EC-DGXII, IEA Bioenergy
Agreement.
El Wakil, M.M. 1985. Powerplant Technology.New
York: McGraw Hill.

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praktische Untersuchungen uber den betrieb

vonMotorfahrzeugenmitHolzgas."Berichtnr.
3 (Separatabdruckaus "Der Motorlastwagen").
Bern, Switzerland.
Swaay, W.P.M. van, F.G. van den Aarsen, A.V.
Bridgwater, and A.B.M. Heesink. 1994. "A
Review of Biomass Gasification, A report to
the European Community." DGXII JOULE
programme.
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Energyfrom Biomass

VTT Energy.1994."Flue Gas Condensingat District HeatingPlants.' IEABiomassCombustion Conference,November29, Cambridge,

UK.

55

Annex 1:Formulasfor Quantification

of
BiomassProperties
Moisture content, ash content, and heating values
maybe expressed on a wet, dry, or dry-and-ash-free
basis. This annex presents the formulas for calculating these properties on the different bases.
Moisture Content
In the following equations the different moisture
contents are given. Next to the formulas, numeric
examples are given. In the numeric examples it is
assumed that 1 kilogram of wet biomass material
(Wwm)consists of 0.80 kg dry-and-ash-free matter
(Wdaf), 0.05 kg ash (Wash) and 0.15 kg water
(WH O). Thus, Wwm= Wdaf+ Wah + WH0.
(I) Moisture content on a wet basis(MC.)

MCW=

WHO

WHZO

Wdaf + Wah + WH20

MCW=

0.15

0.80 + 0.05 + 0.15

Ash Content
The inorganic component of biofuels varies widely.
The inherent ash value, which is an integral part of
the plant structure and consists of a wide range of
elements, represents less than 0.5 percent in wood,
5 to 10percent in many agricultural crop materials,
and up to 30 to 40 percent in-for example-rice,
husks, and milfoil.
The ash content can be expressed in the way the
moisture content is expressed:on a wet and dry basis
or on a dry-and-ash-free basis. If we take the same
figure for the water, ash, and dry biomass weights
as given in chapter 2, the different ash contents will
be as shown in the equations 4, 5, and 6. In general,
the ash content is given on a dry basis.

(4) Ashcontent on a wet basis(ACw)

Wwm

W.,h

Wh

=0.15 = 15%

Wdaf+ Wah + WH20

ACw0

(2) Moisture content on a dry basis(MCd)

MCd

WH2O
Wdaf + W,.h

WH20
Wwm - Wh - WHO2

= 0.05 = 5.0%
0.80 + 0.05 + 0.15

(5) Ashcontenton a dry basis(ACJ)

Wash

0=0.17617.6%
M
0.80 + 0.05
(3) Moisturecontent on a dry-and-ash-free
basis(MCda)

Wwm

A.
ACd =

Wah

Wdaf+ Wash
__

_=

0.80+ 0.05

Wwm + WH2 O
0.059 = 5.9%

(6) Ashcontent on a dry-and-ash-free

basis
MCd.f

WH20

WH20

Wdf

WWm- Wash - WHO

0.15

=
M0daf -

MGdf

56

=0.188 =18.8%wm
0

(ACdaf)

ACd

W
Wf=

Wah

wdf

W.m - Wah - WH20

ACd = 0.05
af6~.80

= 0.063 = 6.3%

Energyfrom Biomass

Heating Values

(8) Lower heatingvalueson dry-and-ash-

If moisture content, ash content, and hydrogen content of a fuel are known, all six heating values
(LHVwLHVd,LHVdWf,HHVd,
andHHVdf)
can be derived from each other. The various formulas to calculate the higher heating values are
given in equation 7, applied to the numeric examples from chapter 1.

free, dry, and wet basis

(7) Higher heatingvalueson dry-and-ashfree,dry, andwet basis

LHVd

= 20,400 - 0.06 X 20,300 - 0.188 X 2,260

= 18,757 kJ/kg

HHVd,f= 20,400 kJ/kg

HHVd

HHVdaf X

wash

HHVdfX X

HHV 4aj X (1 - ACd)

= LHVdaf X

Waff
Wdaf + Wah

= LHVdf(

= LHVdaf X (1

Wdaf+ Wah

f X 20,300- MCaf X 2,260

LHVdaf = HHVdaf- [-

Wdaf+ Wah)

- ACd)

= 18,757 X (1 - 0.059)

\
)

LHVW

17,650 kJ/kg

= LHVdaf X

Wdaf+ Wash + WHO

= 20,400 X (1 - 0.059)
=

19,196 kJ/kg

= LHVdaf X

+ Wh + WH2 O
WWm

HHVW

= HHVdafx

LHVdaf X (1- AC,

Wdaf=

MC,)

Wdaf + Wa~h+ WHO

W""

= HHVdaf X

+ Wah + WHO=

= HHVdaf

X (1 - ACW - MCw)

= HHVdgf

X (1 - ACd) X (1 -MC,)

LHVdaf X (1 - ACd) X (1 - MCw)

=

18,757 X (1 - 0.059) X (1 - 0.15)

15,030 kllkg

= 20,400 X (1 - 0.059) X (1 - 0.15)

=

16,317 kJlkg

The lower heating values are also derived from

HHVdaf(seeequation 7), compensating HHVdaffor
energy contents of present hydrogen, and condensation of moisture. According to the example from
chapter
1, LHVdaf = 18,757 kJ/kg, LHVd
= 17,650 kJ/kg, and LHVW= 15,030 kJ/kg (with
[H]daf = 6 percent).

57

Annex2: Stoichiometric
Air Requirements
in the CombustionProcess
Amount of Air to Be Suppliedto the

Combustion
Process
For air supplya distinctioncanbe madebetween
primaryair aupplyand secondaryair supply.Primaryairissupplieddirectlyto thefuelbed,whereas
secondaryair mixeswith the volatilegasesabove
the fuelbed.

PrimaryAir
PrimaryAiris requiredforthe combustionof the
solidsin thefuelbed-for example,thenonvolatile
(or fixed)fractionof carbon,or charcoal.
The followingreactionoccurswhen charcoalis
burnedin thefuelbed:

Tocalculatetheamountof airneededfor combustion,thechemicalcomposition

ofthefuelisneeded.
In thefinalanalysis,carbon,hydrogen,oxygen,and
ash contentis determined.Theproximateanalysis
providesdata on the contentof charcoal,volatile
matter,andash.

Reaction1:1 moleC + 1 mole02

Forthe calculationwe willassumethe following

compositionof thebiomass(on a dry basis):

Thestoichiometric
amountof airneededis:
32 100.0

-_

1 moleCO2

Primaryair neededis for 1 kgof fuel:

xX 32 k2
12

xX -X-kg
e

Ultimateanalysis:
- Carbon(C) p kg/kgfuel
- Hydrogen
(H) q kg/kgfuel
- Oxygen(0)
rkg/kgfuel
- Ash:
s kg/kgfuel

* Proximateanalysis:
- Charcoal:
x kg/kgfuel
Volatiles:
y kg/kgfuel
- Ash:
skg/kgfuel

12 23.3
Includingthe excessair factorfor primaryair Xp
equation4 becomes:
X 00.0kgair

ApX x X
3

23.3

Secondary
Air
At combustionof the volatiles,two reactionsare
involved:

* Combustionis completeandthereforeno rust,

hydrocarbons,
andcarbonmonoxideareformed.
* The biomassis ovendry,and moisturecontent
is 0 percent.
* Thecompositionof airbyvolumeis 21percent
02 and 79percentN2. Byweightthe composition is23.3percent02 and76.7percentN2.

Reaction
2:Combustion
ofhydrogenfractionofthe
biomas,or

For the exercise,1 kg of biomassis burned.First,

the requiredamountof primaryair is calculated,
followedbythecaluclationofsecondary
airsupply.
Second,thecombustionproductsaredetermined.

32
qX - = 8 X q kgO2

58

2 mole H2 + 1 mole02

-e

2 mole H20

Forcombustionof 1 kgbiomass,an amountof 02

is needed:

Energy from Biomass

If it is assumed that all the oxygen present in the

biomass is used to burn the hydrogen in the biomass, this leaves an amount of oxygen needed from
the air:

The combustion products of reaction 1 are:

kg

I+

xX

Co2

X
X xx XX
: A X
N2
X 132
~~~~~N
2

kgO2
8 X q-r 8Xq-r
kgO2

76.7 kg
-X-

12

32

The stoichiometric amount of air needed for the

12: kg

(Xp-)XxXy

combustionof hydrogenis:
100.0

23.3

The combustion products of reaction 2 are:

23.3 X (8 X q - r) kg

Including the excessair factor for secondary air, X*

H20

: 9 X q kg
76.7

100.0
XSX 23.3 X (8 X q-r)

kg

Reaction 3:Combustion of the volatile carbon fraction in the biomass:

s-2
X

X q-r) kg

N2

02

: (Xs - 1) X (8 X q - r) kg

X (8

23.3

The combustion products of reaction 3 are:

1 mole C + 1 mole 02

1 mole GO2

-*

From this reaction it can be concluded that the total amount of air needed for the combustion of car-

bon in the volatilesis:

Xs X (p -x)

-X

T
23.3

N2

: ApX (p-x) X-j

(Xp - 1) X (p -x)

kgprimaryair

12

kg

CO2 :4

kg

1223X(p-1)Xx-(S-1

100.0
- x)s x

8 X q-r)

kg

Thus, by combining the three reactions, the following combustion products can be distinguished:

~~23.3

76.7
X- 2-

44

100.0
8 X 2 5 T XXp Xx

3 X (p-x)

12

32

{8

X-

32
kg

To summarize, for the combustion of 1 kg of biomass, the primary and secondary air requires:

(p -x)

kg

100.0

32
12

44
CO 2

kgsecondary air
H20:

8
:TX(Xp-l)

X x (-1

-X(p-x)

+8 X q -

kg
J

9 X q kg

CombustionProducts
The data of the previous section supply sufficient
information for determining the amount of the
combustion products generated by burning 1 kg of
biomass.The products are: CO2 , N2 , H2 0, and 02-

N
N

8
76.7 X ;
-XP3

(8

76.7 X X
23.3

X(p-x) +8 X q -

kg

59

Annex3: Conversion
of Heat into Power
An important application of thermal conversion of
biomass is to produce mechanical power from the
generated combustion heat. The effectivenessof this
conversion is governed by thermodynamic laws.
These laws say that it is impossible to convert allheat
completely into power. The limitations are quantified by the Carnot efficiency,related to a theoretical
cycle producing power from heat. When the heat is
supplied at a constant (high) temperature (Th), and
heat is releasedat a constant (low) temperature (TI),
the maximum power output is given by:
Power output = (1 - Th/Tl) x heat supply.

entrance temperature: about 1,250C in advanced

gas turbines. Therefore, the thermodynamic potential of a cyclecontaining a gas turbine is much higher
than that of just a steam cycle.
In a steam cycle the full trajectory from adiabatic
flame temperature (1,6000to more than 2,000C,
depending on the fuel) to about 560C (the temperature of the superheated steam) is not fully utilized.The heat is mainly used to evaporate the steam
at a significantly lower temperature than the superheat temperature and to superheat the steam. Reheating steam (after a first expansion stage) is a way
to supply a larger fraction of the availableheat at a
relatively high temperature, by which the overall
cycle efficiencywill increase.

In thermal conversion of biomass, chemical energy

is converted into thermal energy. The maximum
temperature that can be reached is the adiabatic
flame temperature. The hot flue gases are cooled
down, releasing heat at several temperature levels.
According to the formula for the Carnot efficiency,
the more heat that is supplied to a power generating cycle at a high temperature level, the higher the
overall performance.

An analogous principle holds for the gas-turbine

cycle. After some expansion of the flue gases, the
gases are reheated by combustion of additional fuel
in a second combustor; this heat is also supplied at
a relatively high temperature, which will increase
the overall conversion efficiency.

In a steam cycle this temperature is limited to superheater temperatures of approximately 560C in

large thermal power plants. In a gas turbine this
temperature is limited to the acceptable turbine

The general rule in optimization of cycles is to use

the available heat at the highest possible temperature and, for just power production, to release it at
the lowest possible temperature.

60

Annex4: Theoryof Gasification

A solid fuel is usually composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. In addition, there may be nitrogen, sulfur, and other trace elements.However,since
these are present only in small quantities, they will
be disregarded in the following discussion.

Equation 6

In the gasifiers considered, the biomass is heated by

combustion. The combustion gases are then reduced by being passed through a incandescent bed
of charcoal.

C + 3H2 - CH4 + H20 + 205.9 kJ/mol

C + 2H2

"

CH4

Equation 7

Equations 3 and 4 are the main reactions of the reduction stage and require heat. As a result, the tem-

In complete combustion, carbon dioxide is obtained

perature will decrease during the reduction. Equafrom the carbon, and water is obtained from the
tion 5 describes the so-calledwater-gasequilibrium.
hydroge. OFor each temperature, in theory, the ratio between
h-ydrogen.Oxygen from the fuel, of course, will be
thprdcofheonnrainfcrbno-

incorporatedin the combustionproducts, thereb

the product of the concentration of carbon mon-

Combustion, occurring in the oxidation zone, is

described by the following chemical formulas:

and hydrogen (H2 ) is fixed by the value of the water-gas equilibrium constant (Kwe).Kw,is given as:

Equation I

Equation 8
(CO) X (H120)
K = (
(C02) X (H2 )

incorporated in the combustion products. therby

decreasing the amount of combustion air needed.

C +O2 - CO2 + 401.9 kJ/mol

Equation 2
1
H + - 02 TtH2 0 + 241.1 kJ/mol

oxide (CO) and water vapor (H 2 0) and the product of the concentration of carbon dioxide (GO2)

In practice, the equilibrium of the gas will only be

reached where the reaction rate and the time for

Thus, burning 1 mole of carbon to dioxide releases

reaction are sufficient.

a heat quantity of 401.9 kj.

The reaction rate decreases with falling tempera-

The most important reactions that take place in the

reduction zone of a gasifier between the different
gaseous and solid reactants are given by:

ture. In the case of the water-gas equilibrium, the

reaction
so far below 700Cthat the equiliruIssi rate drops
ob foe?
h a opsto
librium is said to be dfrozen.'
The gas composition

Equation3

Introduction of the theory of water-gas equilibrium

provides the opportunity to calculate the gas com-

C + CO2 + 164.9 kJ/mol 2C0

Equation 4

then remainsunchanged.

Equation 5

position from a gasifier that has reached equilibrium at a given temperature. Table A4.1 presents
typical gas compositions obtained from commercialwood and charcoal downdraft gasifiersthat run
on low- to medium-moisture-content fuels (wood,

C + H2 + 42.3 kJ/mol - CO + H2 0

20 percent; charcoal, 7 percent).

C + H2 0 + 122.6 kJ/mol

CO+ H2
C

61

-gywrBn.
TableA4.1:Compositionof GasFrom CommercialWood and CharcoalGasiflers
Component
Nitrogen
Carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide
Hydrogen
Methane
Gas heating value (kJ/m3 )
Source:FAO(1986).

62

Wood gas (volume percent)

Charcoalgas (volume percent)

50-54
17-22
9-15
12-20
2-3

55-65
28-32
1-3
4-10
0-2

5,000-5,900

4,500-5,600

Annex5:Financial
Analysis
of I MWm
Systems
TableA5.1:SteamCycle(Appr.I NW, Power n at

um condense)

Unit of measure

Variant:powergeneration/vacuumcondensor
Boilerefficiency
Steam28 bar/saturated:H=
Condensor 0.2bar 60 C: H=
CondensateH=
Isentr.Enthalpydrop turbine (delta H)
Turbineisentrop.efficiency
Generatorefficiency
Electricityproduction
Heat releasecondensor
Fuel supply
Efficiencyelectricity
Efficiencyheat

Capacity1 MW.
kj/kg
kJ/kg
kJ/kg
kJ/kg
kJJkg
kJ/kg
kj/kg

0.9
2,800
2,050
251
750
0.55
0.95
392
2,157
2,832
0.14
0.76

Assumptions
Interest
Economiclifetime

%
a

8
15

Biomass fuel price

$/ton

40

Biomassmoisturecontent
Ashcontent dry basis
LHVdaf biomass(MC=O)
ActualLHV
Labor
Number fullload operation hours

%
%
MJ/kg
MJ/kg
S/app
1/a

20
1
18.5
14.2
50,000
6,000

Investment
Investmentequipment
Totalplant cost/equipment
Investmenttotal plant
Operationaldata
Capacity
Efficiencyelectricityproduction
Efficiencyheat production
Heat utilization (percentof heat produced)
Efficiencybiomassfueledheat only boiler
Labor
Maintenance(percentof investmentequipment)
Electricityproduction
Usefulheat production
Fuel consumption
Omitted fuelconsumptionheat production
Fuel consumption/kWhe

'NV/MW,,
$1,000
$1,000
MWe
%
person*a
%

MWh,/a
MWhth/a
ton/a
ton/a
kg/kWh.

2,000
2
4,000

2,000
4,000

1
0.14
0
0
0.9
1
5
6,000
0
0
0
1.84
(table continues
on foL7owing
page)

63

Energyfrom Biomass

(TableA5.1 continued)
Unit of measure
Cost
Capital cost
Fuel cost
Omitted fuel cost heat
Labor
Maintenance
Note:H-specificenthalpysteam.
Source:Author.

64

$/a

$/kWh,

467,318
440,929
0
50,000
100,000
netto

0.08
0.07
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.18

EnergyfromBiomass

Table A5.2:Steam Cycle(Appr. I MW*; CHP atm condenser)

Unit of measure
Variant:CHP atm condensor
Boilerefficiency
Steam28 bar/saturated:H=
Condensor 1 bar
CondensateH=
Isentr.Enthalpydrop turbine (deltaH)
Turbineisentrop.efficiency
Generatorefficiency
Electricityproduction
Heat releasecondensor
Fuel supply
Efficiencyelectricity
Efficiencyheat
Assumptions
Interest
Economiclifetime
Biomassfuelprice
Biomassmoisturecontent
Ashcontent dry basis
LHVdaf biomass(MC=0)
ActualLHV
Labor
Numberfull load operation hours
Investment
Investmentequipment
Totalplant cost/equipment
Investmenttotal plant
Operationaldata
Capacity
Efficiencyelectricityproduction
Efficiencyheat production
Heat utilization (percentof heat produced)
Efficiencybiomassfueled heat onlyboiler
Labor
Maintenance(percentof investmentequipment)
Electricityproduction
Usefulheat production
Fuel consumption
Omitted fuel consumptionheat production
Fuel consumption/kWhe

Capacity1 MWe
kJ/kg
kJ/kg
kJ/kg
kJ/kg
kJJkg
kJ/kg
kJ/kg

%
a
$/ton
%
%
MJ/kg
MJ/kg
$/a pp
I/a
INVIMWe
$1,000
$1,000
MWe
%
person*a
%
MWhlia
MWhth/a
ton/a
ton/a
kg/kWh,

0.9
2,800
2,240
251
560
0.57
0.95
303
2,246
2,832
0.11
0.79
8
15
40
20
1
18.5
14.2
50,000
6,000
1,900
2
3,800

2,456
4,911

0.77
0.11
0.79
75
0.9
1
5
4,643
25,789
11,023
7,284
2.37
(tablecontinuesonfollowingpage)

65

Energyfrom Biomass

(TableA5.2 continued)
Unit of measure
Cost
Capital cost
Fuel cost
Omitted fuel cost heat
Labor
Maintenance
Note:H-specific enthalpysteam.
Source:Author.

66

$/a

$/kWhe

443,978
440,929
291,356
50,000
95,000
netto

0.10
0.06
0.06
0.01
0.02
0.16

EnergyfromBiomass

TableA5.3: Gasifier/Engine
(Appr. I MW.; Powergeneratlon)
Unit of measure
Variant 1:Powergeneration
Gasifierhot gas efficiency
Gasifiercold gas efficiency
Engineefficiencyelectric
Engineefficiencyheat
Generatorefficiency
Overallelectricefficiency
Overallheat efficiency
Assumptions
Interest
Economiclifetime
Biomassfuel price
Biomassmoisture content
Ash contentdry basis
LHVdaf biomass(MC=0)

0.9
0.7
0.25
0.55
0.95
0.17
0.39
%
a
$/ton
%
%
MJ/kg

8
10
40
20
I
18.5

LHV actual

MJ/kg

14.2

Labor
Number fullload operation hours

$/a pp
1/a

50,000
6,000

Investment

Investmentequipment
Totalplant cost/equipment
Investmenttotal plant

INVIM%We

$1,000
$1,000

1,700
1.75
2,975

1,700
2,975

Operationaldata
Capacity

Efficiencyelectricityproduction
Efficiencyheat production
Heat utilization (percentof heat produced)
Efficiencybiomassfueledheat only boiler
Labor
Maintenance(percentof investmentequipment)
Electricityproduction
Usefulheat production
Fuelconsumption
Omitted fuel consumptionheat production
Fuel consumption/kWhe

Mwe

%
person*a
%
MWhe/a
MWhth/a
ton/a
ton/a
ton/MWh,

0.17
0.39
0
0.9
1
5
6,000
0
9,174
0
1.53
(tablecontinuesonfollowingpage)

67

Energyfrom Blomass

(TableA5.3 continued)
Unit of measure
Cost
Capital cost
Fuel cost
Omitted fuel cost heat
Labor
Maintenance
Note:H-specificenthalpysteam.
Source:Author.

68

$/kWhe

443,363
366,967
0
50,000
85,000
netto

0.07
0.06
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.16

EnergyfromBiomass

TableAS.4:Gasifier/Engine
(Appr. I MWe;CHP)
Unit of measure
Variant 2: CHP
Gasifier hot gas efficiency
Gasifier cold gas efficiency
Engine efficiency electric
Engine efficiency heat
Generator efficiency
Overall electric efficiency
Efficiency heat recovery gas cooling
Overall heat efficiency
Assumptions
Interest
Economic lifetime
Biomass fuel price
Biomass moisture content
Ash content dry basis
LHV daf biomass (MC=0)
LHV actual
Labor
Number full load operation hours
Investment

Investment equipment
Total plant cost/equipment
Investment total plant
Operational data
Capacity
Efficiency electricity production
Efficiency heat production
Heat utilization (percent of heat produced)
Efficiencybiomass fueled heat only boiler
Labor
Maintenance (percent of investment equipment)
Electricity production
Useful heat production
Fuel consumption
Omitted fuel consumption heat production
Fuel consumption/kWhe

0.90
0.70
0.25
0.55
0.95
0.17
0.80
0.55

%
a
$/ton
%
%
MJ/kg
MJ/kg
$/a pp
1/a

8
10
40
20
1
18.5
14.2
50,000
6,000

INV/MWe

$1,000
$1,000

Mwe

%
person*a
%
MWh/a
PWhth,/a
ton/a
tonla
ton/MWhe

1,700
1.75
2,975

1,700
2,975

1
0.17
0.55
75
0.9
1
5
6,000
14,752
9,174
4,167
1.53
(table continues onfollowingpage)

69

Enegy from Bkwno

(TableA5.4 continued)
Unit of measure
Cost
Capital cost
Fuel cost
Omitted fuel cost heat
Labor
Maintenance
Note:H-specificenthalpysteam.
Source:Author.

70

$/kWhe

443,363
366,967
166,664
50,000
85,000
netto

0.07
0.06
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.13

Annex6: Financial
Analysisof 5 MWe,
Systems
TableA6. 1:Steam Cycle(Appr. 5 MWe; Powergenertion/vacuumcondenser)
Unit of measure
Variant:power generation/vacuumcondensor
Boilerefficiency
Steam60 bar/530 C: H=
Condensor0.2 bar 60 C: H=
CondensateH=
Isentr.Enthalpydrop turbine (deltaH)
Turbineisentrop.efficiency
Generatorefficiency
Electricityproduction
Heat releasecondensor
Fuel supply
Efficiencyelectricity
Efficiencyheat
Assumptions
Interest
Economiclifetime
Biomassfuelprice
Biomassmoisturecontent
Ashcontent dry basis
LHV daf biomass(MC=o)
ActualLHV
Labor
Number full load operation hours
Investment
Investmentequipment
Totalplant cost/equipment
Investmenttotal plant
Operationaldata
Capacity
Efficiencyelectricityproduction
Efficiencyheat production
Heat utilization(percentof heat produced)
Efficiencybiomassfueled heat onlyboiler
Labor
Maintenance(percentof investmentequipment)
Electricityproduction
Usefulheat production
Fuel consumption
Omittedfuel consumptionheat production
FuelconsumptionlkWhe

Capacity5 MWe
kJ/kg
kj/kg
kJ/kg
kJ/kg
kJe/kg
kJ/kg
kJ/kg

0.9
3,500
2,225
251
1.275
0.82
0.95
993
2,256
3,610
0.28
0.62

a
$/ton
%
%
MJ/kg
$/a pp
l/a

15
40
20
1
14.2
50,000
6,000

INVIMWe

$1,000
$1,000
MWe
%
person*a
%
MWhe/a
MWhth/a
ton/a
ton/a
kg/kWh,

6,500
2
13,000

1,300
2,600

5
0.28
0
0
0.9
3
5
30,000
0
27,718
0
0.92
(tablecontinuesonfollowingpage)

71

EomBbm

(TableA6.1 continued)
Unit of measure
Cost

Capitalcost
Fuel cost
Omitted fuelcost heat
Labor
Maintenance
Note:H-specificenthalpysteam.
Source.Author.

72

$/a
1,518,784
1,108,712
0
150,000
325,000
netto

$ikWhe
0.05
0.04
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.10

rfrom

kuma

Table A6.2: SteamCycle(Appr. 5 MW*; CHP)

Unit of measure
Variant: CHP
Boiler efficiency
Steam 60 bar/530 C: H=
Condensor 1 bar 100 C: H=
Condensate H=
Isentr. Enthalpy drop turbine (delta H)
Turbine isentrop. efficiency
Generator efficiency
Electricity production
Heat release condensor
Fuel supply
Efficiency electricity
Efficiency heat
Assumptions
Interest
Economic lifetime
Biomass fuel price
Biomass moisture content
Ash content dry basis
LHV daf biomass (MC=0)
Actual LHV
Labor
Number full load operation hours

Investment
Investment equipment
Total plant cost/equipment
Investment total plant
Operational data
Capacity
Efficiency electricity production
Efficiency heat production
Heat utilization (percent of heat produced)
Efficiency biomass fueled heat only boiler
Labor
Maintenance (percent of investment equipment)
Electricity production
Useful heat production
Fuel consumption
Omitted fuel consumption heat production
Fuel consumption/kWhe

Capacity Appr. 4 MW,

kJ/kg
kJ/kg
kJ/kg
kJ/kg

kJelkg
kj/kg
kJ/kg

%
a
$/ton
%
%
MJlkg
MJ/kg
$/a pp
I/a

0.9
3,500
2,525
251
975
0.84
0.95
778
2,471
3,610
0.22
0.68

8
15
40
20
1
18.5
14.2
50,000
6,000

INVIMWe

$1,000
$1,000

MWe

%
person*a
%
MWhe/a
MWhth/a
ton/a
ton/a
kg/kWhe

6,001
2
12,001

1,532
3,064

3.9
0.22
0.68
75
0.9
3
5
23,501
55,976
27,718
15,810
1.18
(tablecontinuesonfollowingpage)

73

-nwymrmB
(TableA6.2 continued)
Unit of measure
Cost
Capitalcost
Fuel cost
Omitted fuel costheat
Labor
Maintenance
Note:H-specific enthalpysteam.
Source:
Author.

74

$/a
1,402,075
1,108,712
632,403
150,000
300,000
netto

$/kWhe
0.06
0.05
0.03
0.01
0.01
0.10

-omBbn_
TableA6.3: Gasifierand STEG(Appr. 5 MW,, PowergenerationSTEG)
Unit of measure
Variant1: STEGPowergenerationSTEG
Gasifierhot gas efficiency
Gasifiercoldgas efficiency
Engineefficiencyelectric
Engineefficiencyheat
Generatorefficiency
Overallelectricefficiency
Overallheat efficiency
Assumptions
Interest
Economiclifetime
Biomassfuelprice
Biomassmoisturecontent
Ashcontent dry basis
LHV daf biomass(MC=o)
LHV actual
Labor
Numberfull load operation hours
Investment
Investmentequipment
Totalplant cost/equipment
Investmenttotal plant
Operationaldata
Capacity
Efficiencyelectricityproduction
Efficiencyheat production
Heat utilization (percentof heat produced)
Efficiencybiomassfueledheat only boiler
Labor
Maintenance(percentof investmentequipment)
Electricityproduction
Usefulheat production
Fuelconsumption
Omittedfuel consumptionheat production
Fuel consumption/kWhe

Capacity5 MWe
0.9
0.07

0.35

%
a
$/ton
%
%
MJ/kg
MJ/kg
$/a pp
1/a
INVWMWe
$1,000
$1,000

8
15
40
20
1
18.5
14.2
50,000
6,000
7,000
2
14,000

MW.

5
0.35

0
0.9
3
5
30,000
0
21,789
0
0.73

person*a
%
MWhJa
MWhth/a
ton/a
ton/a
ton/MWhe

1,400
2,800

(tabk continuesonfollowingpage)

75

EwyronWwim

(TableA6.3 continued)
Unit of measure
Cost
Capital cost
Fuel cost
Omitted fuel cost heat
Labor
Maintenance
Note: H-specificenthalpysteam.
Source:Author.

76

$
1,635,614
871,548
0
150,000
350,000
netto

$/kWhe
0.05
0.03
0.00
0.01
0.01
0.10

omBWmass

Table A6.4:GasifierandSTEG (Appr. 5 MW.; CHP STEG)

Unit of measure
Variant 2: CHP STEG
Gasifier hot gas efficiency
Gasifier cold gas efficiency
Engine efficiency electric
Engine efficiency heat
Generator efficiency
Overall electric efficiency
Efficiency heat recovery gas cooling
Overall heat efficiency
Assumptions
Interest
Economic lifetime
Biomass fuel price
Biomass moisture content
Ash content dry basis
LHV daf biomass (MC=0)
LHV actual
Labor
Number full load operation hours
Investment
Investment equipment
Total plant cost/equipment
Investment total plant
Operational data
Capacity
Efficiency electricity production
Efficiency heat production
Heat utilization (percent of heat produced)
Efficiencybiomass fueled heat only boiler
Labor
Maintenance (percent of investment equipment)
Electricity production
Useful heat production
Fuel consumption
Omitted fuel consumption heat production
Fuel consumption/kWhe

Capacity appr. 4 MWe

0.9
0.7

0.28
0.58

%
a
$/ton
%
%
MJ/kg
MJ/kg
$/a pp
1/a
INVIMWe
$1,000
$1,000

MWe

%
personf*a
%
MWh,/a
MWhth/a
ton/a
ton/a
tonl/Mwhe

8
15
40
20
1
18.5
14.2
50,000
6,000

6,700
2
13,400

1,675
3,350

4
0.28
0.58
75
0.9
3
5
24,000
37,286
21,789
10,531
0.91
(tablecontinuesonfollowingpage)

77

from BWn

(TableA6.4 continued)
Unit of measure
Cost
Capital cost
Fuel cost
Omitted fuel cost heat
Labor
Maintenance
Note: H-specificenthalpysteam.
Source:Author.

78

$
1,565,516
817,548
421,248
150,000
335,000
netto

$/kWhe
0.07
0.04
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.10

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No. 389

International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), Planning the Management, Operation, and
Maintenance of Irrigation and Drainage Systems: A Guidefor the Preparation of Strategies and Manuals

No. 390

Foster, Lawrence, and Morris, Groundwater in Urban Development: Assessing Management Needs and
Formulating Policy Strategies

No. 391

Lovei and Weiss, Jr., Environmental Management and Institutions in OECD Countries" Lessonsfrom
Experience

No. 392

Felker, Chaudhuri, Gyorgy, and Goldman, The Pharmaceutical Industry in India and Hungary: Policies,
Institutions, and TechnologicalDevelopment

No. 393

Mohan, ed., Bibliography of Publications: Africa Region, 1990-97

No. 394

Hill and Shields, Incentivesfor Joint Forest Management in India: Analytical Methods and Case Studies

No. 395

Saleth and Dinar, Satisfying Urban Thirst: Water Supply Augmentation and Pricing Policy in Hyderabad City,
India

No. 396 Kikeri, Privatization and Labor: What Happens to Workers When Governments Divest?
No. 397

Lovei, Phasing Out Leadfrom Gasoline: Worldwide Experience and Policy Implications

No. 398 Ayres, Anderson, and Hanrahan, Setting Prioritiesfor Environmental MAnagement: An Application to the
Mining Sector in Bolivia
No. 399

Kerf, Gray, Irwin, Levesque, Taylor, and Klein, Concessionsfor Infrastructure: A Guide to Their Design and
Award

No. 401

Benson and Clay, The Impact of Drought on Sub-Saharan African Economies: A Preliminary Examination

No. 402

Dinar, Mendelsohn, Evenson, Parikh, Sanghi, Kumar, McKinsey, and Lonergan, Measuring the Impact of
Climate Change on Indian Agriculture

No. 403

Welch and Fremond, The Case-by-Case Approach to Privatization: Techniques and Examples

No. 404

Stephenson, Donnay, Frolova, Melnick, and Worzala, Improving Women's Health Services in the Russian
Federation:Results of a Pilot Project

No. 405

Onorato, Fox, and Strongman, World Bank Group Assistancefor Minerals Sector Development and Reform in
Member Countries

No. 406

Milazzo, Subsidies in World Fisheries: A Reexamination

No. 407

Wiens and Guadagni, Designing Rulesfor Demand-Driven Rural Investment Funds: The Latin American
Experience

No. 408

Donovan and Frank, Soil Fertility Management in Sub-Saharan Africa

No. 409

Heggie and Vickers, Commercial Management and Financing of Roads

No. 410

Sayeg, Successful Conversion to Unleaded Gasoline in Thailand

No. 411

Calvo, Optionsfor Managing and Financing Rural Transport Infrastructure

No. 413

Langford, Forster, and Malcolm, Toward a Financially Sustainable Irrigation System: Lessonsfrom the State of
Victoria, Australia, 1984-1994

No. 414

Salman and Boisson de Chazoumes, International Watercourses: Enhancing Cooperation and Managing
Conflict, Proceedings of a World Bank Seminar

No. 415

Feitelson and Haddad, Identification of Joint Management Structuresfor Shared Aquifers: A Cooperative
Palestinian-Israeli Effort

No. 416

Miller and Reidinger, eds., Comprehensive River Basin Development: The Tennessee Valley Authority

No. 417

Rutkowski, Welfare and the Labor Market in Poland: Social Policy during Economic Transition

No. 418

Okidegbe and Associates, Agriculture Sector Programs: Sourcebook

No. 420

Francis and others, Hard Lessons: Primary Schools, Community, and Social Capital in Nigeria

No. 424

Jaffee, ed., Southern African Agribusiness: Gaining through Regional Collaboration

No. 425

Mohan, ed., Bibliography of Publications: Africa Region, 1993-98

No. 426

Rushbrook and Pugh, Solid Waste Landfills in Middle- and Lower-Income Countries: A Technical Guide to
Planning, Design, and Operation

No. 427

Mariino and Kemper, Institutional Frameworks in Successful Water Markets: Brazil, Spain, and Colorado,USA

No. 428

C. Mark Blackden and Chitra Bhanu, Gender, Growth, and Poverty Reduction: Special Program of Assistance
for Africa, 1998 Status Report on Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa

No. 431

Severin Kodderitzsch, Reforms in Albanian Agriculture: Assessing a Sector in Transition

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