ELEN90034

Optical Networking and Design

Lecturers:
Dr. An Tran
Email: tranav@unimelb.edu.au
Mr. Trevor Anderson
Email: trevora@unimelb.edu.au
Location: NICTA, Level 2, EEE Building 193

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Contact Hours
Recommended Prerequisites:
Not required

Time & Place:

Monday 2:15 pm 5:15 pm ICT Theatre 1

Consultation:
To be determined
We do not like pop-in. If urgent, can arrange appointment.

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Course Information
References:
Optical Networks: A Practical Perspective by Rajiv Ramaswami and
Kumar Sivarajan
Ethernet Passive Optical Networks by Glen Kramer

Lecture notes
Available before the lecture.
Students encouraged to read reference texts before lecture.

Additional notes
Will provide online links to other sources of helpful learning information.

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Assessment
60% Final exam
Hurdle: need to pass exam to pass the subject

30% Mid-semester test

Tentative date: 5 Sep 2011

10% Assignments

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Subject Objectives
Develop skills and knowledge in:
Fundamental optical network elements
Optical network architectures ranging from optical access
networks to backbone optical transport networks
Approaches and methodologies of optical network design and
optimization
Techniques of optical network survivability
Problem-solving skills and critical thinking in the discipline of
optical networks

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Syllabus
Introductions to optical communications and optical
components
SDH/SONET and Gigabit Ethernet
Optical access networks (including EPON, GPON, WDM
PON)
Next-generation optical networks
Optical performance monitoring
Optical network control, management and survivability
Energy efficiency issues in networks

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

ELEN90034: Optical Networking

and Design
Lecture 1: Introduction to Optical
Communications and Optical Components

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Introduction
Recently, dramatic growth in demand for communication
capacity
Internet growing at about 50% annually
Huge bandwidth demand for new applications:
Video on demand
Peer to peer traffic
Interactive services

Speed of electronics is not increasing fast enough

Only optical systems can provide the capacity for the
future
Optical communication systems are now the preferred
technology for:
Long distance networks (undersea network, national networks)
High capacity networks (optical LAN, fibre-to-the-home)
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Electromagnetic Spectrum

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What is an Optical System?

Optical fibre communication system uses optical
frequencies (1014 Hz) as carrier frequency to carry
information
Such high carrier frequency allows modulation rates of up to 1013
bit/s
Today rates are 2.5 Gb/s and 10 Gb/s. 40 Gb/s and 100 Gb/s
are being developed

Optical signal is confined inside an optical fibre and

isolated from surrounding environment.
First-generation optical system: point-to-point, now
evolving into optical network.

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Elements of Optical System

Laser diode
Drive circuitry

Optical fibre
Optical components:
Coupler,
multiplexer/demultiplexer
Filter, isolator, circulator
Optical switches

Optical amplifier
Detector
Receiver circuitry

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Evolution of Optical Networks

LED (light-emitting diode) over
multimode fibre in 0.8 m and 1.3
m band
Fabry-Perot laser (multiple
modes) over single-mode fibre in
1.3 m band
DFB laser (single mode - reduce
dispersion) over single-mode
fibre in 1.5 m band to reduce
loss
Current system: WDM with
optical amplifier in 1.5 m band

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Example of a Wavelength-Routing
Mesh Network

Optical
crossconnect
(OXC)
Wavelength
conversion

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Coupler
A directional coupler is used to combine and split optical signals
Couplers are made by fusing 2 fibers together in the middle, called
fused fiber couplers. Can also be made from waveguides.
Design parameters:
Wavelength selective or wavelength independent
Coupling ratio
Excess loss

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Star Coupler

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Isolators
An isolator is a passive nonreciprocal device.
Lightpath can be transmitted in one direction, but not
in the opposite direction
Example of application: anti-reflection

Isolator

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Circulators
A circulator is similar to an isolator, except that it
has multiple ports, typically three or four.
Example of application: OADM

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Multiplexers and Filters

Filter: separate one
wavelength from multiple
wavelengths
Multiplexer: aggregate
multiple wavelengths in a
single output port. In
reverse direction
becomes demultiplexer
Used in wavelength
cross-connect and optical
add-drop multiplexer

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Filter Characteristics
Insertion loss: loss from
input to output
Polarisation independence
Temperature independence
Flat passband measured by
1-dB bandwidth
Sharp passband skirts (or
slope)

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Static Wavelength Crossconnect

Static wavelength crossconnect: crossconnect pattern is fixed and
cannot be changed dynamically

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Gratings
The term grating is used to describe almost any
type of device whose operation involves
interference among multiple optical signals
originating from the same source but with
different relative phase shifts
In WDM systems, gratings used as
demultiplexer/multiplexer to separate/combine
individual wavelengths

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Diffraction Gratings

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Bragg Gratings
Any periodic perturbation in the propagating
medium serves as a Bragg grating.
This perturbation is usually a periodic variation
of the refractive index of the medium

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Fibre Bragg Gratings

Gratings written in fibre using

photosensitivity of certain fibre type
Exposing silica fiber doped with
germanium to UV light causes
changes in fiber refractive index.

Advantages:
Low loss, easy of coupling,
polarisation insensitivity, low
temperature coefficient, simple
packaging
High wavelength accuracy, flat
tops, high crosstalk suppression

Applications: optical add-drop

multiplexer, dispersion compensator
ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Fabry-Perot Filters
A Fabry-Perot filter consists of a
cavity formed by two highly
reflective mirrors placed parallel
to each other
The input light beam to the filter
enters the first mirror at right
angles to its surface.
The output of the filter is the light
beam leaving the second mirror
Interference occurs within the
cavity

Advantages: can be tuned to

select different WDM
wavelengths by changing cavity
length or refractive index.
Used in Fabry-Perot lasers
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Multilayer Dielectric Thin-Film Filters

Thin-film filter is a Fabry-Perot
interferometer where mirrors are
realised using multiple reflective
dielectric thin-film layers
Act as bandpass filter, pass
through a wavelength and reflect
other wavelengths
Passthrough wavelength
determined by cavity length

Multiple cavities: flatter

passband and sharper passband
skirts

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Multilayer Dielectric Thin-Film Filters (2)

TFF cascaded to make multiplexer/demultiplexer

Each filter passes a different wavelength and reflects all others
Good temperature stability, flat passband, sharp skirts, low loss, polarisation
insensitive.

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Mach-Zehnder Interferometers
MZI: interferometric device that
makes use of two interfering
paths of different lengths to
resolve different wavelengths
MZI consists of 2 3-dB couplers
interconnected through 2
different paths
Used as
multiplexer/demultiplexer and
tunable filter by changing
temperature in one arm.

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Arrayed Waveguide Grating

AWG is a generalization of MZI
Consists of 2 multiport couplers
connected by array of
waveguides
AWG is a device where several
copies of the same signal, but
shifted in phase by different
amounts, are added together

Used as
multiplexer/demultiplexer or static
wavelength crossconnect
Temperature coefficient not low,
require active temperature control
ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Acousto-Optic Tunable Filter (AOTF)

AOTF can select several wavelengths simultaneously
Principle of operation:
Acoustic wave used to create a Bragg grating
Changing the frequency changes the grating
Tunable

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AOTF (2)

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

High Channel Count Multiplexer Architectures

Serial:
The demultiplexing is done
one wavelength at a time
The demultiplexer consists
of W filter stages in series,
one for each of the W
wavelengths
Allow pay as you grow
High loss and not scalable
Non-uniform loss across
channels
Eg: multilayer dielectric
thin-film filters
ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

High Channel Count Multiplexer Architectures (2)

Single-stage:
All the wavelengths are
demultiplexed together in a
single stage
Lower loss and better loss
uniformity
No. of channels limited by
device capability
Eg: AWG

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

High Channel Count Multiplexer Architectures (3)

Multistage banding:
Divide wavelengths into
bands
Demultiplexing done in 2
stages
Need a guard
wavelength space
between bands
More scalable

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

High Channel Count Multiplexer Architectures (4)

Multistage interleaving:
Demultiplexing done in 2
stages
First stage separates
wavelengths into odd and
even-numbered group
Second stage separates
individual wavelength
Benefit: last-stage filters
can have much wider
bandwidth, easier to be
built
Realised by using fiberbased MZI
ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Switches
Automatic provisioning of lightpath services: replacing fibre patch
panels
Protection switching in case of fiber and network failure
Packet switching: packet-by-packet
External modulation: in front of laser, switching time is fraction of
bit duration
Important parameters:

Extinction ratio: output power ratio in on and off states

Insertion loss
Crosstalk
Polarisation dependent loss

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Large Optical Switches

Considered issues
Number of switch elements required: cost and complexity
Loss uniformity
Number of crossovers
Blocking characteristics:
Nonblocking: any unused input port can be connected to any
unused output port
Strict-sense nonblocking: without requiring existing connections to be
rerouted
Wide-sense nonblocking: use particular algorithm to route without
requiring existing connections to be rerouted
Rearrangeably nonblocking: require rerouting of connections

Blocking: some interconnection pattern between unused input port

and unused output can no be realised
ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Crossbar Switch
Use 2x2 switches
Wide-sense
nonblocking
nxn crossbar switch
requires n2 2x2
switches.
Large difference
between shortest and
longest path

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Clos Switch
Strict-sense
nonblocking
Individual switch in
each stage uses
crossbar switch
Use smaller no. of
2x2 switches and
better loss uniformity

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Spanke Switch
Strict-sense
nonblocking
Use n 1xn and n nx1
switches
Use smaller no. of
switches
Low insertion and
uniform loss

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Benes Switch
Rearrangeably
nonblocking
Use smallest no. of
2x2 switches
Uniform loss
Require waveguide
crossover, hard to
fabricate

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Spanke-Benes Switch

Rearrangeably
nonblocking
Requires n stages to
realise nxn switch
No waveguide
crossover
Non-uniform loss

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Comparison of Different Switch Architectures

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Optical Switch Technologies

Bulk mechanical switches
Micro-Electro-Mechanical System (MEMS)
switches
Bubble-based waveguide switch
Liquid crystal switch
Electro-optical switch
Thermo-optic switch
Semiconductor optical amplifier switch

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Bulk Mechanical Switches

Use mechanical means to
perform switching
Eg: moving mirror, directional
coupler
Low insertion loss, low
crosstalk, inexpensive
Slow switching speed and
small no. of ports
Used in small wavelength
crossconnect for provisioning
and protection
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MEMS Switches (2D or Digital)

MEMS consists of tiny movable mirrors
Mirrors are deflected using electromagnetic, electrostatic, or
piezoelectric methods

MEMS switch

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MEMS Switches (3D or Analog)

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

MEMS Switches (3D or Analog)

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Bubble-based Waveguide Switch

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Electro-Optic Switches
Constructed using Lithium
Niobate Mach-Zehnder
Interferometer
Applying voltage to change
refractive index in coupling region
Relatively fast switching speed
Can integrate into large switches
High loss and more expensive
than mechanical switches
ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Thermo-Optic Switches

Constructed using MachZehnder Interferometer

Applying temperature to
change refractive index in
coupling region
Slow switching speed
Poor crosstalk

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Semiconductor Optical Amplifier Switches

Use semiconductor optical

amplifier as on-off device by
changing bias voltage
Large extinction ratio
Fast switching speed
SOA is expensive and
polarisation dependence

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Comparison of Different Types of Switches

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Lasers
Two types:
Semiconductor lasers use semiconductors as gain medium - most
popular type of laser due to small size and low cost
Fiber lasers use erbium-doped fiber as gain medium

Principle of operation:
Optical energy is reflected at the ends of the amplifying or gain medium
or cavity, which forms an oscillation if optical waves add in phase at the
ends (resonant wavelengths of the cavity)
The parameters of the cavity, e.g., cavity length, determines the emitting
wavelength of a laser

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Lasers (2)

Lasing threshold: beyond this, the device produces light output, even in
the absence of input signal
This is due to spontaneous emission gets amplified without input signal
and appears as light output. This is called stimulated emission.
Multiple wavelengths exist within cavity if cavity length is integral multiple
of half the wavelength.
Multiple-longitudinal mode (MLM) laser (e.g. Fabry-Perot laser): large
spectral width around 10 nm with multiple modes, not suitable for highspeed communication due to chromatic dispersion and crosstalk.
Single-longitudinal mode (SLM) laser: narrow spectral width using filtering

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DFB and DBR Lasers

FP laser: light feedback from

reflecting facets

Distributed feedback laser: light

feedback due to distributed
reflectors, provided by periodic
variation of cavity width

Reflected waves add in phase if

period of corrugation is integral
multiple of half the wavelength.

Strongest transmitted wavelength is

equal twice the corrugation period.

DFB laser: corrugation occurs within

gain region

DBR (distributed Bragg reflector)

laser: corrugation is outside gain
medium
ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

External Cavity Laser

External cavity to suppress
oscillation of other modes.
Laser oscillates only at resonant
wavelengths of both primary and
external cavities.
Diffraction gratings can be used
in external cavity. Wavelengths
reflected determined by grating
characteristic and its angle.
ECL used primarily in test
instruments and not for low-cost
transmission.
ECL cant be directly modulated
due long cavity.
ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Vertical Cavity Surface-Emitting Lasers (VCSEL)

Easy to make active layer by

depositing on semiconductor
substrate. This leads to vertical cavity
with mirrors formed on top and bottom
of semiconductor wafer. Hence named
VCSEL.

Problem with high temperature

operation.

VCSEL advantages: simpler fibre

coupling, easier packaging, easy to be
integrated into array.

0.85 m VCSEL used for shortdistance multimode fiber in optical

LAN

1.3 m and 1.5 m VCSEL being

developed for single-mode fiber
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Other Types of Lasers

Light-emitting diodes (LED)

pn-junction using spontaneous emission, no reflective facets

Broad wavelength spectrum
Low output power, cannot be directly modulated for > 100 Mb/s
Can use LED slicing provides cheap source with narrow spectral width

Tunable lasers
Important for WDM and reconfigurable network
External cavity lasers: varying angle and distance from grating to cavity
Tunable VCSELs: adjusting cavity length by applying voltage to upper
and lower mirrors
Two- and three-section DBR lasers: injecting current to change
wavelength and power

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Direct Modulation

On-off keying (OOK): light stream is

turned on and off depending on data
bit 1 or 0.

Drive current set well above

threshold for 1 bit and below
threshold for 0 bit.

Direct modulation: simple and

inexpensive.

Disadvantage: chirped pulses, where

frequency varies with time, causing
broadening of transmitted spectrum.
Chirped pulses have much shorter
transmission limit than unchirped
pulses.

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External Modulation

External modulator in front of light

source, turns light on and off. Light
source is continuously operated.
Two ways to generate RZ pulses:
Using mode-locked laser to generate
periodic pulses then standard
modulator
Using 2-stage modulator to impose
clock signals before data signals.

Two types of external modulators:

Lithium niobate modulators
Semiconductor electro-absorption
(EA) modulators: using electric field
to make material to absorb incident
photons. Easy to be integrated with
DFB lasers for compact, low-cost
solution. Chirp performance not as
good as lithium niobate modulators.
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Lithium Niobate Modulators

Use electro-optic effect: applied

voltage induces change in refractive
index of material.
Directional coupler configuration:
Apply voltage to coupling region to
change its refractive index,
Then determining how much power
coupled from input to output
waveguide

Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI):

Applying voltage so that signals in 2
arms of MZI are in phase and interfere
constructively and appear at output
When signals are out of phase, they
interfere destructively and do not
appear at output
Have higher modulation speed and
extinction ratio than directional coupler
ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Photodetectors

Principle of operation: incident photon

absorbed by electrons in valence
band, then electrons excited to
conduction band leaving a hole. When
voltage applied, electron-hole pairs
give rise to electrical current.

In practice, use semiconductor pn

junction to improve efficiency

Two types:
PIN photodiode: use intrinsic
semiconductor between pn junction
Avalanche photodiode: have higher
gain by applying higher electric field

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran

Front-End Amplifiers

Two types:
High-impedance front-end amplifier
Transimpendance front-end amplifier: higher dynamic range and better noise performance

ELEN90034 Optical Networking and Design An Tran