Guide to motors

and starting

Introduction
Electric motors are deservedly the most
popular prime movers for industry and
commerce. Compared with other sources of
mechanical power, they're inexpensive,
compact, reliable and versatile. As a result of
this popularity, millions of motors are installed
each year and, except for the very tiniest, every
one needs a starter. The manufacture of these
starters is the basis on which the control gear
industry was built, and motor starters are still
at the core of almost every control gear
supplier's business.

Introduction

Starters commonly used today, however, differ from

their predecessors. Some types, such as the faceplate
starter, have disappeared altogether. Other types,
such as primary resistance starters, are fast declining
in popularity. In addition, asynchronous induction
motors are now almost universal, virtually eliminating
the need for the specialised starters used by other
types of motor.
This supplement deals with a wide range of starting
techniques for asynchronous motors, an area where
Schneider's engineers have unrivalled expertise. The
benefits and limitations of various starting methods are
explained and, unlike some ostensibly similar
publications, the information presented is right up to
date - current, useful and practical data is presented in
a clear concise form.
Your comments on the contents of this supplement are
welcome, as are your suggestions for topics which you
would like to see covered in future issues.

The scope of this publication

Scope

This supplement has been written to provide

engineers, designers and users of motor starters with
a brief overview of current techniques to assist in their
understanding, and to help them in the design of
equipment. It by no means covers all aspects of
motor starting but, nevertheless, it deals with the vast
majority of applications likely to be encountered in
industry and commerce. For those requiring further
information, a short list of sources is included at the
end of the supplement.

Motors a few basics

Principle of operation
Three-phase asynchronous motors are, by far, the
most widely used type. The operation of this type of
motor relies upon the creation of an induced current in
a conductor which is, itself, under the influence of a
magnetic field. It is this principle of operation which
gives rise to the commonly used term "induction
motor."

Motors a few basics

The rotating magnetic field
A typical motor has three stator or field windings
which are arranged at an angle of 120 relative to each
other. These windings are fed from the three phases
of the mains supply which are, themselves, offset by
120 . This arrangement produces a rotating magnetic
field which, as it turns, tends to pull the motor's rotor
round with it.

The magnetic field rotates once during each complete cycle of the
supply current. Motor speed is, therefore, directly related to the
supply frequency (f in cycles per second or Hz), and the number of
pole pairs (p) which the motor uses. The motor's so-called
synchronous speed is given by:

Ns (in revolutions per minute) = 60f / p

The majority of motors in use are four-pole machines (2 pairs), which
have synchronous speeds of 1500 rpm at 50Hz and 1800 rpm at 60Hz.

Slip

In practice, an induction motor can never run at its

synchronous speed, since it can only generate torque if
there is an induced current in the rotor conductors. This
can only be the case if there is relative movement
between the rotor and the rotating magnetic field. The
rotor must, therefore, rotate slightly more slowly than the
field which rotates at synchronous speed. This is why
the motor is described as asynchronous.

Slip

The difference between the synchronous speed (Ns) and

the actual nominal rotor speed (Nn) is called the slip. Slip is
always expressed as a percentage of the synchronous
speed:

slip = 100(Ns - Nn)/ Ns

Motor construction
A three-phase asynchronous motor comprises two main
components, the stator and the rotor.

Motor
construction
As its name suggests, the stator is the stationary part of the motor, and
consists of a strong casing (usually manufactured from cast-iron or alloy)
into which is fixed a ring of laminated silicon steel sections. The
laminations are slotted so as to accommodate the stator windings which
create the rotating magnetic field. Each of the main windings, of which
there are three in a three-phase motor, comprises a number of coils. The
magnetic coupling of the windings is arranged to give the required
number of pole pairs (and thus synchronous speed) of the motor.
The rotor is the rotating part of the motor which drives the machine to
which it is coupled. It is similar to the stator, but is made up of a greater
number of laminated sections. Together, these form a cylinder which is
keyed to the motor shaft. There are two principle types of rotor - squirrel
cage and wound.

Motor
construction
Squirrel cage rotors are, by far, the most common. They have straight
conductors set into slots around the periphery of the rotor. These
conductors are connected together by rings at each end of the rotor, so
that their arrangement somewhat resembles a circular squirrel cage, from
which the assembly gets its name. A popular variation is the doublecage, which has two concentric cages and offers a higher starting torque
than single-cage versions. No external electrical connections can be
made to any type of squirrel cage rotor.
Wound rotors have windings similar to those used in the stator. One end
of each winding is connected to a common (star) point, and the other
ends are connected to slip rings. External connections to the rotor
windings are made via these slip rings, allowing additional resistance to
be added to the rotor circuit during starting. This enables the motor's
starting current and torque to be controlled.

Controlling speed
Varying the supply voltage alone is
a comparatively ineffective way of
controlling the speed of an
induction motor. Voltage increases
raise speed somewhat, but this
effect is limited by magnetic
saturation in the windings.
Conversely, voltage reductions
decrease speed but, again, the
range of control is very limited, and
torque is adversely affected.

motor, giving a wide range of

control over speed, without loss of
torque. With inverter drives,
standard 50Hz motors can be
operated successfully over at least
the range of supply frequencies
from 5 to 50Hz with only a slight
loss of operating torque. If
operated continuously at
frequencies of 25Hz or less, the
cooling provided by the motor's
built-in fan is likely to be
insufficient, and additional forced
cooling should be considered.

Controlling
speed

Today, the most popular method of

speed control is the use of a
variable frequency (inverter) drive.
These vary both the voltage and
frequency of the supply to the

Starting current
If a stationary squirrel cage motor
is connected directly to the supply,
it will typically draw a starting
current of 5 to 8 times its normal
full-load current (FLC). For smaller
motors, this is often acceptable,
but for large machines, or where
supply capacity is limited, some
means of reducing the starting
current becomes necessary. This
is usually done by reducing the
voltage applied to the motor during
starting. Most of the starters
described in the remainder of this
publication have been developed
specifically to limit motor starting
current.

With conventional contactor-based

starters, however, there is a
problem - reduced starting current
means reduced starting torque
which may, in some applications,
be unacceptable. This limitation is
examined in more detail in later
sections which describe particular
starter types. It is worth noting,
however, that inverters, which
control both supply frequency and
voltage, allow starting currents of
1.5 x FLC or less, while still
providing high starting torque.
When using soft starters, starting
currents are generally between 2
and 5 x FLC.

Starting
current

Summary
Three-phase asynchronous induction motors are the most
commonly used type in industry. Their speed is largely determined
by supply frequency, with voltage variations having comparatively
little effect. Connected directly to the supply, these motors have
typical starting currents of 5 to 8 x FLC. Often, starting currents
need to be reduced, and various forms of starter have been
developed to make this possible.

Starters

Starters
Motor
current

tan

eo

us

2
m
o
to
rc

ur

1.5

ot

or

r
To

qu

nt

1
0.5

Load

q
Tor

ue

Speed

Speed
0

0.25

0.50

0.75

Direct-on-line current/speed characteristics

0.25

5 6

3 4

5 6
W 6

Direct-on-line
starter diagram

2
1

1 2

M
3

re

V 4

-F1

2.5
tan

U 2

-KM1

Torque

Ins

3 4

1 2

-Q1

7
6

5/L3

1/L1

With this type of starter, the stator

windings of the motor are
connected directly to the threephase mains supply. The motor
starts and accelerates in a way
determined by its own
characteristics. Typically, the peak
starting current is between 5 and 8
times normal full-load current, and
the peak starting torque is between
0.5 and 1.5 times the motor?s
nominal operating torque.
Overloads designed to
BS EN 60947-4-1 are based on a
starting current of 7.2 times normal
full-load current.

3/L2

Direct-on-line (DOL) starters

0.50

0.75

Direct-on-line torque/speed curve

8
Although DOL starters offer a number of advantages,
including simplicity, low cost and high starting torque,
their use is limited to applications where:

low-power motors are being used,

and the supply capacity is high, so
that the starting current surge
does not adversely affect other
equipment using the same supply

Starters
DOL starters are not suitable when:

the equipment driven by the motor

is fitted with a gearbox or some
other device which will soften the
mechanical shock produced by
the high starting torque

the peak starting current would

result in a serious voltage drop on
the supply system

a high starting torque is needed for example, the equipment starts

against its full mechanical load.

the equipment being driven cannot

tolerate the effects of very high
peak torque loadings

When the limitations of DOL

starting are not acceptable, it is
necessary to use alternative
starting techniques which reduce
the peak starting current and,
therefore, the peak starting torque.
The normal approach is to arrange
for the motor to be started at
reduced voltages, and a number of
methods have been developed for
doing this.

the safety or comfort of those

using the equipment may be
compromised by sudden starting
as, for example, with escalators
and lifts

n
tio

This type of starter may only be used where access is

possible to both ends of all three stator windings. In
addition, the windings must be rated to withstand the
full supply voltage when delta-connected. With stardelta starting, the
peak starting
current
current is typically
7
between 1.5 and
6 Curre
nt
2.6 times the
in
de
lt a
5
co
normal full-load
nn
ec
current, and the
4
peak starting
3
torque is between
Current in
2
star c
0.2 and 0.5 times
onn
ect
ion
the motor's
1
nominal operating
Speed
torque.
0
0.25
0.50 0.75
1

Torque

2.5

2
(d
i re

Star-delta starters

1.5

Tor
q

u e i n de

ct

lt a

1
0.5

r
sta
e
Tor q u e in
qu
tor
d
a
Lo

0.25

0.50

Speed
0.75

Star-delta starting torque/speed

characteristics

ct)
ire
(d

On starting, the supply is first

applied to the motor with its stator
windings star-connected. As the
motor accelerates, its speed
stabilises when its developed
torque become equal to its load
torque. This usually happens at
about 75% - 80% of nominal
speed. The star contactor is then
de-energised, and the delta
contactor energised to deltaconnect the stator windings. Each
winding is now
fed with the full
supply voltage,
and the motor
adopts its normal
operating
characteristics.
-KM1

Star-delta starting
current/speed
characteristics

The run-up time with the windings

star-connected is controlled by a
timer which, typically, can be
adjusted from 0 to 30 seconds.
This timer is adjusted during
commissioning to ensure that the
star-delta changeover occurs, as
closely as possible, at the point of
torque equilibrium. The transition
time from star to delta is also
important, and a special timer is
normally used to ensure that there
is a period of between 30ms and
50ms between the opening of the
star contactor and the closing of
the delta contactor. This allows
time for any switching arcs to be
extinguished.

6
W1 6
W2

-F2

6
5
6

4
V2

U2

M1
3

4
3

1
2
1

6
5

4
3

V1 4

-KM3

U1 2

-KM2

2
1

-Q1

5/L3

3/L2

1/L1

Star-delta starter

Star-delta
starters

10

Star-delta starters are particularly suited to machines

which do not present a high load torque at start-up, or
which normally start off-load. It is also important to
note that, during the star-to-delta transition, a high
transient current is generated. If a magnetic shortcircuit protective device is to be used in the starter,
this transient must be taken into account in the
selection of the device, in order to prevent nuisance
tripping.

Star-delta
starters
Although the transient produced at the star-delta
transition is very brief, the current can be quite large
and, particularly for larger motors, some form of
current limiting may be necessary. One solution is to
introduce a delay of 1 to 2 seconds during the star-todelta transition. To avoid too large a speed drop
during the transition, however, this method can only be
used with low-inertia loads.

Primary resistance starters

Starters of this type start the motor at reduced voltage
by connecting a resistance bank in series with the
motor windings. Once the motor has run up and its
speed has stabilised, the resistance bank is shorted
out, and the motor becomes direct-connected. This
changeover is normally controlled by an adjustable
timer within the starter. Unlike star-delta starters,
primary resistance starters do not require access to
both ends of the stator windings.

Primary
resistance
starters
Values of starting current and torque are determined
by the values of the resistors used. Typically, however,
the peak starting current will be around 4.5 times
nominal full-load current, and peak starting torque will
be around 0.75 times nominal operating torque.

5L3

3L2

1L1

11

Primary resistance starting

current/speed characteristics
Torque
7

5 6

3 4

1 2

-Q1

Cu
rr

en

-KM1

to

n2

5 6

3 4

1 2

R1

R3

R5
R6

tep

wi

th

re

si s

ta

nc
e

RV

RU

th

d ir

t. s

e(

1s

nc

wi

ta

sis

-F1

on

te

re

ent

.s

ut

Cur
r

nd

2
1

Speed

R6

R2

R4

-KM11

0.25

0.50

0.75

M
3

Primary resistance starter

2.5

1.5

sistance (d
i
t re
ou
th
wi

ct)
re

Primary resistance starters are

especially suitable for applications,
such as ventilator fans, where the
load torque increases with speed.
A possible disadvantage is the high
peak current at the instant of
starting, but this can be reduced by
increasing the resistor values. Care
must be taken, however, since this
also reduces starting torque.

Torque

To
r

qu

n
e on 2

Primary
resistance
starters
1

To r
q u e on

d.

ep
st

te
.s
1 st

pw

ith

resistance

0.5

Load Torq

ue

Speed
0.25

0.50

0.75

Primary resistance
starting torque/speed
characteristics

Current

12

Auto-transformer starters

c t)
ire
(d

During the first stage, the auto-transformer is starconnected, and the line contactor is closed. This
starts the motor with a reduced voltage, the value of
which depends upon the ratio selected for the
transformer. Auto-transformers are normally
provided with taps to allow the best ratio to be
chosen during commissioning.

Cur
ren
tw
it h
ou
ta
uto
5
-tr
an
s
Cu r r e n t
o
n
1
2
4
sd
n
t. st
ep

er
rm
fo

In auto-transformer starters, the motor is started

at reduced voltage which is supplied from an
auto-transformer. The starting sequence has
three stages.

3 Current o
n 1st

. ste
p

2
1

Auto-transformer
starters
0.75

Speed
1

3/L2

3 4

5 6

6
5

5/L3

1/L1

1 2
2
1

-Q1

3
V1 2

W1 2

4 V2

6 W2

U1 2

2 U2
1

-KM2
4

-KM3

-F1

-T1
U3
V3

W3

The starting current and torque are reduced as a

function of the reduced starting and run-up voltages
(Usupply/Ustarting) 2. Typical values for peak starting
current are 1.7 to 4 times nominal full-load current
and, for peak starting torque, 0.5 to 0.85 times
nominal operating torque.

0.50

Auto-transformer starting current/speed

characteristics

In the second stage, the star connection is opened,

and the auto-transformer acts as an inductor
connected in series with the motor. This transition
is normally timed to occur when the motor speed
has stabilised at the end of the run-up period. The
third stage then follows almost immediately, and
involves shunting the transformer completely, so
that the motor is direct-connected to the supply.

0.25

Auto-transformer starting is particularly used for large

M
-KM1
motors (above 100kW), but tends to be an expensive
3
solution, largely because of the cost of the autotransformer itself. These starters may also produce a
Auto-transformer starter
current peak at
the instant when the motor is switched directly to the
Torque
supply. This peak can be minimised by careful design
of the auto-transformer, but only at the expense of
2.5
increasing the peak current at the commencement of
2
the first stage of the starting sequence.
1.5

Tor
q

p
ste
ue o
n 2 n d.
ue o 1st. step
n

Tor
q

0.5

Load Torque

0.25

0.50

0.75

Auto-transformer starting
torque/speed characteristics

13

Electronic soft starters

This relatively recently introduced
form of starter is rapidly growing in
popularity. Soft starters operate by
gradually increasing the voltage
applied to the motor, so as to
produce steady, smooth
acceleration. This technique
eliminates sudden changes in
voltage which could produce peaks
in both starting current and torque.

each set of thyristors, it is possible

to control the starting voltage and,
hence, the starting current. Note
that, unlike inverter drives, soft
starters do not vary the frequency
of the supply to the motor.

Electronic
soft starters
The steadily increasing supply
voltage for the motor during
starting is produced by a thyristor
bridge which, in each phase, has
two thyristors connected back-toback. By varying the firing angle of
Electronic
soft starter
current/speed
and
torque/speed
characteristics

2.5
2

TdB 1

TdA

control of the acceleration and

deceleration ramps of the motor in
such a way as to keep within all
required limits on current and torque

TC

TB

3
0

1A

0.25

0.50

0.75

VN

1.25

lC

1
4
2

1 ATS

2
IN

0.25

0.50

thermal overload protection for itself,

and for the motor which it is
controlling
mechanical protection for the
machine being driven, by eliminating
sudden changes in current - and,
therefore, torque - during starting
and stopping.

lB

M
3

Note: = firing angle of

thymistors

TdC

TN

TA

The detailed design of soft starters

varies from manufacturer to
manufacturer, but a representative
unit is the Telemecanique Altistart 46.
This is fitted with a six-thyristor
power-switching bridge which
allows complete control over the
starting and stopping of a threephase squirrel-cage motor. It
provides:

0.75

VN

1.25

Electronic
soft starter

14

The peak starting current may be adjusted

between 2 and 5 times nominal full-load current,
corresponding to a range of starting torques
from 0.1 to 0.7 times the starting torque which
would be produced if the motor were started
with a DOL starter.
This type of starter may be used with any
asynchronous motor. The Telemecanique Altistart may
be bypassed by a contactor at the end of the
acceleration ramp, the contactor being controlled by a
contact provided for this purpose. This will avoid
thyristor heating and losses which occur during normal
running. Even with the starter bypassed, however, the
protective devices of units rated at 18.5kW/415V and
above remain operational, thus protecting both the
starter and the motor. For smaller units, a separate
thermal overload is required. Other features which can
be provided by soft starters include controlled
deceleration, and braking to a complete stop.

Electronic

soft starters

15

Rotor resistance starters

Starters of this type can only be used with motors
having a wound rotor to which external connections
can be made, usually via slip rings. This type of motor
cannot be started direct on line because the peak
starting current at the instant that the supply is
connected would be far too high. Instead, the motor
is started with a resistance bank connected in series
with the rotor windings (NOT the stator windings, as in
primary resistance starters).
The starter is designed so that, at start-up, there is
maximum resistance in the rotor circuit. Various
sections of the resistance bank are then shorted out
progressively until, during normal running, no
resistance remains and the rotor windings are simply
star-connected.

Rotor resistance
starters
Rotor resistance
starting
current/speed
characteristics

Rotor resistance starter

Current
7
Cu

5/L3

3/L2

1/L1

2n
d.
s

tep

(s

5 6

3 4

1 2

-F1

n 1st.

1
U

ste p

om
e

t)

-KM1
Current
o

(n

ec

3
2

d ir

te

rs,

Curr
ent
on

.s

to

3rd

sis

on

re

nt

-Q1
1

rre

re

( a ll r

sis

to

e sis

rs

tors

Speed
0

0.25

0.50

0.75

1
2

R2C

-R2B

6
5

on

1 st

. st

ep

rs)

-R1C

ue

-KM11

isto

Torq

re s

1.5

rque wi
To

rs)
esiso
ut r
tho

-R1B

qu
Tor e on 2
n

2
A1
B1
C1

-R1A

2.5

-KM12

me
so
p(
ste
d.

-R2A

C2

Rotor resistance
starting
torque/speed
characteristics

Torque

A2
B2

M
3

( al

l re

sis

to

rs

0.5
Speed
0

0.25

0.50

0.75

16

For this type of motor, the torque is

virtually proportional to motor
current. A starting torque of twice
normal full-load current, therefore,
produces a starting torque which is
twice the nominal operating torque.
This is much better than a DOL
starter, where 6 x full-load current
produces only 1.5 x nominal torque
during starting. Slip-ring motors

with rotor resistance starters are,

therefore, ideal for high-inertia
loads which need to be started onload, but where the peak current
taken from the supply must be
limited. Further, the values of the
resistances and the number of
stages can be calculated so as to
match the motor characteristics to
those of the application.

Rotor
resistance

starters

Summary
The principle objective of all methods of motor starting is to match
the torque characteristics to those of the mechanical load, while
ensuring that the peak current requirements do not exceed the
capacity of the supply. Many starting methods are available, each
of which has slightly different characteristics. The following table
summarises the main characteristics for the most popular forms
of starter.

17

Selecting a starter
When choosing a starter for a particular application,
the following procedure should be used:

The power for the machine

Check that the supply line will not
installation will normally be
introduce unacceptable voltage
supplied by the Regional Electricity
drops when the peak current is
Company, and the user will need
taken. If this is a problem, the
to comply with any local
choice lies between installing
regulations. The Regional
larger cables or selecting a
Electricity Company will normally
starting method other than DOL.
limit DOL starting to a maximum
motor rating. If the motor is below
If the above conditions are all
the DOL starting limit, determine
satisfied, DOL starting will provide
the peak starting current which
an economical solution, provided
it would draw if started
that the mechanical load can
direct-on-line.
handle the peak starting torque
produced.
Check that this peak starting
current is within the capacity of
If any of the conditions are not
the supply.
satisfied, use the table to choose
an alternative method of starting.
The installation will normally be fed
Be particularly careful to ensure
from a stepdown power
that the starting torque produced
transformer. Check that the peak
by the method of starting chosen
starting current will not initiate a
is adequate for the application.
circuit breaker trip on the highvoltage (primary) side of the
transformer.

Selecting

a starter

18

Speed regulation of
asynchronous motors
While speed regulation, strictly, goes a little beyond
motor starting, the two subjects are so closely related
that a brief discussion of speed regulation is included
here for the sake of completeness.
For many years, the scope for varying the running
speed of asynchronous motors was rather restricted.
Only motors with pole-changing facilities, and those
with separate windings, were popular for applications
requiring multi-speed operation, but even these types
could only operate at one of a number of fixed speeds.

Speed

This situation changed dramatically with the

introduction of frequency inverters which allow the
running speeds of standard motors to be accurately
controlled over a wide range. Inverter technology is so
successful that AC inverter drives are now being
adopted for many applications where, in the past, only
DC machines, with their inherent ease of speed
control, would have been suitable.

regulation of

asynchronous
motors
While various methods of speed control are possible,
which use only conventional components such as
contactors and resistors, these methods are fast
becoming obsolete as they are replaced by inverter
systems. This supplement will, therefore, deal
principally with speed control by inverter.

19

The frequency inverter drive

Speed

This type of drive is intended mainly for use with three-phase squirrel
cage motors. It operates by using a technique called pulse-width
modulation (PWM) to synthesise a sinusoidal waveform, the frequency
of which can be varied, that is used to supply the motor. By varying the
frequency of the supply to the motor, the stepless motor speed
variation is possible over a wide range. Since the synthesised supply
waveform is very close to sinusoidal, smooth motor rotation is achieved
even at low speeds.

regulation of

asynchronous
motors
Inverter drive operation

The AC supply (single or three phase) to the inverter is rectified by a

full-wave diode bridge, and is used to charge the main reservoir capacitors.
This provides the system with a high-voltage DC source which is then
switched by the output power bridge to produce a pulse train made up
of precisely controlled long and short pulses. The train of pulses
produces a sinusoidal current in the motor, the voltage and frequency
of which can be accurately controlled. By retaining the correct
voltage/frequency ratio in the supply to the motor, its torque can be
maintained over a wide speed range.

Reservoir
capacitor

W
V
U

Bridge
rectifier

M
3

Transistor output
power bridge

Main circuit of a
frequency inverter

20

Summary of characteristics of various starting methods

Squirrel cage motors
Direct-on-line
starting

Star-delta
starting

Primary resistance
starting

Peak starting
Current

4 to 8 In

1.3 to 2.6 In

4.5 In

Peak starting
torque

0.6 to 1.5 Tn

0.2 to 0.5 Tn

0.6 to 0.85 Tn

Control

On or off

On or off

1 fixed step

Economic and rugged squirrel cage motor

Advantages

Simple starter
Low cost
High starting
torque

Simple, economic
starter
Good starting
torque/current
performance

Possibility of
adjusting starting
parameters
No break in supply
to motor during
starting
Good reduction in
peak transient
currents

Disadvantages

Very high starting

current and torque
Supply must
withstand peak
current
Mechanically harsh
starting sequence

Low starting
torque
Non-adjustable
starting
parameters
Break in supply to
motor leads to
severe transient
peak current

Small reduction in
peak current
Resistance bank
required

Run-up time

2 to 3 seconds

3 to 7 seconds

7 to 12 seconds

Typical
applications

Small machines
may often be
started on full-load

Machines starting
on no-load (small
centrifugal pumps,
fans, etc.)

High inertia
machines with
normal starting
current/torque
characteristics

21

Slip-ring motors
Auto-transformer
starting

Electronic
soft-starting

Variable speed
drives

Rotor resistance
starting

1.7 to 4 In

Adjustable, 2 In
to 5 In

1.8 In for 200 ms

<2.5 In

0.4 to 0.85 Tn

Adjustable, 0.1
to 0.7 Tn

1.7 Tn

<2.5 Tn

3 fixed step

Gradual

Variable

1 to 5 fixed steps

Good starting
torque/current
performance
Possibility of
adjusting starting
parameters
No break in supply
to motor during
starting

Parameters are
fully adjusted
during
commissioning
Compact
Solid state
Easily adapted to
the application

Parameters are
fully adjusted
during
commissioning
Compact
Solid state
Easily adapted to
the application
Infinitely variable
speed
In-built motor
protection
Low starting
current

Good starting
torque/current
performance
Possibility of
adjusting starting
parameters
No break in supply
to motor during
starting

Expensive autotransformer
required
Not tolerant to
supply line
transients

Can cause
interference on the
supply during
starting and
stopping

Can cause
interference on the
supply
Relatively
expensive
compared to
direct-on-line

Expensive slip-ring
motor required
Resistance bank
required

7 to 12 seconds

Adjustable, 1 to 60
seconds

0.1 to 999 seconds

3-step : 2.5s
4 and 5 step : 5s

High inertia
machines where a
reduction of
starting
current/torque is
required

Machines requiring
very smooth
starting (centrifugal
pumps and fans,
conveyors, etc.)

All machines
where speed
needs to be varied
to improve
production and
reduce mechanical
wear
Machines where
energy can be
saved by reducing
speed (centrifugal
pumps, fans, etc.)

Machines starting
on-load, where
smooth run-up is
required, etc.

22

Inverter drive applications

Frequency inverter drives are very easy to use with
standard squirrel cage motors. Their torque
capabilities allow their use with all types of load,
including those requiring very high torques. For
applications where overhauling loads may be
encountered (hoists, mechanical handling, etc.) drives
are available for four-quadrant operation. These can
control both forward and reverse (hoist and lower)
operations, and they often include a braking facility.

Inverter drive

applications
Inverter drives almost invariably incorporate electronic
protection against thermal overloads and short
circuits. This protects both the motor and the drive.
Many drives also incorporate communications
capabilities which facilitate their integration into
automated systems.

23

Variable-voltage controllers
An alternative to inverter drives, these units offer
another method of achieving motor speed control
electronically. As they are much less versatile than
frequency inverters, however, they are now declining in
popularity.

Variable voltage
The principle of operation in this type of controller is to
vary only the voltage applied to the motor. The torque
produced by an asynchronous motor is proportional to
the square of the supply voltage. This type of drive
operates by regulating the voltage such that the torque
produced just balances the load torque at the speed
required. The motor supply voltage is usually
controlled by varying the firing angle of a pair of backto-back thyristors in each phase of the supply.

controllers

The use of variable-voltage controllers is limited by the

high losses in the rotor, which occur when
asynchronous motors are operated under highslip/low-speed conditions. These drives are most
suitable for motors with ratings of 3kW or less.

Summary
The availability of inverter drives has made
variable speed operation for asynchronous
motors increasingly popular. While other
methods of speed control are available, none
offers the versatility and performance of
frequency inverters.

24

Starters by design
This supplement has dealt with the general principles
of motor starting, and it is intended as an aid to
choosing the best starting technique for a particular
application. With the starter type decided, the next
step is either to select an off-the-shelf starter, if it is a
simple standard type or, for more complex
applications, to design a suitable starter.

Starters by
design
Design guidelines for popular starter types are readily
found in the literature available from control gear
suppliers, but designers are also encouraged to talk to
their suppliers. Products and methods are constantly
evolving and, perhaps even more important, new
standards and regulations are imposing new duties
and responsibilities on designers. There is no better
way to keep up-to-date than to talk to an expert
supplier which has a strong focus in the control gear
market.

25

Further information

Further
information
In this short supplement, is has not been possible to
do more than discuss briefly the most popular
methods of starting and motor speed control. Further
information is, however, readily available.
Telemecanique, a brand of the Schneider group, offers
two invaluable publications which are particularly
relevant.

Power control and protection

components
This contains technical details and
characteristics of motor starting components
necessary for the starting methods
described in this supplement.
Practical Aspects of Industrial
Control Technology
This comprehensive and up-to-date 290-page
hardback publication is available for purchase
from Telemecanique. It provides proven
design and application information covering
both electric and electronic products for
industry, and it has substantial sections
dealing with motor starting and control.
These publications are available from:
Telemecanique
University of Warwick Science Park
Sir William Lyons Road
Coventry CV4 7EZ
Tel: (01203) 416255

Schneider Limited University of Warwick Science Park Sir William Lyons Road Coventry CV4 7EZ
Tel: 01203 416255 Fax: 01203 690209
Internet address: http://www.schneider.co.uk
GSUK 0244

MAR 98