Differential Equations. II.

Separation of Variables
A technique, called separation of variables, can be used to solve differential equations that can
be expressed in the form: f ( y ) y g ( x) .
Theorem (Separation of Variables). The solution of the differential equation
f ( y ) y g ( x)

is given implicitly by the equation

f ( y )dy g ( x)dx .
Example 1 (Using Separation of Variables). Solve: y 2 xy 2 .
Solution. Multiply the equation by 1/ y 2 to separate the variables:
1
y 2 x ,
y2
1 dy

2x ,
y 2 dx
1
dy 2 xdx ,
y2
1
y 2 dy 2 xdx .
Evaluate each indefinite integral:
1
C1 x 2 C2 .
y
Combine the two constants of integration into a single arbitrary constant:
1
x 2 C .
y
Solve for y:
1
y 2
(General solution of the given equation).
x C

In some cases the general solution obtained by the technique of separation of variables
does not include all the solutions to a differential equation. For example, the constant function
y 0 also satisfies the differential equation in Example 1. Yet the solution y 0 cannot be
obtained from the expression
1
y 2
,
x C
for any choice of the constant C. Solutions of this type are referred to as singular solutions and
are usually discussed in more advanced courses.
1

Exponential Growth
Exponential Growth Law. If the rate of change with respect to time t of a quantity y is
proportional to the amount present, then y satisfies the differential equation
dy
ky .
dt
Exponential growth includes both the case where y is increasing and the case where y is
decreasing (or decaying).

Example 2 (Product Analysis). Mothballs of a certain brand evaporate at a rate proportional to

their volume, losing half their volume every 4 weeks. If the volume of each mothball is initially
15 cubic centimeters and a mothball becomes ineffective when its volume reaches 1 cubic
centimeter, how long will these mothballs be effective?
Solution. The volume of each mothball is decaying at a rate proportional to its volume. If V is
the volume of a mothball after t weeks, then
dV
kV .
dt
Since the initial volume is 15 cubic centimeters, we know that V (0) 15 . After 4 weeks, the
volume will be half the original volume, so V (4) 7.5 . Summarizing these requirements, we
have the following exponential decay model:
dV
kV ,
dt
V (0) 15 , V (4) 7.5 .
We want to determine the value of t that satisfies the equation V (t ) 1 . First, we use separation
of variables to find the general solution of the differential equation:
dV
kV ,
dt
1 dV

k,
V dt
1
V dV kdt ,
lnV kt C (We can write lnV in place of ln | V | , since V 0 ),
V ekt C eC e kt Aekt (General solution),
where A eC is a positive constant. Now we use the initial condition to determine the value of
the constant A:
V (0) Ae0 A 15 ,

V (t ) 15e kt .
Next, we apply the condition V (4) 7.5 to determine the constant k:
7.5
V (4) 15e 4 k 7.5 , e4 k
0.5 ,
15
ln 0.5
4k ln 0.5 , k
0.1733 ,
4
V (t ) 15e( t /4) ln 0.5 (Particular solution).

To determine how long the mothballs will be effective, we find t when V 1 :

V (t ) 1 ,
1
15e(t /4) ln 0.5 1 , e( t /4) ln 0.5 ,
15
t
1
ln 0.5 ln ,
4
15
1
4 ln
15 15.6 weeks.
t
ln 0.5

Limited Growth
Limited Growth Law. If the rate of change with respect to time t of a quantity y is proportional
to the difference between y and a limiting value M, then y satisfies the differential equation
dy
k (M y) .
dt

When we speak of limited growth, we will include both the case where y increases and
approaches M from below and the case where y decreases and approaches M from above.

Example 3 (Sales Growth). The annual sales of a new company are expected to grow at a rate
proportional to the difference between the sales and an upper limit of $ 20 million. The sales are
0 initially and $ 4 million for the second year of operation.
(A) What should the company expect the sales to be during the 10th year?
(B) In what year should the sales be expected to reach $ 15 million?
Solution. If S is the annual sales (in millions of dollars) during year t, then the model for this
problem is:
dS
k (20 S ) ,
dt
S (0) 0 , S (2) 4 .
This is a limited growth model. For part (A) we want to find S (10) , and for part (B) we want to
solve S (t ) 15 for t. First, separating the variables in the equation and integrating both sides, we
obtain
1
20 S dS kdt ,
ln(20 S ) kt C (We can write ln(20 S ) in place of ln | 20 S | , since 0 S 20 ),
ln(20 S ) kt C ,
kt C
20 S e
e C e kt Ae kt ( A e C ) ,
S 20 Ae kt (General solution).
Now we use the conditions S (0) 0 and S (2) 4 to determine the constants A and k:
S (0) 20 Ae0 20 A 0, A 20 .
3

S (t ) 20 20e kt ,
S (2) 20 20e2 k 4 ,

e 2 k

16
0.8 ,
20

ln 0.8
0.1116 ,
2
S (t ) 20 20e(t /2) ln 0.8 (Particular solution).
k

(A) S (10) 20 20e5 ln 0.8 $13.45 million.

(B) S (t ) 20 20e(t /2) ln 0.8 15 ,
20e(t /2) ln 0.8 5 , e( t /2) ln 0.8

5
t
0.25 ,
ln 0.8 ln 0.25 ,
20
2

2 ln 0.25
12.43 years.
ln 0.8
The annual sales will exceed $ 15 million in the 13th year.
t

Logistic Growth
If a quantity first begins to grow exponentially but then starts to approach a limiting value, it is
said to exhibit logistic growth. More formally, we have
Logistic Growth Law. If the rate of change with respect to time t of a quantity y is proportional
to both the amount present and the difference between y and a limiting value M, then y satisfies
the differential equation
dy
ky ( M y ) .
dt

Theoretically, functions satisfying logistic growth laws can be increasing or decreasing,

just as was the case for the exponential and limited growth laws. However, decreasing functions
are seldom encountered in actual practice.

Example 4 (Population Growth). In a study of ciliate protozoans, it has been shown that the
rate of growth of the number of Paramecium caudatum in a medium with fixed volume is
proportional to the product of the number present and the difference between an upper limit of
375 and the number present. Suppose the medium initially contains 25 paramecia. After 1 hour
there are 125 paramecia. How many paramecia are present after 2 hours?
Solution. If P is the number of paramecia in the medium at time t, then the model for this
problem is the following logistic growth model:
dP
kP(375 P) ,
dt
P (0) 25 , P (1) 125 .

We want to find P (2) . First, we separate the variables and convert to an equation involving
indefinite integrals:
1
dP

k,
P(375 P) dt
1
(*)
P(375 P) dP kdt .
The integral on the left side of (*) can be evaluated by using the algebraic identity:
1
1 (a x) x 1 1
1
.

x(a x) a x(a x) a x a x
So,
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
P(375 P) dP 375 P 375 P dP 375 P dP 375 375 P dP
1
1
1
P
ln P
ln(375 P)
ln
.

375
375
375 375 P
(We can write ln P and ln(375 P) in place of ln | P | and ln | 375 P | , respectively, since
0 P 375 ).
Returning to equation (*), we have
1
P
ln
kdt kt D ,
375 375 P
P
ln
375kt 375 D ,
375 P
P
e375 kt 375 D e Bt eC , B 375k , C 375 D ,
375 P
P 375e Bt eC Pe Bt eC ,
P(e Bt eC 1) 375e Bt eC ,
375e B t eC
.
P Bt C
e e 1
Multiply numerator and denominator by e B t e C and let A e C :
375
(General solution).
P
1 Ae B t
Now we use the conditions P (0) 25 and P (1) 125 to evaluate the constants A and B:
375
375
P(0)
25, 1 A
, 1 A 15, A 14 .
1 A
25
375
P
,
1 14e B t
375
250 1
P(1)
125, 125 1750e B 375, e B
,
B
1 14e
1750 7
1
B ln ln 7, B ln 7 ,
7
375
P(t )
(Particular solution).
1 14e t ln 7
To determine the population after 2 hours, we evaluate P (2) :
375
P(2)
292 paramecia.
1 14e 2ln 7
5