CHAPTER 1 FIRST-ORDER DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS SECTION 1.1 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND MATHEMATICAL MODELING The main purpose of Section 1.1 is simply to introduce the basic notation and terminology of differential equations, and to show the student what is meant by a solution of a differential equation, Also, the use of differential equations in the mathematical modeling of real-world phenomena is outlined. Problems 1-12 are routine verifications by direct substitution of the suggested solutions into the given differential equations, We include here just some typical examples of such verifications. 3 If y=cos2x and y,=sin 2x, then y{=-2sin2x and yi =2cos 2x so {= -4dcos2x = 43, and yf = —4sin2x = -4y, Thus yf+4y, = 0 and yf+4y, = 0. 4. If y=e™ and y,=e, then y,=3e™ and y,=—3e™ so De* =9y, and 3% = 9e™ = Dy, =e". Thus tet ao yay = (etne)-(orae 8. If y=e'-e%, then y’ ys yttet, ta 6 If y= and y,=xe**, then yf= yl=-de™ +4xe™. Hence M+4yitdy, = (427 )44(-2e™)+4(e") = 0 and vita yiedy, = (de 44xe™)44(e—22e™)+4 (xe) & If y,=cosx—cos2x and y, =sinx-cos2x, then y/=—sinx+2sin 2x, yf=-cosx+4cos2x, and yj =cosx+2sin2x, yf=-sinx+4eos2x. Hence Section 1.1yy, = (—cosx+4cos2x)+(cos.x—cos2x) = 3¢os2x and 3eo82x. pit yy = (Csin x+4cos2x)+(sin x—cos2x) a x? then y’=-2x7 and y"=6x", so wf y=% aly"+Sxyit4y = x7(6x")+5x(-2x")+4(x7) = 0. 5x%4+6x"Inx, so If y=y,=a7Inx then y= Qx*Inx and y” 2 x y'sSxyltdy =o? (5x44+6x In x)+52(x -2x7inz)+4(x7In2) = (x7 454?) 4(6x7-1007 +427 )inx = 0, 13, Substitution of y=e" into 3y’=2y gives the equation 3re* = 2e” that simplifies to 3r=2. Thus r= 23. 14, Substitution of y=e into 4y"= y gives the equation 4r7e* = e” that simplifies to 41, Thus r=41/2. 15, Substitution of y=e" into y’+y"—2y = O gives the equation r7e*+re"—2e"=0 (r+ 2)(r-1) = 0. Thus r=-2 or r=1 that simplifies to. r?+7r— 16. Substitution of y=e* into 3y’+3y’~4y = 0 gives the equation 3r2e* +3re"—4e" =0 that simplifies to 3r?+3r—4 = 0, The quadratic formula then gives the solutions = (~3+V57)/6. ‘The verifications of the suggested solutions in Problems 17-36 are similar to those in Problems 1-12. We illustrate the determination of the value of C only in some typical cases, wm C=2 = Ce*=1 then ()=5 gives C-1 = 5, 50 C= 6 19. = Cet+x-l then y(0)=10 gives C-1 = 10, s0 C= 11.22, Wf Wx) = In(x+C) then (0) =0 gives inC = 0, so C = 23, Uf y(a) = tx°+C x7 then y(2)=1 gives the equation 4-32+C-4 = 1 with solution C= ~56. 4 Cs17 28. If y(x) = tan(x*+C) then y(0)=1 gives the equation tan C = 1. Hence one value of C is C=m/4 (asis this value plus any integral multiple of 7). 26. Substitution of x= and y=0 into y = (x+C)cosx yields the equation 0 = (n+C\-1), so C= 2 ysxty 28, The slope of the line through (x,y) and (x/2,0) is y’ = (y-O)/(x—x/2) = 2y/x, so the differential equation is xy’ = 2, 29. If m=,’ isthe slope of the tangent line and _m’ is the slope of the normal line at (x, y). then the relation mat’ =—1 yields m’ = 1/y' = (y-1)x—0). Solution for y’ then gives the differential equation (I-y)y’ = x. x, 80 the orthogonality relation mm’ =—1 gives 30. Here m=’ and m’=D,(? +k) the differential equation 2x’ 31. The slope of the line through (x,y) and (~y,x) is y’ = (a-y)/(~y—2), so the differential equation is (x+y)y’ = yx. In Problems 32-36 we get the desired differential equation when we replace the “time rate of change" of the dependent variable with its derivative, the word "is" with the = sign, the phrase “proportional to" with k, and finally translate the remainder of the given sentence into symbols. 32.0 dP/dt = KVP dvidt = ky BM. dv/de = k(250-v) 35, dN/dr = k(P—N) 36. dNidi = KN(P~N) Section 1.1 32) ae 3B yay ee’ 3. yaya? 40. ya) = 1 or yx) = 1 41. ye) = e/2 42. y(x} = cose or yx) = sinx 43. (a) —_y(10)=10 yields 10=1(C-10), so C=101/10. (b) There is no such value of C, but the constant function y(x)=0 satisfies the conditions “= y* and y(0)=0, (©) _Itis obvious visually that one and only one solution curve passes through each point (a,b) of the xy-plane, so it follows that there exists a unique solution to the initial value problem y"=y*, y(a}=b. 44, (b) Obviously the functions u(x)=—2x* and v(x)=-+-.* both satisfy the differential equation xy" = 4y. But their derivatives u‘(x)=-4x' and v'(x)= +42" match at x = 0, where both are zero. Hence the given piecewise-defined function y(x) is differentiable, and therefore satisfies the differential equation because a(x) and v(x) do so(for xS0 and x20, respectively). (©) If @20 (forinstance}, chose C, so that C,a* = b. Then the function cx if xs0, x)= a {cr if x20 satisfies the given differential equation for every value of C. SECTION 1.2 INTEGRALS AS GENERAL AND PARTICULAR SOLUTIONS Chapter 1This section introduces general solutions and particular solutions in the very simplest situation —a differential equation of the form _y’= f(x) — where only direct integration and evaluation of the constant of integration are involved. Students should review carefully the elementary concepts of velocity and acceleration, as well as the fps and mks unit systems. x7+x+C. Then substitution 1. Integration of y'= 2x41 yields y(x) = [2x+Idr of x=0, y=3 gives 3 = 040+C = C, so y(n) = P4243 2. Integration of y’=(a~2)* yields y(x) = f(r~2)"'dr = 4@-2)°+C. Then substitution of x=2, y=I gives 1 = 0+C = C, so y(x) = 4(x-2). 3. Integration of y’=Vx yields y(x) = freu = 4x7 +0. Then substitution of x=4, y=0 gives O=4+C, so y(x) = 3(x¥*—8), 4. Integration of y= x7 yields y(x) = [x%de = —1/x+C. Then substitution of xsl, y=5 gives 5=-1+C, so y(x) = -I/x+6. 5. Integration of y’=(x+2)"? yields w(x) = fixe 2y"? dy = 2Vx424C. Then -24C, so yx) = Wx+2-5. substitution of x=2, y=—I gives ~ 6 Integration of y’=x(x" +9)" yields y(x) = fx? +9)!dr = 40749)" 40. Then substitution of x=~4, y=0 gives 0=4(5)'+C, so ya) = HG? +9)? -125], 7. Integration of y’=10/x" +1) yields y(x) = [10427 +dx = 10tan'x+C. Then substitution of x=0, y=0 gives 0=10-0+C, so y(x) = 10tan'x. 8 Integration of y’=cos2x yields y(x) = [cos2xdx = sin2x+C. Then substitution of x=0, y=l gives 1=0+C, so y(x) = dsin2x41. fvi-x yields yon = fuviq de = sin x+C. Then sin x. 9. Integration of y" gives O=0+C, so p(x) substitution of x=0, 10, Integration of y’=xe™ yields yO) = fretde = fuetdu = w-Ne’ =~ net ee Section 1.2 5i. 13, 14, 15. 16. 17. {when we substitute u=- x and apply Formula #46 inside the back cover to the textbook). Then substitution of x=0, y=I gives 1=-1+C, so y(x) = — (et Det +2. W aft) = 50 then v(f} = [50dr = 50r+v, = 50/410. Hence x(t) = [6OL+10)di = 25174101425 = 254° 4102-410. If a(¢) = -20 then v(t) = [(-20)at = -202+y = ~20r-15. Hence x(t) = (201-15) dr= 1017 151+ x5 = =108 151-45. If a(t) = 3¢ then v(t) = [3dr = 4? 4y = p45. Hence x) = [Gr sSydr= fe sSebxy = E045 If a(t) = 2r+1 then ve) = fQreDdt = Ptttyy = 741-7. Hence t-Tdt= fe tht—Tet xy = A+ T+4 x= fe Hf a(t) = 20+] then (0) = fOr Ndr = P tery =P +t-7. Hence a(t) = Jersi-nar= Anedi— Tt Pe din Tet. If a(t) = Uvird then vin = fisvird dt = aird+C = 2rr4-S (aking C=-5 so that v(0)=-1). Hence xt) = Je frF4 = sydt = 444)? 514 = $44)? -51-% (taking C=-29/3 so that x(0)=1). If a(t) = G+)" then v() = fatN? de = HAN? +C = FEF? +g (taking C=+ sothat v(0)=0). Hence x) = f[-3G+D 7 +4 ]dr= S04 Here = [e+ te-t] Chapter 118, 19. 20. 21. 24, (aking C=-4 so that x(0)=0). If a(t) = SOsinS¢ then v(2) = [50sinS¢ dt = -10cosSi+€ = —10cos5r (taking C=O sothat (0) =—10). Hence x(1) = J(-10cossi)dr= -2sin S14 = ~2sin51+10 (aking C=—10 so that x(0)=8). v = ~9.81 +49, so the ball reaches its maximum height (v=0) after ¢= 5 seconds. Its maximum height then is y(5) = ~+4.9(5)? + 49(5) = 122.5 meters, —32t and y = -16F +400, so the ball hits the ground (y = 0) when Sssec, and then y = -32(5) =—160 fesee. @ = -10:m/s? and v9 = 100 km/h = 27.78 ns, so v = 101+ 27.78, and hence x() = ~5¢° + 27.784, The car stops when v = 0, ¢ = 2.78, and thus the distance traveled before stopping is x(2.78) = 38.59 meters, v = -9.81+ 100 and y = -4.97 + 1000+ 20. (a) v = 0 when £= 100/98 so the projectile's maximum height is y(100/9.8) = —4.9(100/9.8)" + 100(100/9.8) + 20 = 530 meters, (b) It passes the top of the building when (x) = -4.97° + 1002420 = 20, and hence after += 100/4.9 = 20.41 seconds. {c) The roots of the quadratic equation y(t) = -4.977 + 100f+20 = 0 are 1 = -0.20, 20.61. Henec the projectile is in the air 20.61 seconds. .8 m/s2 so v = -9.81—10 and y= 49P-10t+ The ball hits the ground when y = 0 and 981-10 = -60, v= so t= 5.108. Hence Yo = 4.95.10)? + 10(5.10) = 178.57 m. v = -322-40 andy = ~161"— 40¢+555, The ball hits the ground (y = 0) when £ = 4.77 sec, with velocity v = v(4.77) = ~192.64 fusec, an impact speed of about 131 mph. Section 1.22. 2B. 29, 112 P+0.6 1, (0) =0 gives 0) =0.3 7 +0.04 7. Hence Integration of dv/di (10) = 70. Then integration of dx/dr= 0.37? +0.047, x0) =0 gives x(t) = 0.1 6 +0.04 #, so x(10) = 200. Thus after 10 seconds the car has gone 200 ft and is traveling at 70 fusec. ‘Taking x = 0 and yp = 60 mph = 88 fUlsec, we get v= -at+88, and v = 0 yields ¢ = 88/a, Substituting this value of z and x = 176 in x = at /2 +881, we solve for a = 22 fsec®, Hence the car skids for 1 = 88/22 = 4 sec, 20 misee? and xp = O then the car's velocity and position at time 7 are given v = -20t+v, x = -10P + vot Itstops when v = 0 (so vy = 201), and hence when x= 75 = -10P+ (201 = 107. Thus 1 = ¥75 see 50 vy = 20V7.5 = 54.77 nsec = 197 knv/hr. Starting with x» = 0 and vo = SO km/h = 5x10* m/h, we find by the method of Problem 24 that the car's deceleration is a = (25/3)x10" nvh*. Then, starting with x0 = 0 and vp = 100knv/h = 10° mh, we substitute 1 = vo/a into x= —af + vot and find that x = 60m when v = 0, Thus doubling the initial velocity quadruples the distance the car skids. If vo = O and yy = 20 then v = at and y = —4af+20. Substitution of t= 2, y = 0 yields a = 10 ft/sec”. If vo = 0 and yo = 200 then =10¢ and y = -S5t’ +200. Chapter 13. 32. 33. MM Hence y = 0 when r= J40 = 2/10 see and v = -20910 = -63.25 fusee. On Earth: y = 3214 vp, so ¢ = vy/32 at maximum height (when v = 0). ‘Substituting this value of ¢ andy = 144 in y = -167 + vot, we solve for vp = 96 fi/sec as the initial speed with which the person can throw a ball straight upward, On Planet Gzyx: From Problem 27, the surface gravitational acceleration on planet Gzyx is a = 10 flsec*, so v= -10r+96 and SP +964. Gsec, and thence Yn = (9.6) = 460.8 ft is the its initial velocity is 96 ft/sec. Therefore v = 0 yields height a ball will reach Uf vp = 0 and yo = h then the stone’s velocity and height are given by 0.5 gP +h. ve-eh y Hence y = 0 when t= J2h/g so -gV2hlg = ~2eh. ‘The method of solution is precisely the same as that in Problem 30. We find first that, on Earth, the woman must jump straight upward with initial velocity vo = 12 ft/sec to reach a maximum height of 2.25 ft. Then we find that, on the Moon, this initial velocity yields a maximum height of about 13.58 ft v We use units of miles and hours. If xp = vo = 0 then the car's velocity and position after 1 hours are given by vea, x=if. Since v = 60 when ¢ = 5/6, the velocity equation yields @ = 72 mifhr*, Hence the distance traveled by 12:50 pm is x = (0.5)(72)(5/6)? = 25 miles. Again we have Section 1.2 9But now v = 60 when x = 35. Substitution of a = 60/t (from the velocity equation) into the position equation yields 35 = (0.5)(60A)("?) = 301, whence ¢ = 7/6 hr, that is, 1:10 p.m. 35. Integration of y’ = (9/vs)(1 4x7) yields ¥ = Gis)Bx-42°) + C, and the intial condition y{-1/2) = 0 gives C = 3/vs, Hence the swimmer’ trajectory . y@) = GhgGx-40 + 1). Substitution of y(1/2) = 1 now gives v; = 6mph. 36. Integration of y’ = 3(1 - 16x*) yields y = 3x-(48/5)x5 + C, and the intial condition (-1/2) = 0 gives C = 6/5. Hence the swimmer’ trajectory is (US\(L5x = 48x° + 6), y@) so his downstream drift is (1/2) = 2.4 miles. SECTION 1.3 SLOPE FIELDS AND SOLUTION CURVES {As pointed out in the textbook, the instructor may choose to delay covering Section 1.3 until later in Chapter 1. However, before proceeding to Chapter 2, it is important that students come to grips at some point with the question of the existence of a unique solution of a differential equation — and realize that it makes no sense to took for the solution without knowing in advance that it exists. ‘The instructor may prefer to combine existence and uniqueness by simplifying the statement of the existence-uniqueness theorem as follows: ‘Suppose that the function f(x,y) and the partial derivative df /2y are both continuous in some neighborhood of the point (a, b). Then the initial value problem 2 =fixy, la) = b 10 Chapter 1has a unique solution in some neighborhood of the point a. Slope fields and geometrical solution curves are introduced in this section as a concrete aid in visualizing solutions and existence-uniqueness questions. Solution curves corresponding to the slope fields in Problems 1-10 ate shown in the answers section of the textbook and will not be duplicated here. 11. Each isocline x1 = C isa vertical straight line. 12, Each isocline x+ y = C isa straight line with slope m = ~1, 13, Bachisoctine y* = C20, thatis, y= VC or y = —VC, is ahorizontal straight line. 34. Eachisocline {fy = C, thatis, y = C’, is ahorizontal straight line. 15. Bach isocline x = C, or y = Cy, isastraight line through the origin. 16. Each isocline x*~ y* = C is a hyperbola that opens along the x-axis if C>0, along the panis if C<0. 17. Each isoctine xy = C is a rectangular hyperbola that opens along the line y = x if C>0, along y = — if C x. Hence the theorem guarantees neither existence nor uniqueness in any neighborhood of the point x = 2. Sy) = w= y)'? and af /dy = —-(1/2)Q— yy"? are continuous in a neighborhood of (2, 1), so the theorem guarantees both existence and uniqueness of a solution in some neighborhood of x = 2. Both f(x,y) = (r= Uy and af /dy = ~~ 1)/y* are continuous near (0, 1), so the theorem guarantees both existence and uniqueness of a solution in some neighborhood of x= 0. Neither f(x,y) = @- Diy nor af/dy = 4x~1)/* is continuous near (1,0), so the existence-uniqueness theorem guarantees nothing Both f(x.) = In(i + 9%) and af /dy = 2yX1+ y*) are continuous near (0,0), so the theorem guarantees the existence of a unique solution near x = 0. Both f(y) = x7- y? and af /dy = ~2y are continuous near (0, 1), so the theorem ‘guarantees both existence and uniqueness of a solution in some neighborhood of x = 0. If f(y) = -(~ yy!" then af fay = v1 - yy"? is not continuous when y = 1, so the theorem does not guarantee uniqueness. ‘The two solutions are yy(2) = 0 (constant) and yo(x) = The isoctines of yx are the straight lines y = Cx through the origin, and y= C atpoints of y = Cx, soit appears that these same straight lines are the solution curves of xy'= y. Then we observe that there is (i) aunique one of these lines through any point not on the y-2xi (ii) no such fine through any point on the y-axis other than the origin; and (ii) infinitely many such lines through the origin. Ax) = axy!? and Of /dy = xy" are continuous if y>0, so forall @ and all b> 0 there exists a unique solution near x = a such that y(a) = b. If b = 0 then the theorem guarantees neither existence nor uniqueness. For any a, both yy(x) = 0 and yt) = G?— a")? are solutions with y(a) = 0. Thus we have existence but not ‘uniqueness near points on the x-axis, Chapter 1SECTION 1.4 SEPARABLE EQUATIONS AND APPLICATIONS. Of course it should be emphasized to students that the possibility of separating the variables is the first one you look for. The general concept of natural growth and decay is important for all 4ifferential equations students, but the particular applications in this section are optional. ‘Torricelli's law in the form of Equation (24) in the text leads to some nice concrete examples and problems. 1 ye ~ ford iny=-x +e; ye) Me = Ce? y 2 - fara; -L=-2-c; yoy =! : my ‘ Fae 3. @ 2 fsinede ny =-cosxte; yay =e = Cem e 4 ‘ se, Iny = 4ind+x)+InC; yx) = C4494 y +e 5 sin'y = VE+C y(n = sin(Ve+e) 6 * = fied afy = 22420; y(a) = (x 4c) y i. iB fax dx, dy =3x8430 yay = (2x40) y 8 cosydy = f2xdx; siny = x7+C; y¢x) = sin'(x*+C) 9. ( as je (partial fractions) Tex Tx l+x Iny = In(l+x)-In-x)+InG;— y(x) = C Section 1.3 13,re 12, 13. 14. 15, 16. 17. 18. 19, 10. dy Clit) (ey)? +x y= 212, wy = = SEE) 1+C0 +x) 14+C(1+x) 14+C(1 +x) or ade pa eS ye) = (c-#*) xd; in(y?4l) = gx tencs y+ = Ce cosxdx; $In(y*+1) = sinx+ sinydy _ (44 _in(cosx) = Hin(I+x*) +InC cosy 1+ secy = CYTE; y(a) = seo (CVI) = |tatytay = (+ xX+y) & = farnds Inflty|=etgeec ity vy = lextey oxy = dex d+y) L Jen tant y = -—-xtC, ya) = tal C- Iny = ef4InC; y(x) = Cexple") (0) =2e implies C=2 so y(x) = 2exp(e") Chapter 12, 23, 26. 21. 28, ra peas tan y = x'+C; —y(x) = tan(x?+C) {0)=1 implies C=tan"1=%/4 so y(x) = tan(x" +7274) 2ydy = | a y = VP-16+¢ VP-16" (5)=2 implies C=1 soy =1+¥P-16 SovtinC; y(x) = Cexp(x'-x) Ss f(ae-tas ny = y()=-3 implies C=-3 so y(x) = -3exp(x*-x) = fae fin(2y-1 = 2y y= implies C=e? so y(x) = H(I+e**) ‘ay 7 foes. Iny = Infsinx)+nC; ya) = Csinx sinx y= implies C=% so y(x) = Ssinx we Ji} Iny = Inxtx°+InC; yx) = Cxexpla’) = * Z a yd)=1 implies C=e" so y(x) = xexp(x7-1) dy 2 4 1 [s = ferese ys maa HEC Ma) = Fae 1 a 1 implies C=-1 so y(x) = Jerdy = foe ae, e? = 3e%+C; y(x) =In(3e*+C) y(0)=0 implies C=-2 so yz) =In(3e*-2) facet nds = [. tany = VEC, 9G) =tan"(Ve+e} Section 1.4 1529. . 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 16 y(4)=§ implies C=-1 soy) = tan” (Ve~1) “The population growth rate is k = 1n(30000/25000}/10 = 0.01823, so the population ofthe city 1 years after 1960 is given by P(t) = 250009", The expected year 2000 population is then P(40) = 25000" = 51840. ‘The popuation growth rate isk = In(6)/10 = 0.17918, so the population after t hours is given by P(t) = Pye" To find how long it takes for the population to double, we therefore need only solve the equation 2p = Rel for 1 = (n2)/0.17918 = 3.87 hours. [As inthe texthook discussion of radioactive deeay, the number of "°C atoms after # years is given by N(Q) = No 46" Hence we need only solve the equation iN, Nemes! for £ = (in 6)/0.0001216 =~ 14735 years to find the age of the skull. ‘As in Problem 31, the number of '“C atoms after # years is given Py NG) = $.0x10!7 0", Hence we need only solve the equation 4,6x10° = 5.0x10" e7""* for the age t= tn (5.0/4.6))/0.0001216 = 686 years of the relic. ‘Thus it appears not to be a genuine relic of the time of Christ 2000 years ago. “The umount in the account after 1 years is given by AC) = 5000¢8%% ‘amount in the account after 18 years is given by A(20) = 5000e%" = 21,103.48 dollars. Hence the When the book has been overdue for 1 years, the fine owed is given in dollars by A(t) = 0.302, Hence the amount owed after 100 years is given by ‘A(100) = 0.300" = 44.52 dollars. To find the decay rate of this drug in the dog's blood stream, we solve the equation 4 = e (half-life 5 hours) for k =(In2)/5 13863. Thus the amount in the dog's bloodstream after ¢ hours is given by A@) = Ae, We therefore solve the equation A(I) = Ae ome = 50x45 = 2250 for A, * 2585 mg, the amount to anesthetize the dog properly. ‘To find the decay rate of radioactive cobalt, we solve the equation 4 = ¢*7* (half-life 5.27 years) for k= (In2)/5.27 =0.13153. Thus the amount of radioactive cobalt left after ¢ years is given by AC) = A," We therefore solve the equation Chapter 137. ». al. Alt) = A,e* "== 0.014, for t= (In100)/0.13153 «35.01 and find that it will be about 35 years until the region is again inhabitable. Taking # = 0 when the body was formed and t = T now, the amount Q(¢) of 7°U in the body at time t (in years)is given by Q(t) = Que“, where & = (In 2y(4.51%10"). ‘The given information tells us that 8M _ 99 @- 2) After substituting Q(T) = Qe*™, we solve readily for e“? = 19/9, so T = (1ik)In(19/9) = 4.86x10". Thus the body was formed approximately 4.86 billion years ago, Taking ¢ = 0 when the rock contained only potassium and # = T now, the amount O) of potassium in the rock at time # (in years) is given by Q(0) = Qoe™, where & = (In 2/(1.28x10"). The given information tells us that the amount A(t) of argon at time 1 is AQ) = $10, - G00) and also that A(Z) = Q(7). Thus Q,- AT) = 9O(7). After substituting Q(7) = Q,e"” we readily solve for (In 10/1n2)(1.28%10°) = 4.25x10? ‘Thus the age of the rock is about 1.25 billion years. Because A = 0 the differential equation reduces to T’ = kT, so T(t) = 25e. The fact that 7(20) = 15 yields k = (1/20)In(5/3), and finally we solve = 25e" fort = (In Sik = 63 min. The amount of sugar remaining undissolved after t minutes is given by A(t) = Aye we find the value of k by solving the equation AC) = Ae = 0.754, for 4k =—In0.75 = 0.28768, To find how long it takes for half the sugar to dissolve, we solve the equation A(t) = Ae“ =4A, for t= (In2)/0,28768=2.41 minutes. eo". We solve (@) The light intensity at a depth of x meters is given by I(x) the equation I(x)= he =, for x= (In2)/1.4= 0,495 meters. Section 1.4 7a2. 44, 48, 46. 18 (b) —Atdepth 10 meters the intensity is 1(10) = Le" ™"? = (8.32x107)1, (© We solve the equation 1(x)= Ie" = 0.01f, for x= (In 100)/1.4 =3.29 meters. (a) The pressure at an altitude of x miles is given by p(x)=29.92e"*, Hence the pressure at altitude 10000 ft is (1000/5280) = 20.49 inches, and the pressure at altitude 30000 fi is p(30000/5280) = 9.60 inches. (b) To find the altitude where p= 15 in., we solve the equation 29.92¢°* =15 for x= (In 29.92/15) /0.2 ~3.452 miles ~ 18,200 fi. fA’ =rA4Q (b) The solution of the differential equation with A(O) = 0 is given by rA+Q = Qe". When we substituie A = 40 (thousand), r = O.11, and ¢ = 18, we find that Q = 0.70482, that is, $704.82 per year. Let N,(0) and N,(0) be the numbers of ““U and *“U atoms, respectively, at time ¢ (in je" and billions of years after the creation of the universe). Then y(t) N,(Q= Noe“, where Ng is the initial number of atoms of each isotope. Also, k=(in2)/4.51 and ¢=(In2}/0.71 from the given half-lives. We divide the equations for Nq and N, and find that when ¢ has the value corresponding to “now”, ooo 2M L377, Ns Finally we solve this last equation for ¢ = (In137.7)/(c-k) = 5.99. Thus we get an estimate of about 6 billion years for the age of the universe. The cake's temperature will be 100° after 66 min 40 sec; this problem is just like Example 6 in the text. (b) By separating the variables we solve the differential equation for e-r P(t) = (c-r Poe” With P(t) = 0 this yields Chapter 1a. 48. 49, 50. 7 Poe's (e!— 1). With Po = 10,800, ¢ = 60, and r = 0,010 we get $239.37 for the monthly payment ‘at 12% annual interest. With r = 0.015 we get $272.99 for the monthly payment at 18% annual interest. If N(Q) denotes the number of people (in thousands) who have heard the rumor after f days, then the initial value problem is N’ = kK(100-N), N(0) = 0 dt) gives and we are given that N(7) = 10. When we separate variables (dN /(100- and integrate, we get In(100—V)=—kr-+C, and the initial condition N(O) C=In100. Then 100-N =100e™, so N(¢)=100(I-e), We substinte r= 7, In(100/90)/7 = 0.01505. Finally, 50 thousand =(In2)/k = 46.05 days, N= 10 and solve for the value k people have heard the rumor after With AQ) constant, Equation (19) in the text takes the form ay D nk ae We readily solve this equation for 29 = &t+C’, The condition y(Q) = 9 yields C = 6, andthen y(1) = 4 yields k = 2. Thus the depth at time ¢ (in hours) is yi) = (3-0%, and hence ittakes 3 hours for the tank to empty. With A = 1(3)' and a = 2(1/12)?, and taking g = 32 fdsec*, Equation (20) reduces to 162’ = -Jy. The solution such that y = 9 when 1 = 0 is given by 324,fy = -t+972. Hence y = 0 when 1 = 972 sec = 16 min 12 sec. “The radius of the cross-section of the cone at height y is proportional toy, so A(y) is proportional toy". Therefore Equation (20) takes the form vy! = -kyy, and a general solution is given by ay"? = —Skt+C. ‘The initial condition y(0) = 16 yields C = 2048, andthen y(1) = 9 implies that 5k = 1562, Hence y = 0 when (= C/Sk = 2048/1562 = 1.31 hr.SI. The solution of y’ = ky is given by 2fy = +c. ‘The initial condition (0) =A (the height of the cylinder) yields C=2-Vh. Then substitution of t= 7, y=0 gives k= (2Vh)/T. It follows that y = AH). If r denotes the radius of the cylinder, then VQ) = ary = aPAL-t/T) = Vy(l-t/TY. 52. Since x = y™, the cross-sectional area is A(y) = ma? = ty"?, Hence the general equation A(y)y’ = —ay/Zgy reduces to the differential equation yy’ with general solution (IA)y? = Kt + C. ‘The initial condition y(0) = 12 gives C = 72, and then y(1) = 6 yields k = 54. ‘Upon separating variables and integrating, we find that the the depth at time 1 i MQ) = f144—1087 (0. Fence the tank is empty after ¢ = 144/108 hr, that is, at 1:20 p.m. 53. (a) _— Since x” = by, the cross-sectional area is A(y) = =x? = mby. Hence the equation A(y)y’ = —ay2gy reduces to the differential equation —(alnbyy2g yity’ =k with the general solution (213)y"? = kr + C. ‘The initial condition y(0) = 4 gives C = 16/3, andthen y(1) = 1 yields k = 14/3. It follows that the depth at time 1 is My = 8-7) {b) The tank is empty after + = 8/7 hr, that is, at 1:08:34 p.m. 20 Chapter 154, (©) Wesee above that & = (afnh) (2g = 14/3. Substitution of @ = mr’, b = 1, & = (32)(3600) fbr? yields r = (1/60) V7712 f1=0.15 in for the radius of the bottom-hole. With g = 32 fusec® and a = n(1/12)*, Equation (24) simplifies to And = -2 yy If & denotes the distance from the center of the cylinder down to the fluid surface, then y = 3-z and AQ) = 109-22)". Hence the equation above becomes ndz _ © 09-27 = Zea_p7, (9— 2°) ae 18° 2)! 180(3+ 2)""de = adi, and integration yields 120(3+2)"" = mt+C. when = 0, so C = 120(3)"*, The tank is empty when z = 3 (that is, 0) and thus after Now z when y = (120/my(6? — 3°) = 362.90 sec. In therefore takes about 6 min 3 sec for the fluid to drain completely. AG) = a(8y—y") as in Example 7 in the text, but now @ = 2/144 in Equation (24), 0 the initial value problem is 18(8y- yoy = fy, 0) = 8. We seek the value of ¢ when y = 0, The answer is 1= 869 sec = 14 min 29 sec. ‘The cross-sectional are function for the tank is A = (1—y*) and the area of the bottom-hole is @ = 10m, so Eig. (24) in the text gives the initial value problem ay = -10*ny2x98y, (0) = 1. i Simplification gives (ty) = —Laxt0*vie so integration yields Section 1.4 24157. 58. 59, 22 ay Fy = -14x10* T0146 “The initial condition y(0)= 1 implies that C = 2-2/5 = 8/5, so y=0 after 1 = (8/5)/(L.4x10~J10) = 3614 seconds. Thus the tank is empty at about 14 seconds after 2 pm. (a) Asin Example 8, the initial value problem is xey-y) 2 =aky, MO)=4 where k = 0.6r°/2¢ = 4.877. Integrating and applying the initial condition just in the Example 8 solution in the text, we find that ‘When we substitute y = 2 (ft) and r= 1800 (sec, that is, 30 min), we find that k = 0.009469. Finally, y = 0 when 1 = 48 . 3154 sec = 53 min 34 sec. 15k ‘Thus the tank is empty at 1:53:34 pm. (b) The radius of the bottom-hole is r= Vk 748 = 0.04442 ft = 0.53 in, thus about a half inch. The given rate of fall of the water level is dy/de = -4 in/ar = -(1/10800) fuse. With A = mx? and @ = mr”, Equation (24) is (ae?) 10800) = —(ar°),/2ay = —8ar? Jy. Hence the curve is of the form y = kx‘, and in order that it pass through (1,4) we must have k = 4. Comparing «fy = 2x7 with the equation above, we see that (87)(10800) = 1/2, so the radius of the bottom hole is r= 1/(240V3) ft = 1/35in. Let ¢ = 0 atthe time of death, Then the solution of the initial value problem Chapter 1T= kW0-T), TO) = 98.6 T(t) = 10+2866e" ier @ at [2 noon, then we know that T(t) = 7042862" = 80, T(a+l) = 7042866" = 75, Hence 286e" = 10 and 28.66e Itfollows that &* = 1/2, so k = In 2, Finally the first of the previous two equations yields @ = (In2.86)/(In 2) ~ 1.516 hr = 1 br 31 min, so the death occurred at 10:29 a.m. Let 1 = 0 when it began to snow, and 1 = fp at 7:00 a.m, Let x denote distance along the road, with x = 0 where the snowplow begins at 7:00 a.m. If y = ct is the snow depth at time £, w is the width of the road, and v = dv/dt is the plow’s velocity, then “plowing at a constant rate" means that the product wyv is constant. Hence our differential equation is of the form ee at The solution with x = 0 when 1 = t is b= oe Weare given that x = 2 when t= f+1 and x = 4 when t= t) +3, soit follows that tt = me* and +3 = pe. Elimination of fo yields the equation ef 36842 = (e— 1(e%—2) = 0, so it follows (since k>0) that e* = 2, Hence t+ = 2fo, som = 1. Thus it began to snow at 6am, Section 1.4 2361. Westill have 1 = & e“, but now the given information yields the conditions tl = me* and +2 = toe™ at 8am. and 9 a.m,, respectively. Elimination of ty gives the equation 2e#—e*-1 = 0, which we solve numerically for k = 0.08276, Using this value, we finally solve one of the preceding pair of equations for t = 2.5483 hr = 2-hr 33 min, Thus it began to snow at 4:27 a.m. SECTION 1.5 LINEAR FIRST-ORDER EQUATIONS w(x) = 24Ce* L peexp(fldr)= D,{y-e")=2e5 y(0)=0 implies C=-2 so yx) 2 paexp([(2drJae*s D (ye *)=3 yet =3x4C; ye) = Qx+OQe* y(0)=0 implies C=O so y(x) = xe 3, paexp([3dr)=e"% D,(y-e)=2m ye ax +E, yO) = +O (-*) D,(yat)=305 yet axle yet=xtC y@) = +O." 4 paexp{[(2ndrJ=e"s D, p=exp([(2/x)dr)=e™ =x; yx) = x+C/x7; y()=5 implies C=4 so yx) = at 4sx? 6. p=exp([(5/x)dx)=e™ = Dy )=I08; yextaa7 + yx) = 7 +C/; -(2)=5 implies C=32 so y(x) = x7 432/27 tore, D,(y-vVe)=5 y-ve=SxtC 7 pexp(J(l/2a)de 24 Chapter 110. I 22. 13. 14. 15. 16. i. ye) = Sr +Cive D.(y Vz)=4¥e; yeaa 4c p=exp([(/3ndz yOx) = 3x40x"% paexp(fCladree™ =i/x, Dy Vx)ailm yt/x=inet yx) = xInx+Cx; y()=7 implies C=7 50. y(a) = xInx4+7x paexp(f3/2x dr) =e" =, D (yx Jao 72, yer wm Mx) = 325408 peexp(fU/x-3)de)=e axe; D,(y-xe™)=0; y-xe™=C yO) = Cx%e¥; — y(l)=0 implies C=0 so y(x) = 0 (constant) D(yx)=22, yxersittc p=exp([G/ ade 6 so y(x) = be +S6x7 yx) = $2°+Cx%, y(2)=1 implies C yet abet 4c “sD, {yet p=exp(fide yx) = te'+Cet; y(0)=1 implies C=4 so yx) = det ete prexp([(3/xdeJ=e™ =x; Di (yx *)=x4) yx =n yz) = Inx+Cx; y()=10 implies C=10 so y(x) = x Inz+10x" prexp(f2xdr)=e"; D,(y-e” )= xe" yx) =44Ce"; y(0)=-2 implies C=~4 so yx) = prexp(feosxds) =e"; D,(ye*)=e cosa; yet ace yz) = 1+Ce*; — y(@)=2 implies C=1 so y(x) = L+e™ psexp(fi/d+xdr D(y-(I+x))scosx, y-(I4x)=sinx+C Section 1.5 2518. 19. 20. 21. 22. 25, 26 y(0)=1 implies C=1 so yx) p=exp(f(-2/x)dr)=e"" yx) = x°(sinx+C) p=exp(foot xdx}= ere” =sinx; D,(y:sinx)=sin xeosx x+C; ya) = fsinx+Cosex yesina, D,(y-em"" = denen" 240; ya) =-14C0"? aon y(0)=0 implies C=1 so y(x) = -1+e prexp([C3/xdrJneM™ =a; D,{y-2)=cosx: yx? =sinxtC ya) = x'sinx+Cx; y(2x)=0 implies C=0 so y(x) = x'sinx paexp([(2—3/x)dr)=e™ =x; D,(y-x 7%") = 40% yxte =2e*+C, y(x) = 2x +Cx'e™ p=exp([3x/? +4yax)= eI" = (0? 44)" —_D, (yO? +4") = x6? +4)!7 yeQt+4y?

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T,? (3) Show on the above plot how the heat flux, q1, varies with distance,PROBLEM 2.2 KNOWN: Hot water pipe covered with thick layer of insulation. FIND: Sketch temperature distribution and give brief explanation to justify shape. SCHEMATIC: Hot % 7 water pi, Te t Thsulation a fs a ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional (radial) conduction, (3) No internal heat generation, (4) Insulation has uniform properties independent of temperature and position. ANALYSIS: Fourier's law, Eq. 2.1, for this one-dimensional (cylindrical) radial system has the form dT aT er a eRe where A, = 2rré and ¢ is the axial length of the pipe-insulation system. Recognize that for steady-state conditions with no internal heat generation, an energy balance on the system requires Ij, = Eu since E, = Ey, =0 and hence q, = Constant. That is, q, is independent of radius (r). Since the thermal conductivity is also constant, it follows that a al Constant. This relation requires that the product of the radial temperature gradient, dT /dr, and the radius, r, remains constant throughout the insulation. For our situation, the temperature distribution must appear as shown in the above, right sketch. COMMENTS: (1) Note that while q, is a constant and independent of r, qr is nota constant. How does q,(r) vary with r? (2) Recognize that the radial temperature gradient, dT/dr, decreases with increasing radius.PROBLEM 2.3 KNOWN: A spherical shell with prescribed geometry and surface temperatures. FIND: Sketch temperature distribution and explain shape of the curve. SCHEMATIC: a T Spherical fe Shel Te kh Ty a Th ASSUMPTIONS; (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction in radial (spherical coordinates) direction, (3) No internal generation, (4) Constant properties, ANALYSIS: Fourier's iaw, Eq. 2.1, for this one-dimensional, radial (spherical coordinate) system has the form seaeg : MD a te =k Ay Se (4m?) SE where A, is the surface area of a sphere given as A, = 4mr?. Por steady-state conditions, an energy balance on the system requires that since By = Ey, =0, Eig = Egg and thus Qin = Gout =O F ar(r) - din yn td That is, q is a constant, independent of the radial coordinate. Since the thermal conductivity is constant, it follows that hig as Constant. This relation requires that the product of the radial temperature gradient, dT'/dr, and the radius squared, r*, remains constant throughout the shell. Hence, the temperature distribution appears as shown in the above, right sketeh. “|= COMMENTS: Note that for the above conditions, , #q,(r); that is, q, is everywhere constant. But how does q, vary as a function of radius?PROBLEM 2.4 KNOWN: Axisymmetric shape with prescribed cross-sectional area, temperature distribution and heat rate. FIND: Expression for the thermal conductivity, k- SCHEMATIC: bun. Units A ox)=(1-x) TK _— x A-m2 Lx ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction in x- direction, (3) No internal heat generation. ANALYSIS: Application of the energy balance relation, Eq. 1.118, to the system, it follows that since Ej, = Eoyt, 4x = Constant # f(x) . Using Fourier’s law, Eq. 2.1, with appropriate expressions for A, and T, yields aT Si Pa ae ae ak ft. ale So ee wy BOODW = Kk» (1 —x)m* » = [soo{1 — 2x — x4)] . Solving for k and recognizing its units are W/m * K, —6000 20 i ge te" (1 —x)|g00(-2 —3x*)) (1 — x){2 + 3x?) 4 COMMENTS: (1) Note that at x=0, k=10W/m-K and that indeed the uniis are correctly obtained. (2) Recognize that the 1-D assumption is an approximation which is more appropriate as the area change with distance x is less.PROBLEM 2.5 KNOWN: End-face temperatures and temperature dependence of k for 2 truncated cone. FIND: Variation with axial distance along the cone of qy, qy, k, and dT /dx. SCHEMATIC: 4 asdx ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in x (negligible temperature gradients along y), (2) Steady-state conditions, (3) Adiabatic sides, (4} No internal heat gencration. ANALYSIS: For the preseribed conditions, it follows from conservation of energy, Eq. 1.114, that for a differential control volume, Ejg = Bout OF Gy = Qxedx» Hence Qs is independent of x. Since A(x) increases with increasing x, it follows that qy —=q./A(x) decreases with increasing x. Since T deereases with increasing x, k inereases with increasing x. Henee, from Fourier’s law, Eq. 2.2, ” dT = -k it follows that | dT/dx | decreases with increasing x.PROBLEM 2.6 KNOWN: Temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity, k(T), for heat transfer through a plane wall. FIND: Effect of k(T) on temperature distribution, T(x). ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Steady-state conditions, (3) No internal heat generation. ANALYSIS: From Fourier's law and the form of k(T), * aT aT a, wk a (+87) (1) The shape of the temperature, distribution may be inferred from knowledge of dT /da? = d(dT/dx)/dx. Since qi is independent of x for the prescribed conditions, . d aT dqy Guts ts +a) ] =0 mth ten 28 [8 ) 2 S dx? dx Hence, . 2 k, aT =k >0 aT a aT 2 at =| wee (=] >o from which it faliows that for Tt 5 a> a>: PT /ax? = 420 >O: dT/dxs? <0 i; a=0; dT /dx? =0 T. a a<0: d*P/dxs? >0. x where the curvature for the temperature distribution T(x) is negative, zero, and positive, respectively. COMMENTS: The shape of the distribution could also be inferred from Eq. (1). Since T decreases with increasing x, a> 0: k decreases with increasing x => | dT'/dx | increases with increasing x : k=k, => dT /ds is constant a <0: k increnses with increasing x => | dT/dx | decreases with increasing xPROBLEM 2.7 KNOWN: Thermal conductivity and thickness of a one-dimensional system with no internal heat generation and steady-state conditions, FIND: Unknown surface temperatures, temperature gradient or heat flux. SCHEMATIC: Tet h ne 205m ¥ “2 PSE aT Temperature gradient 25 Wim K-merd e = ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional heat How, (2) No internal heat generation, (3) Steady-state conditions, (4) Constant properties. ANALYSIS: The rate equation and temperature gradient for this system are . aT aT T.-T; aa and g--4. (1.2) Using Eqs. (1) and (2), the unknown quantities can be determined. aT E w= A 400k =—0s 5 200% = 2000 What ce = 25 Fe x 200 = 8000 W/m". 300K “* qy(L), is duc to beat losses qr from the side of the shaft, COMMENTS: Heat loss from the side requires the existence of temperature gradients over the shaft cross-section. Hence, specifleation of T as a function of only x is an approximation.PROBLEM 2.13 KNOWN: A rod of constant thermal conductivity ‘und variable cross-sectional area Ay(x) = Acc where A, and a are constants. FIND: Expression for the conduction heat rate, qy(x): use this expression to determine the temperature distribution, Tix): and sketch of the temperature distribution, (b) Considering the presence wf volumetric heat generation rate, q= 4, exp(—ax}, obtain an expression for q,(x) when the left face, x =0, ts well insulated, SCHEMATIC: ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction in the rod, (2) Constant properties. (3) Steady-state conditions ANALYSIS: Petform an energy balance on the control volume, Atx)x, EL-E,,+E,=0 9. = Gann +4 AN) de = 0 ‘The conduction heat rate terms canbe expressed as a Taylor series and substituting expressions for q andl Aix), Eq) +4cexn-m) A, explax)=0 wi at =-baty a wt a (a) With no intemal generation, 4, = 0, and from Eq. (1) find d Big jn a) < indicating that she heal rae ts constant with x. By combining Eqy. (1) and (2) af aT aT -£{-« aunt) <0 ow Atlee, a< CominuedPROBLEM 2.13 (Cont,) ‘That is, the product of the cross-sectional area and the temperature gradient is a constant, independent of x. Hence, with T(0) > T(L), the temperature distribution 1s exponential, and as shown in the sketch above. Separating variables and integrating Eq. (3), the general form for the temperature distibution can be determined. at Ayexplax) dT = CAs expl—ax)dx T(x) =—C\A,aexp(-ax)+C, < We could use the two temperature boundary conditions, T,, = T(0) and T, = Ti). to evaluate C, and Cy and, hence obtain the temperature distribution in terms of T, and T,. (b) With the internal generation, from Eq, (1). d . gta =o or a ‘That is. the heat rate increases linearly with x COMMENTS: In part (b), you could determine the temperature distribution using Fourier’s law and knowledge of the heat rate dependence upon the x-coordinate. Give ita try!PROBLEM 2.14 KNOWN: Dimensions and end temperatures of a cylindrical rod which is insulated on its side. FIND: Rate of heat transfer associated with different rod materials. SCHEMATIC: D=25mm eee \ eee L=O.1m T,=100°C ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction along cylinder axis, (2) Steady-state conditions, (3) Constant properties. PROPERTIES: The properties may be evaluated from Tables A-) w A-3 at a mean temperature of 50°C = 323K and arc summarized below. ANALYSIS: The heat transfer rate may be obtained from Fourier’s law. Since the axial temperature gradient is linear, this expression reduces to TivTa _ | m@.025my? (100-0)°C = kA ap ROM2Smy (100-O)"C = 9.491" q iL a Sim 0.491 (mr°C)-k Cu Al StSt SiN) Qak = Magnesia Pyrex (pure) (2024) (302) (85%) k(WimK) 401 177 16.3 149 0.19 0.052 14 aw) 197 87 80 7.3 0.093 0,026 on 8 COMMENTS: The k values of Cu and Al were obtained by linear interpolation; the k value of StSt. was obtained by linear extrapolation, as was the value for SiN; the value for magnesia was obtained by linear interpolation; and the values for oak and pyrex are for 300K.PROBLEM 2.15 KNOWN: One-dimensional system with prescribed surface temperatures and thickness. FIND: Heat flux through system constructed of these materials: (a) pure aluminum, (b) plain carbon steel, (c) AISI 316, stainless steel, (d) pyroceram, (e) teffon and (F) concrete. SCHEMATIC: k++ —L=20mm Tj=S25K- Material of. known k ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction, (3) No heat generation, (4) Constant thermal properties. PROPERTIES: The thermal conductivity is evaluated st the average temperature of the system, T= (T,+T,)/2 = (325+275)K/2 = 300K. Property values and table identification are shown below. ANALYSIS: For this system, Fourier’s law can be written as ‘Substituting numerical values, the heat flux in terms of the system thermal conductivity is = TSH 20x10°m where q, will have units W/m? if k has units W/mK. The heat fluxes for each system follow. 4250054 ™ ‘Thermal conductivity Heat flux Maierial Table = k(WimK) gy (k W/m") (a) Pure aluminum Al 237 593 a (b) Plain carbon steel Al 605 151 (AISI 16, 5.5. Acl 134 33.5 (4) Pyroceram A2 3.98 9.95 (c) Teflon AB 0.35 O88 () Concrete AZ 14 35 COMMENTS: Recognize the range of thermal conduc! two decades. for these solid materials is nearlyPROBLEM 2.16 KNOWN: Different thicknesses of three materials: rock, 18 ft; wood, 15 in; and fiberglass insulation, 6 in, FIND: The insulating quality of the materials with given thicknesses as measured by the R- value. PROPERTIES: Table A-3 (300K): Material Thermal conductivity, W/mK Limestone 2.15 Softwood 0.12 Blanket (glass, fiber 10 kg/m*) 0.048 ANALYSIS: The R-value, a quantity commonly used in the construction industry and building technology, is defined as Lin) K(Buvinh fF) The R-value can be interpreted as the thermal resistance of a1 ft? cross section of the material, Using the conversion factor for thermal conductivity between the SI and English systems, the R-values are: Rock, Limestone, 18 ft: 18 fx 12S ft =i (2p! R - a js 15.5 (BuuwAhft?°F) = O.S778 Brof-ft*F a mK Wim K ft Wood, Softwood. 15 in: R= a = 18 (Brufh f?-°F)! 012 «05778 SURE Insulation, Blanket, 6 in 6in R= fief)! 0.088 0.5773 BUWROE . 2in Ran mK Wink ht COMMENT: The R-value of 19 given in the advertisement is reasonable.PROBLEM 2.17 KNOWN: Electrical heater sandwiched between two identical cylindrical (30 mm dia. » 60 mm length) samples whose opposite ends contact plates maintained at T,. FIND: (a) Thermal conductivity of $5316 samples for the prescribed conditions (A) and its average temperature, (b) Thermal conductivity of Armco iron sample for the prescribed conditions (B), (c) Comment on advantages of experimental arrangement, lateral heat losses, condition when AT; # AT. SCHEMATIC: T2T7C Ge I7C- x2 15mm sss Brien al=25.0C Heater, ale L50C 100V, SS 316 100, Armco iron SSA ahs2so = 2 601A ‘alge 150°C LeT7" axelSmm Te77C. eee Case A ear Case B ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional heat transfer in samples, (2) Steady-state conditions, (3) Negligible contact resistance between materials. PROPERTIES: Table A.2, Stainless steel 316 (T = 400 K): ky = 15.2 W/mK: Anneo iron (T = 380 KY: kigen = 71.6 WinrK. ANALYSIS: (a) Recognize that half the heater power will pass through cach of the samples which are presumed identical; see Case A above. Apply Fouricr's law to a sumple AT Ny fe gAx zs O.S(LOOV 0.353 )x0.015 m AAT (0.030 m)*/425.0°C The total temperature drop across the length of the sample is AT; (LYAx) = 25°C (60 mm/1S mm) = 100°C, Hence, the heater temperature is T, = 177°C. Thus, the average temperature of the sample is = 15.0 Wink. 4 Te(T, +T,v2 = 127°C = 400 K. a We compare this result with the tabulated valuc (see above) at 400 K und note the good agreement. (b) For the Case B arrangement, we assume that the thermal conductivity of the SS316 is the same as that found in Part (a). The heat rate through the Armee iron sample is, Continued ....PROBLEM 2.17 (Cont.) 15,0°C 0.015 m 2 hon = Ghewer ~ Gas = 100VH0,601A — 15.0 Wink ROO ar Giron = (60.1 = 10.6)W =49.5 W where ar = ky AgAT2/Ax. Applying Fourier’s law to the iron sample, Ax, GionAX2 49.5 W0015 9.9 Wink dg AcAT: (0,030 m)*/4x15.0°C ‘The total drop across the iron sample is 15°C(60/15) = 60°C; the heater temperature is (77 + 60)°C = 137°C, Hence the average temperature of the iron sample is iron = T=(137 + 77)°C/2 = 107°C = 380 K. entire block 5 Saale 1 p=3965 kg/m Heater, P(W) “Sample 2,p,=23.00°C Case A - for 0 StS Aty = 120 5, P= 15 Wy (30's) = 25.23°C Case B - fort > At,, P= 0 'W; for t » Aty, Ty(s) = 34.50°C ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional heat transfer in samples, (2) Uniform properties, (3) Perfect insulation, no losses of heater power to insulation, (4) Heater has negligible mass, ANALYSIS: Consider a control volume about the samples and heater for an interval of time t = 0 wo = and write the conservation of energy requirement, En — Fou = AE = Ej - PAs, - 0 = Mepl Tier) = Ty] Solving for ¢», substituting numerical values, and recognizing the energy in is prescribed by Caxe A power condition and the final temperature Ty by Case B, find PAY, 15 W120 5 Mi Tie) — Ty] 2.3965 kgf e+), 0607/4ym™0.010 mia3.50 - 23,007 c= > Cp = 768 kek, Gy = 400. Wine cw Gs z ey aap “FF ‘ Nf SS owt Tt agen tim . Coal, ‘ @=20 Wind wl ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Uniform volumetric heat generation. (3) Constant properties, 4) Negligible iradiation from the surroundings, and (5) Steady-state conditions PROPERTIES: Table A.3, Coal (300K): k = 0.26 Wim.K ANALYSIS: (a) For one-dimensional, steady-state conduction with uniform volumetric heat generation and constant properties the heat diffusion equation (HDE) follows from Bq, 2.16, afar) a aa eo? are Svlvtituing che temperature distribution into the HD, Bq (1. a a oy Ef Ae 2 Tisg=t [1-2] alo ¥-(0-2)|-dr=r0 23) We fn that it does inleed satisfy the HIDE for all Values of < From Eg, (2), note that the termperature distribution must be: quadratic, with maximum value at «=O. At x= 0. the heat flux is ar j=) = NaC) So that the gnidient at x =0 is ero. Hence, the bottom as insulated Is TO Ma) (b} From an overall energy balance an the pile, the conduction heat flux at the surface must be aiiLj= By = gl < ContinuedPROBLEM 2.28 (Cont.) From a surface energy balance per unit area shown in the Schematic above. EE +E=0 qiiL)-ge + G4. -E=0 L-W(T, -T,) +0956, oT! = 0 rey) 20W/m sd m= SW/m?K(T, - 298K) +0.98 «400 W/m" - 0.98% 5.6710" W/mK 7, = 2957 K=22.7C From Eg. (2) with x = 0, find 30W/m? x(tmy 20.26W/m-K where the thermal conductivity for coal was obtained ftom Table Aa. (c) Two plots are generated sing Eq, (44) and (3) forT, and Tt), respectively: (1) with h = Wim" K for 50: Gs = $00 W/m’ and (2) with Gs=400 Wim’ for S hs 50 Wim? K =61'C aoe Sie Se ereR ‘Sor aan. GS «400s eweparaivin: Ten Tha 62) Tesrpssann a6 TCD From the T vs. h plot with Gs =400 Wim’, note that the convection coefficient does not have a major influence on the surface or bottom coul pile temperaliires. From the Tvs, Gy plot with h = Win’ K, note thar the solar irradiation has a very significant effect on the temperatures. The fact that T, is Jews than the ambient air temperature, T_, und, in the case of very low cialues of Gy, below freezing. is a consequence of the large magnitude of the missive power E COMMENTS: In our analysis we ignored irradiation from the sky. an environmental radiation effect you'll consider in Chapicr 12. Treated as large isothermal surroundings, Gis, OTA, where Tuy =-30°C for very clear conditions and nearly air temperature for cloudy conditions. For low Gs conditions we should cormder Gy, the effect of which will be to predict higher values for T, and TiO),PROBLEM 2.29 KNOWN: Cylindrical system with negligible temperature variation in the r.2 directions. FIND: (a) Heat equation beginning with a properly defined control volume, {b) Temperature distribution T(@) for steady-state conditions with no internal heat generation and constant properties, (c) Heat rate for Part (b) conditions. SCHEMATIC: Tnsulation a Tgede ty yes a : ae son i * a r T % ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Tis independent of rz, (2) Ar = (tof) <1.- ANALYSIS: (a) Define the control volume as V= nd@-ArL. where L is length normal to page. Apply the conservation of energy requirement, Eq. 1.114, B= tay, aE 0 — dons HAV = pe SE (12) =-ktarL) 2 =q42. where — dg =—k(ArL) 108 Fondg = da + Fe (a9) d0.- (3.4) Eqs. (3) and (4) follow from Fourier’s law, Eq. 2.1, and from Eg. 2.7, respectively. Combining Eqs, (3) and (4) with Eq, (2) and canceling like terms, find. 1 ar »| ke oa Jeo: T;) oad COMMENTS: Note the expression for the temperature gradient in Fourier’s law, Eq. (3), is OT/,96 not JT/d9. For the conditions of Part (b) and (c), note that q(6) is independent of @; this is first noted in Eq. (6) and finally confirmed in Eq. (9),PROBLEM 3.1 KNOWN: One-dimensional, plane wall separating hot and cold fluids at Ty, and Too.a, respectively. FIND: ‘Temperature distribution, T(x), and heat flux, q5, in terms of Tao.) Tox,2, bys thy, k and L. SCHEMATIC: Cat) thaid ) 9 Toon Teo, he if ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction, (2) Steady-state conditions, (3) Constant properties, (4) Negligible radiation, (5) No generation. ANALYSIS: For the foregoing conditions, the general solution to the beat diffusion ‘equation is of the form, Equation 3.2, Tx) = Cx +C;,. (1) The constants of integration, C, and Cy, are determined by using surface energy balance conditions at x=0 and x=L, Equation 2.23, and as illustrated above, aT aT Rae: 1 = T(0)) a] st hITL)-To2]. (2,3) a= ak For the BC at x=0, Equation (2), use Equation (1) to find k (C) +0) = by [Teer — (Gr0 + €3)) (4) and for the BC at x=L. to find k (C) +0) = hy (Cb + Cz) — Tea » (8) Multiply Eq. (4) by hy and Eq. (5) by hy, add the equations ta obtain C,, Then substitute C, into Eq. (4) to obtain C,. The results are (Teot — Tosia) (Tas.a — Tose) 1 1 L uf i 7 C=— + Te,y From Fourier's law, the beat flux is a constant and of the form (Tet = Tre,2) a: -« 2 =k 0, = +——__——_.. 5 444 +4] by hp kPROBLEM 3.2 KNOWN: Temperatures and convection coefficients associated with air at the inner and outer surfaces ‘of a rear window FIND: ¢) Inner and outer window surface temperatures. T,, and T,.. and (bi T., and T,. the outside uit temperature T_, and for selected values of outer convection coefficient. h SCHEMATIC: Glass — 8a tunchion of Togt-t0°c t1+ Teo ho = 65 Wim K tL =0.004m—-—__. ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions. (2) One-dimensional canduetion. (3) Negligible radiation effects, 4) Constant properties. PROPERTIES: Tabie A-3. Glass (300 Ky: k = 1.4 Wim-K. ANALYSIS: (4) The heat flux may he obtained from Eqs, 3.11 and 3.12, ac Tei Te 40°C ~(-10°C) a Aaa SO 6sWoreK 14WimeK 30 30°C i = OSE Ua = es WY "(001s = 00029-ooRs Rw Om Hence. with q” = h,(T,,—"T,,,). the inner surface temperature is T, : < Similarly for the outer surface temperature with q” =bh,(T,,—T..,,) find a ve 968 W im? =T,,--=-l0'e- =a7c < Tat h, Z 6SW mK (bi Using the same analysts, T,, and T,,, have been computed and plotted asa function of the outside air lemperature. T._,. for outer convection coefficients of h.= 2. 65. and 100 WimK. As expected, T,,.and T, are linear with changes in the outside air temperature, The difference between T,, and T,, increases Wath increasing convection coefficient. since the heat flux through the window likewise increases, This difference is larger at lower outside air temperatures for the same reason. Note that with h. Wim kK. T,, + T, 18 tao small to show on the plotPROBLEM 3.2 (Cont) COMMENTS: (1) The largest resistance is that associated with convection af the inner surface. The values of T,, and T,. could be increased by increasing the value of hy, (2) The JHT Thermal Resistance Network Model way used to create a model of the window and generate the ubove plot The Workspace is shown below — = Si Se Se Oe, {Heat rales ano noge |i, through inermat resistance Fi ete (Te THY AZ 2 « (79 Ta! Rae 98 « (Ta TH RAS “Noga energy atances ats gat =o m2 0d! +aaz =o 93° GH? + a8} = 0 a kde (7 Aumgned varabian hist: dasaiact me oy, A and T) Wich ave unknowns. set. = 0 for embedded nodal points atwhch inera.@ no extemal source of Peat”) The Tad © Qutnato aw temperature. C vig = We mat rate, Tex Teo © Outer suriace temperature: C med Boal rate. W; ose 2. 60 external neat source: Tas Te ‘rn surface temperature, C aso ‘Maat rate. W; node 2, no external neat source: Ta Tint ‘mice ar temperature, Hat = eat rate, W ip Theemal Reststances; Rate $/{ho* Aa | Convection thermal ressstance. KW: outer surtace: Faz L/{e" Ag} Wi Congucusn thermal reseslance. KAV. glass Fads (ma) 1 Conwechon mera sistance, KW mnar turtace: 1) Other Ausigned Variables: Tinton 10 ( Quesde a tamnparature, C he= 65 Fi Corvraction conltcient. Wink: outer surtace L200 Or Thickness, glaas wate Thermal conduct, Wien K; glass Tinh w dd 1) oie air temperature, C hea ‘Convection cootficient. Whin’2-K: wmner suriace: das) (/Cress-seecnal atea, "2: unt arenPROBLEM 3.3 IRNOWN: Deured inner surface temperaure of rear window \ith prescribed instde-and outside sar conditions, FIND: (a) Heater power per unit area required to matatain the desited temperatute. and (bi Compute and plot the electrical power requircment as a function of T_,, for the range -¥0.< T__ <0°C wath hat 2 20 6S ani 100 Win’. Comment on heater operation needs for kaw h. Jf 1 ~ "where V is the vehicle speed and n tsa positive exponent. how does the Vehicle speed affect the need for heater operation” SCHEMATIC: T,, = 15°C — Filmstype heater, ¢7 —- | Inside air Pe Ta, = 2886 i y= 65 Wim? - K é ye erent —— VbA * LkA tha Sh ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state canditions, (2) One-dimensional heat transfer. (3) Uniform heuer flax, (4) Comstant propertis.$) Negligible radiation effects. 16) Negligible film resistance: PROPERTIES: Table A-i, Glass (300 Ky k= 1.4 Wim K. ANALYSIS: (a) From an enerey balance at the inner surface and the thermal circuit: i follows that for a lhl surface area. LaWim K 7 65) af =(1370— 100) W/m" = 1270 W/m: < ‘hy The heater electrical power noquirement as a function of the exterior air temperauute for different sestetior convection coefficients ts shawn in the plot. When fh. = 2 Wim" K. the heater ts unecessary vance the glass ix maintained at 1$°C by the imerior air. IF h ~ V", we comheltide that, with higher vehicle opsuils. the exterior convection will increase. requising increased heat power to maintain the 13°C ‘condition sebELETE COMMENTS: With 9 =0. the inet surface temperature with T_, =-10%C would he piven by Tt, Uk 810 ae — OD = 35 C-o4ae{as')~ a7 Lt, Uhebasin, oa OMS eT 2 Spas:PROBLEM 3.4 KNOWN: Curing of atransparent film by radiant heating with substrate and film surface subjected to known thermal conditions. FIND: (i) Thermal circuit for this situation, (b) Radiant heat Mux. q5 (Wm), 19 maintain bond at curing temperature, T,, (¢) Compute and plot q") axa function of the film thickness for Ly < | mm. cand (d) Ifthe film i not ansparent, determine @” required to achieve bonding: plot results as 4 function of = urn : = n=sowim?-K | % — ky= 0.025 Wim-K + Bond, T, = 60°C kg = 0.05 Wim-K Sr = 30% ASSUMPTIONS: 1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-hhmensional heat flow. (2) All the radian heat flux qs absorbed at the bond, (4) Neghgible contact resastance ANALYSIS: (a) The thermal cirewtt for this situation is shown at the right Note that terms are written on a per unit area basis where the thermal resistances are Re = 1h = /30Wi mm K = 0.020m KW Ry = iL, fk, = 0.00025m/0,025Wim. K = 0.010m> Kew RY = L/h, = 001 m/0.0$ Wim: K = 0.020" - KW (o0-207C ts 307 [0020+ Goro}m” KW” 0.0200" KW q = (133-1500) W/m 833 W/m" < (e) For the transparent film, the radiant flux required to achieve bonding as a function af film thickness L, 1s shown mn the plot below {dh Uf the film is opaque (not transparent), the thermal crrcuit ix shown below. fy order vo find qt necessary to write two energy balances, one around the T, node and the second about the T. nose {e Rey RY R, yh eye — 9)" Tow Ts To Ty The results of the analyses ure plotted below ContinuedPROBLEM 3.4 (Coty iattat (tree, =. COMMENTS: (1) When the film is transparent, the radiant flus is absorbed on the bond. The flux Tequired decreases with increasing film thickness. Physically. haw do you explain this? Why is the relationship not linear? (2) When the film 1s opaque, the radiant ux is ubsorbed om the surface, and the flux required increases ‘with increasing thickness ofthe film, Physically, how do you explain this? Why ts the relationship Vicar (3) The IHT Thermal Resistance Network Madel was used to create a model af the filmesubstrate system ane! generate the above plot. The Workspace is:shown below 2 ete me 8 | Pou eal ance a2 = (Tz THs Rat a Steir rhea Sores | Hoga! anergy natances a+a2i0 oat ea =0 Gold aid 20 neo ( Astignad warabies fat esesecttne-q Fi and Ti wfuch we urinown: tet iw O for embeded model poems. sab which tere 6 no extmmal source = heat”) Th Tet JF Arve a Yemparate. © ligt = 1 at rue, Wm ce Tete 4 Film sucace tarperatre. =o (Radda Run. Winv'2. 20°34 pan The To (Bona temperature. C +e ot Radiant tn, Wire: an (a) ‘Taub 4 Supsrate wpe. C ges Heat cate, Wi substan side f.TrarmaResatances: y= Vs R TAR) NW Geriwection resistance, «At BOR Let Aas Conduction remittance, A/V, Ry Fads Ls/ ten" Aa) Gonduction resstunce. KW, mberane OMe Assigned Vainben: = 1 Amen de ermparatare, © f= 80 1) Conwecton coment Wim2.K Li fsa | of w 24) _ ant 68 8 bos [Bla as-fansen sin = |« = 68.8 [no B10] 0 2404 82 2 ovo Wh Q= 68:8 [480 — 38.24 84.03) Wh Q= 36.18 kWh = 130281087 dq COMMENTS: From knowledge of the fuel cost, the total daily heating bill could be determined, For example, at a.cost of 0.108/kWedoth, the heating bill would be $3.62/dayPROBLEM 3.17 KNOWN: Ditnensions and materials associated with a composite wall (2.$m» 6.5m, 10 studs each 2.5m high). FIND: Wall thermal resistance. SCHEMATIC; Hardwood siding (A) Es, * Insulation 4 ] Tales Glass Fiber soe 1 er faced (D) seals (2B tg fms) == EC ae (C) ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Temperature of composite depends only on x (surfaces normal to x are isothermal), (3) Constant properties, (4) Negligible contact resistance, PROPERTIES: Table A-3 (T= 300K); Hardwood siding, k, =(,094 Wiin-K: Hardwood, ky = 0.16 WinK: Gypsum, ke = 0.17 W/mK; Insulation (glass fiber paper faced, 28 kg/n”), kp = 0.038 Wren K. ANALYSIS: Using the isothermal surface assumption, the thermal circuit associated with a single wnit (enclosed by dashed lines) af the wall is Lalkg A, es Lelkee Lali Ay, LolkoAo 0.008m 0,094 Wim K (0.65mx2.5m) 013m a Te Wink (0am sm ~ 128 KW 0.13m 0.038 Win K (0.61 nm%2.5m) apa 0,012m e 5 Caleke) = Sia (isimdsay KW. ‘The equivalent resistance of the core is Reg = (URy + Rp)! = (1/8125 + 1/2.243) = 1.758 KAV and the total uit resistance is Rip) = Ra + Reg + Re = 1.854 KW With 10 such units in parallel, the total wall resistance is (Laka Ag) = = 0.0524 KAW (Lp fen Ag) = (Lp fkpAp) = 43 KAW 1884 KW < Reo: = (WT Roe COMMENTS: If surfaces parallel 10 the heat flow direction are assumed adiabatic the thermal circuit and the value of Roy will differ,PROBLEM 3.18 KNOWN: conditions associated with mamntaming heated and cooled condinons within a refrigerator compartment FIND: Coefficient of performance (COP) ASSUMPTIONS: (|) Steady-state operating conditions, (2) Negligible radiavon, (3) Compartment completely: sealed from ambient ait ANALYSIS: The Case (a) experiment 1s performed to determine the overall thermal resistance to heat transfer between the interior of the refrigerator and the ambient air. Applying an enengy balance 10. control surface about the refrigerator. it follows from Eq, 1.1 lu that. at any instant. B,-Ey=0 Hence. late ~ Ang =O whee q, -(T.,-T.,)/R, Ti follows that Tos Tew, (O- SC 20W R= Aas CrW Dean For Case jb), heat transfer fromthe ambient air to the compartment ithe heat load) is balanced by heat ranster wo the refrigerant qh, = ul Hence. the thermal energy transterved from the refrigerator ower the 12 hour period ts Qo = Yoel = A z (5-57, 5 au = ae arage lth» Sa fh) = 266,000 The coettictent of performance (COP) iy therefore COMMENTS: The ideal (Carnot) COP 1s i DeK CoP), =139 and the systems ms operating well belinw its peak possible performancePROBLEM 3.19 KNOWN: Total floor space and vertical distance between floors for a square, flat roof buildin FIND: (4) Expression for width of building ‘hick minimizes heat loss. 1b) Widdh and mumber of floors which minimize heat loss fora prescribed Noor space atl distance between floors. Corresponding fea foss. percent heat joss redaction trom 2 floors SCHEMATH Ap= 32,768 m2 “9 As le Hype 4m aT=25 as Us Wim? 4 Ww ‘a Yew ae ASSUMPTIONS: Negligible heat loss to ground. ANALYSIS: (4) To minimize the heat loss q, the exterior surface area, A.. mast be minimized From Fig. ca) A,9 Wo -4WH = *.4WN\H, ee Ay WE A=W <4 WA, H,/Wi= W? saa, 4, /W The optimum value af W earesponds to MA, yyy SAH ig or (2,8) < The competing effects of W on the areas af the roof and sidewalls. and hence the basis for an optimum. is shown schemaneailly in Fig. (by th) For Ay= 32,768 m* and Hy =m. 768m" 6 4m) = 64m < 32.768m eee ot (f4my = 40 32768m* «4m 38°C = 307.200 Ga C= 307.200W < 4 = VA AT = IW K (64my + t Comuinued,PROBLEM 3.19 (Cont.) W =(AWN)'? = (32.768 m2)" = 128 m q=1W/m x [ranmy' «4 32766m stn 25°C = $12,000W 28m S reduction in q = (512,000 - 307,200)/512,000 = 40% COMMENTS: Even the minimum beat loss is excessive and could be reduced by reducing UPROBLEM 3.20 KNOWN: Materials and dimensions of a composite wall separating a combustion as from a liquid coolant. FIND: (a) Heat loss per unit area, and (b) Temperature distribution. SCHEMATIC: Rye = 1.05meK/W Stainless steel (504) Beryllium oude, (Combes) FF ealent (genes Taxa 100" Tana =2600°C he =1000 Wim hy» SOW) mek Tan wine gS aga Slo Se LyOmn > Ree, 2 Reond):PROBLEM 3.25 KNOW FIND: (a) Equivalent thermal cireuit, tb) Chip temperature, (¢} Maximumt allowable heat dissapauion tor dielectric liquid (h, = 1000 Wim? Ky and air (hy = 100 Win K) Effect of changes in circuit board. lemperature and contact resistance. SCHEMATIC: Operating conditions for a board mounted chip. o. 005m = ™ * os y= 40 Wim? K fe 5 Tap 20°C ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions. (2) One-dimensional conduction, (3) Neglipible chip therfnal resistance, (4) Neghgible ridiation. (5) Constant properties PROPERTIES: Tuble A-3, Aluminum oxide (polycrystalline. 388 K)) ky = 32.4 Win K ANALYSIS: (4) Toi Te Tao emer ae ah, (Ly Re te” ay © (b) Applying conservation of energy to control surface about the chip (E,, ~ a= q)-a;=0 T.-T., 1h, UR), = Be WOW) he = 1000 Wim" K, ke = 1 Wine Kand Re = 10m? RW, T-20 Wath Be (O° Wim? = Ye 1O* W/m? = (33.27, = 664+ 10007. - 20,000) W/m? K 10037, = 50,664 T.=49C. ee (e1 For T, = 8$°C and hy = 1000 Wim? K. the foregoing energy balance yields gh = 67.160W/m? < seth q = 65,000 Wim’ and q = 2160 Wim’. Replacing the dielectric with air (h, following results ure obtained for different combinations of ky and BR, HOO Win” Ko, the Continued,PROBLEM 3.25 (Cont) a Wim 324 1 |___aaa COMMENTS: |. For the conditions of part (bj. the toral internal resistance #s 0.0301 m= KW, while the outer resistance is 0.001 m° KAW, Hence gt _ (h-TayARe 00301: _ 5 (T,-T.,)/RY 0.001 and only approximately 3% of the heat 4x dissipated through the board, 2. With h. = 100 Wim'-K. the outer resistance increases 10 0.01 m"-K/W. in which case @i/q’= RRS = 80301/0.01 = 3.1 and now almost 28% of the heat is dissipated through the board. Hence. although Measures to reduce R° would have a negligible effect on q’" forthe liquid coolant. some improvement ‘may be gained for air-cooled conditions, As shown in the table of part (b), use of an aluminum oxide board increase 4 by 19% (from 2159 to 2574 Wim") by reducing R® from 0.0301 to 0.0253 m= KW Because the inittal contact resistance (R= 10m’ K/W ) is already much less than RT . any reduction in its value Would have a negligible effect on q*. The largest gain would be realized by increasing hy, since the inside convection resistance makes the dominant contribution to the total internal resistance,PROBLEM 3.26 KNOWN: Conduction in a conical section with prescribed diameter, D, as a function of x in the form D-= ax! FIND: (a) Temperature distribution. T(x), (b) Heat transfer rate, q,. SCHEMATIC: T= 400K Pure elummum shape oy Deaxt where 2: 05m! 7 N My xy 22imm ne ena | x,2125mm eee ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction in x-direction, (3) No internal heat generation, (4) Constant properties. at PROPERTIES: Table A-2, Pure Aluminum (500K): k= 236 W/mK. ANALYSIS: (a) Based upon the assumptions, and following the same methodology of Example 3.3, q, is a constant independent of x. Accordingly, aT 1ay2pq) =-kA— = ya Ch a k[ (ax? /4), ee ay using A =D?/4 where D=ax!, Separating variables and identifying limits, say dx Se-f ar. 2 heh ) Integrating and solving for T(x) and then for Tp, x Bz T= Ty - on Ga) bo mk * Soiving Eq, (4) for q, and then substituting into Eq, (3) gives the results, Tix)=T; - AA ay, mak gy =—Eatk (1) Tita (x2) (s) te (xh) TH O0 To Tort i a0 (arbitrary a<0 = selection) Boag i , bx Z e c ASSUMPTIONS: (1) One-dimensional conduction through a plane wall, (2) Steady-state conditions, (3) No internal heat generation. ANALYSIS: For the assumed conditions q, and A(x) are constant and Eq. 3.21 gives ai [tex =~ ii (ky+aT)dT ae= Like -T)+ Sti-Tp. From Fourier’s law, qe = —tketaT) dT/dx . Hence, since the product of (ky+aT) and (dT/dx) is constant, decreasing T with increasing x implies, a>: decreasing (k,-+aT) and increasing |dT/dx| with increasing x a=0: k=k, => constant (dT/dx) a<0; increasing (k,+aT) and decreasing |dT/dx| with increasing x. The temperature distributions appear as shown in the above sketch,PROBLEM 3.29 KNOWN: Temperature dependence of tube wall thermal conductivity FIND: Expressions for heat transfer per unit length and tube wall thermal (coriduction) resistance. SCHEMATIC: li a keko(leeT) role ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional radial conduction, (3) No internal heat generation. ANALYSIS: From Eq. 3.24, the appropriate form of Fourier’s law is at aT + Te -nemt =k A, So = keaeL) qi =—2xker £1 " dr 4, 2k, (1+aT) a . Separating variables, kl l+aT) dT and integrating across the tube wall, find f° Hak, ™ (eat) dT fi iT. ah ea Ty =k [o.-1)+S024h)] (T,=T) = =21 1+ + fe eieesten! me nee re 7] Inter, < Infollows that the overall thermal resistance per unit length is gical. In(r/t)) 4 2k, [! + $ret, J COMMENTS: Note the necessity of the stated assumptions to treating q, as independent of r.PROBLEM 3.30 KNOWN: Steady-state temperature distribution of convex shape for material with k = k,(1 © @T) where @ is a constant and the mid-point temperature is AT, higher than expected for a linear temperature distribution. FIND: Relationship to evaluate @ in terms of AT, and T;. T; the temperatures at the boundaries. SCHEMATIC; Fixit Lyx £ ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction, (3) No internal heat generation, (4) is positive and constant. ANALYSIS: At any location in the wall, Fourier’s law has the form ask ea a Since q’; is a constant, we can separate Eq. (1), identify appropriate integration limits. and integrate to obtain [iaidk=- Tl +atMT ) rT? i ae (m+ = =)- (m+ ST @) We could perform the same integration but with the upper limits at x = L/2 to obtain aT; ae (m 1+ et ] 4) us —+AT.. (5) Fi (nae8 where Tin = TL) = ii Setting Eq. (3) equal to Eq. (4) and substituting from Eq, (5) for Typ into Eq, (4), and solving for a, eventually find, 2AT, 8 se ee < (TE + Tf 2-11) + Ty + ATOPROBLEM 3.31 KNOWN: Hollow cylinder of thermal conductivity k. inner and outer radii. 1, and 1, respectively, and length L, FIND: Thermal resistance using the alternative conduction analysis method. SCHEMATIC: ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional radial conduction, (3) No internal volumetric generation, (4) Constant properties. ANALYSIS: For the differential control volume, energy conservation requires that q, = dear for steady-state, one-dimensional conditions with no heat generation. With Fourier's law, 4+éX =O a2 -wv=0 12) ot e (1a) and the temperature distribution is Ax, y) = X(x)¥ Ly) (a) Consider now the situation when * =O, From Eqs. (1), (2), and (3), find that NaC, Cpe, Ye Cy + Cyy and — x,y) = (Cy+Czx) (Cy+Cyy)- (A) Evalunte the constants - C), C,,C, and C, - by substitution of the boundary conditions: x=: 0,y) = (Cy + Ce OMCs + Cay) =O =o =" f{x,0) = (0 + C,X)[Cy + C,-0) = 0 =o welt ALO) = {0 + C,L)(0 + Cyy) = 0 O, =o yew: Ox, W) = (0 4+ O-x)[0-+ CW) =1 Ol The Inst boundary condition evaluation leads to an impossibility (O#1). We therefore conclude that s * value of zero will not result in a form of the temperature distribution which will satisfy the boundary conditions. Consider now the situation when Mt <0. The solutions to Eqs. (1) and (2) will be X= CeO" + Cye™ ¥ = Gycos dy + Cysin hy (5,8) and Olxy) = [Oye + Cpe] [Cyeos Ay + Cysin Ay] - (7) Evaluate the constants for the boundary conditions identified above. you: = fx,.0) = [Cye™” + Cye™*| [Cyeos 0 + Cysin o| = 0 c=0 x=O: —-ALD,y) = [Cye” + Cye”) [0 + Cysin dy] = 0 =o If Cy = 0, a trivial solution results or Cy = —Cy. zal: Olly) = Glo — 07] Cy From the last boundary condition evaluation, we require C; or Cy is nero; either case leads to a trivial solution with either no x or y dependence possible. dy =0,PROBLEM 4.2 KNOWN: Two-dimensional rectangular plate subjected! to prescribed uniform temperature boundary conditions FIND: Teinperature at the mid-point using the exact solution considering the first five non-aero terms: assess error tesulting from using only first three terms. Plot the temperature distributions Tix.0.5) and Thy). SCHEMATIC: Walt 7 = 15000 Wet Peer on areal ee Ge o 2 Hm) <—reamec ‘? ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Two-dimensional, steady-stare conduction, (2). Constamt properties, ANALYSIS: From Section 4.2. the temperature distribution is T,=80°C Sc el ( mn) sos) ay \ L} sinhinn w/t) Considering now the pomt (x,y) = (1.0.0.5) and fecognizing WL = 1/2, y/L= Wa and Wi = 1/2, =F) When m ts even (2.4. 6 ..), the corresponding term is zero: hence We need only consider n= 1.3.4.7 and 9 sis the first five nen-2erg terms, a2) sin( 2) sinbimya) 2 fam \sinh(3n/4) SRA = 3(3 aera 2 \eacea 2 Se) sesh 3 TsO 2 pdution) SUD Jeni sarap 72 Seine) 9 | iad mrdy 8(1,05)= 2 oss ~ 0.063 + 0,008-~ 6.001 + G00] = 0.445 a ‘T(LO.5) = 8(1,0.5\T; —T,) +7, = 0.445/150~50)+50=945°C. < If only the first three terms of the series. Ei. (2), are considered, the result will be 1.0.5) =0 46; thar ix, there os less than 4 0.2% effect, Using Eq, (1), and writing our the First five terms of the sertes, expressions for 6(x,0.5) or Tis.0.$) and Bly) or TE.y) were keyboanied {nto the THT workspace und evaluated for sweeps over the & ory Variable. Note that for Ti1.y), that as y 1, the upper boundary, TW1.1) is greater than 150°C. Upon examtmation of the magnitudes of terms. it becomes evident that more than 3 terms ure required to provide {4 0Fy coongeate i) af aecurate solution. = Wit, Thane tin ¢ © 02 a4 oH ne 1PROBLEM 4.3 KNOWN: Temperature distribution in the two-dimensional rectangular plate of Problem 4.2 FIND: Expression for the heat rate per unit thickness from the lower surface (0 = x $2, 0) and result based on fitet five non-zero terms of the infinite series, SCHEMATIC: ¥(my) Tp = 150°C wet T, = 50°C = s0Wwim-K Ce) aly 7, =50°C ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Two-dimensional, steady-state conduction, (2) Constant properties. ANALYSIS: The heat rate per unit thickness from the plate along the lower surface is Jaswo--j- ‘zt dx = K(T, nyse a where from the solution to Problem 4.2. T-T, . nx) sinh(ney/L) aE, BRIE Hf eee stale) ine 2 a sol L Eee 9 Evaluate the gradient of @ from Eq, (2) and substitute inte Eg. (1) 1. obtain (-1)' +1. (amex \(n/L)cosh( ny /1.)| =k(T=7, oe Sat af —— a Ore sinh(nn W/L) ce + cient ciel nx aa = KT Wes 7 rn eof J, | that -TEE ES _ n at onl 1 ~cos(nn)] < To evaluate the first five, non-zero terms, recognize that since cosinm) = | forn = 2,4, 6... only the n- odd terms will be non-zero. Hence, Ly GW 1 sinhix/2) 3 sinh( 3/2) ing = 50h KULS0~ 50)" 2) . 18 fel —! jy, EOP 7 aan 9 Sink(n/2) By Gog = S1BIKW/ m[i.738 + 0.024+ 0.00062 +(...J]= 5.6 1kWm < Continued...PROBLEM 4.3 (Cont.) ENTS: If the foregoing procedure were used to evaluate the heat rate into the upper surface, ig =~ Ja, (x. 89), it would fellow that ase ay =H TE hine/oft— eosin] = However, with coth(nn/2) © 1. imespective of the value of n, and with XI sift: 1] /n being a it divergent series, the complete series does not converge and ji, > %. This physically untenable sondition results from the temperature discontinuities: imposed at the upper left and right comers.PROBLEM 4.4 KNOWN: Rectangular plate subjected to prescribed boundary conditions. FIND: Steady-state temperature distribution. vt 6 TsAx SCHEMATIC: ra 70 ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state, 2-D conduction, (2) Constant properties. ANALYSIS: The solution follows the method of Section 4.2. The product solution is They) = X(x)'¥(y) = (Cycom dx + Cysin kx Cae? + Cue) and the boundary conditions are: T(0,y) =0, ‘Tla,y) =0, T[x,0) =0, T(x,b) = Ax. Applying BC#1, T(0,y) =0, find C, =O. Applying BC#2, T(a,y) = 0, find that = nn/a with m= 12h. Applying BC#3, T(x,0) = 0, find that Cy =—Cy. Hence, the product solution is om (7 -e¥). T (x,y) = X(x}¥(y) = CC, sl Combine constants and using superposition, find Tixy) = 35 Cy sin (=| sinh [= To evaluate C,, use orthogonal functions with Eq. 4.16 to find 22 jana go] dx, C. = P Awsin a noting that y =b, The numerator, denominator and C,, respectively, are: [a] wink] 222 | Mag? 2 ay a stat) A221 D2 in| SO 3 See al cae «REX af — do=A om coal = =A jeon{an| = AS (aye, - = joins] * p Aa’ yee Cy = E-1y /Stnh pa ~2ha (19% joi mt | ‘ Hence, the temperature distribution isPROBLEM 4.5 KNOWN: Very long square bar with one side maintained at 100°C while the other three are maintained at 0°C. FIND: Without performing a flux plot, sketch the 25 and 50°C isotherms: explain how you arrive at their shapes and locations, SCHEMATIC: Symmetry line yl ennico"c x, ° Os 10 xf. ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Two-dimensional conduction in bar, (3) Constant properties, (4) No internal generation. ANALYSIS: First recognize that the temperature distribution is symmetrical about the y-axis at x/L = 0.5, Hence, the isotherms must be normal to this symmetry line (0.5, y). Further, the isotherms must converge at the corner (0, 1) on the (x/L, y/L) plane. If we assume, as a first approximation, the heat transfer in the direction along the symmetry line is one-dimensional, then the 50°C isotherm will intersect the symmetry line at (0.5, 0.5). Likewise, the 25°C isotherm will intersect at (0.5, 0.25). So the isotherms can now be sketched having determined two intersections (in the upper comer and along the symmetry line) and the slope at the symmetry line, COMMENTS: Using the series solution of Section 4.1, the exact temperatures at (0.5, 0.5) and (0.5, 0.25) are 25.0 and 9.54°C, respectively. Hence, we conclude that our first approximation approach is poor since the heat wansfer is two-dimensional. If Ly >, then our first approximation approach might be more reasonable.PROBLEM 4.6 KNOWN: Long furnace of refractory brick with prescribed surface temperatures and material thermal conductivity. FIND: Shape factor and heat transfer rate per unit length using the flux plot method. SCHEMATIC: Symmetry sine é Fiarete ction [beet | ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Furnace length normal to page, ¢, >> cross-sectional dimensions, (2) Two-dimensional, steady-state conduction, (3) Constant properties. Symmetrical section ANALYSIS: Considering the cross-section, the cross-hatched area represents 0 symmetrical element. Hence, the heat rate for the entire furnace per unit length is A 8 a= d=45K(1-Ty) where S iy the shape factor for the symmetrical section. Selecting three temperature increments (N=3), construct the flux plot shown below. From Eq. 4.26, and from Eq. (1), COMMENTS: The shape factor can also be estimated from the relations of Table 4.1. The symmetrical section consists of two plane walls (horizontal and vertical) with an adjoining edge. Using the appropriate relations, the nurnerieal values are, in the same order, 0.75m osm S = 6 + 0.546 + = 3.046 0.5m * % 0.5m Note that this result compares favorably with the flux plot result of 2.83,PROBLEM 4.7 KNOWN: Hot pipe embedded eecentzieally In a cireular system having a prescribed thermal conductivity. FIND: The shape factor and heat transfer per unit length for the prescribed surface temperatures, SCHEMATIC: ‘Cross-hatched region ja 8 symmetrical ection; k= 0.5 Wink PRs ne B35 ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Two-dimensional conduetion, (2) Steady-state conditions, (3) Length ¢ >> diametries! dimensions. ANALYSIS: Considering the cross-sectional view af the pipe system, the symmetrical section shown above is readily identified. Selecting four temperature increments (N=4), construct the flux plot shown below. Foc the symmetrical sectre. 6 Seite SR 4.2.03 For the pipe system: S-25,04268 Teast Estimate as 1/2 heat flow lane, For the pipe system, the heat rate per unit length is qd = 4 =ks(7,-1y) = 0.5 4.26(t60—15)'C = 245 W/m . 75 W/m- K ¥ 1.70(100—0y'C = 12.750 Wyn < From the flux. plot. estimate that TIP) @ 40°C. < COMMENTS: (1) By inspection of the shapes for parts (a) and (b), it is obvious that the heat nate for the latter will be greater, The culculations show the heat rate is greater by more than a factor of three (2) By comparing the flux plots for the two configurations, and corresponding roles of the adiabats and isotherms, would you expeet the shape factor for parts (a) to be the reciprocal of part (by?PROBLEM 4.9 KNOWN: Relative dimensions and surface thermal conditions of a V-grooved channel. FIND: Flux plot and shape factor. SCHEMATIC: 5 kok-ws i wwe ih Cross section of solid Lew ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Two-dimensional conduction, (2) Steady-state conditions, (3) Constant properties. ANALYSIS: With symmetry about the midplane, only one-half of the object need be considered as shown below. Choosing 6 temperature increments (N ‘t follows from the plot that M=7. Henee from Eq. 4.26, the shape factor for the half section is = 1176, For the complete system, the shape factor is then Saag. ‘Separate variables, identify limits and integrate. oe p= dep ae fa)” te [2] ee ax bo 75, T * | - Rk i 3]-m mH) ain? |e-ty o S=2nD. 4 COMMENTS: Note that the result for the buried sphere, $= 2nD, can be obtained from the expression for the spherical shell with ry==0. Also, the shape factor expression for the “isothermal sphere buried in a semi-infinite medium” presented in Table 4.1 provides the same result with z—400,PROBLEM 4.17 KNOWN: Heat generation in a buried spherical container. FIND: (a) Quter surface temperature of the container, (b) Representative isotherms and heat flow lines. SCHEMATIC: le z+10m Tie es: wastes, spheci De te t container ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Soil is a homogencous medium with ‘constant properties. PROPERTIES: Table A-3, Soil (300K): k = 0.52 W/mK. ANALYSIS: (a) From an energy balance on the container, q=E, and from the first entry in Table 4.1, = 2nD a 9= Fp iT). Hence, = T+ & JDie SOW 1-2m/40m _ 4, 45 Y=h+ = e+ Fam ETC 4 Ost (b) The isotherms may be viewed as spherical surfaces whose center moves downward with increasing radius. The surface of the soil is an isotherm for which the center is at z= ooPROBLEM 4.18 KNOWN: Temperature, diameter and burial depth of an insulated pipe. FIND: Heat loss per-unit length of pipe. SCHEMATIC: G20 gel. aN ea Cellulor glass insulation Oil, Ty <120°C Rartitn ASSUMPTIONS: (i) Steady-state conditions, (2) One-dimensional conduction through insulation, two-dimensional through soil, (3) Canstant properties, (4) Negligible ail convection and pipe wall conduction resistances, PROPERTIES: Table 4-9, Soil (300K): k = 0.52 W/uv' (365K): k = 0.060 W/mK. Table A-¥, Cellular ginss ANALYSIS: ‘The heat rate can be expressed ax gas Reo where the thermal resistance is Rj. = jay + Regi - From Eq. 3.28 4i(Dz/D,) OrLke From Eq. 4.25 and Table 1 cosh™*(22/D2) cosh""(3/0.7) 0.653 Skat 2FLRey PO eae ae eee (120 — a)" 0.776-+40.853) Ww mi, m q =a/L = 84 Wim. dq COMMENTS: (1) Contributions of the soil and insulation to the tal reaistanee are Approximately the same. The heat loss may be reduced by burying the pipe deeper or adding more insulation. (2) The convection resistance associated with the ail flow through the pipe may be signifieant, in which ease the foregoing result would overestimate the hont loss. A calculation of this resistance may be based on results presented in Chapter 8. (3) Since s>3D/2, the shape factor for the soil can also be evaluated from S = ar /th(42/D) of Table 4.1, and an equivalent result is obtained.PROBLEM 4.19 KNOWN: Electric conductor with insulating sleeve buried fn a saud-filled trench. FIND: Temperature at the conductor-sleeve interfnee for preseribed dissipation rate. SCHEMATIC: 104, Tyan =2 OC k 20.03 K ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Constant properties, (3) Conductor approximates horizontal, isothermal cylinder buried in a semi-infinite medium. ANALYSIS: Perform an eyergy balance on the conductor to find tho radial heat rate per unit length, ag = Ejy—Eoy +p =Ey or The insulating = sleeve and sand medium may be represented by the thermal circuit, where the insulating sleeve behaves as a cylindrical shell (Eq. 3.28), @l(to+t)/to| _ éi|(0.01254-0.003) /o.0125; River = ‘Silte-ores:se-903)/0.0188 as 342kom/W . The resistance of the sand follows from the appropriate shape factor for a buried cylinder of diameter D'=D, + 2t (sce Table 4.1 noting 2 > 3D/2), : 1 _ filta/D) _ tiftx0.5mm/(0.025-+0.008)mm) — FE Te DS Ae 21 Kai From the thermal circuit, i or Ty = Trand + Gr Reiceve-+ Rand) Rete +R T, =20"c + 1X (oansoey) oe =20'C 4255°C = 455°C, < COMMENTS: (1) ‘The thermal resistance of the insulating leeve is 3.42/(3:42+22.11) = 1396 of the total thermal resistance. (2) The maximum temperature will occur at the conductor centertine, If k=4100 WK (pure copper), from Eq. 3.53, ar? ard 2037 W/m? (0.0125m)* T(0) = = 2 (9) ak amy 4x400 Wink it lai where @ = E,/A, =(1 W/m)/[70.025%m! /4) = 2097 W/m?, Hence the conductor is nearly isothermal.PROBLEM 4.20 KNOWN: Operating conditions of a buried superconducting cable. FIND: Required cooling load. SCHEMATIC: te WheK R37 zeam Insulation, k;20.005W/m-K, ‘D,=0.2m, D;=O.1m R Liquid nitrogen, Ty=77K I, Cable ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Constant properties, (3) Two-dimensional conduction in soil, (4) One-dimensional conduction in insulation. ANALYSIS: The heat rate per unit length is —Th fk, (2n/n(4z/D,))]~! + In(D,/D; )/2rek; les 3.3 and 4.1 have been used to evaluate the insulation and ground resistances, respectively. Hence, é (300 -77)K [C.2 W/mK)(2rAn(8/0.2)) |! + n(2)/2«0.005 Wim: K 23K (0.489 + 22.064)m: KAW q/=9.9 Wim. a COMMENTS: The heat gain is small and the dominant contribution to the thermal resistance is made by the insulationPROBLEM 4,21 KNOWN: Electrical heater of cylindrical shape inserted into a hole drilled normal to the surface of a large block of material with prescribed thermal conductivity, FIND: Temperature reached when heater dissipates 50 W with the block at 25°C. SCHEMATIC: Electrical heater, 2=50W ASSUMPTIONS: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Block approximates semi-infinite medium with constant properties, (3) Negligible heat loss to surroundings above block surface, (4) Heater can be approximated as isothermal at T,. ANALYSIS: The temperature of the heater surface follows from the rate equation written as Ty =T, +4/ks where S can be estimated from the conduction shape factor given in Table 4.1 for a “vertical cylinder in a semi-infinite medium,” § = 271 /6(4L/0) Substituting numerical values find = 2rx0.im /g,| 4x0-1m | s al 0.005m | ~ 143m. The temperature of the heater is then T, = 25°C +50 W/(5 W/m Kx0.143m) = 94.0" C . > D which is a requirement of the shape factor expression. (2) Our calculation presumes there is negligible thermal contact resistance between the heater and the medium. In practice, this would not be the ease unless a conducting paste were used. (8) Since 1, >> D, the assumptions (3) and (4) are reasonable. (4) This arrangement, referred to as the line source method, bas been used to determine the thermal conductivity of materials from observations of qand T,.