A cement is a binder, a substance that sets and hardens and can bind other materials together.

The
word "cement" can be traced back to the Roman term opus caementicium, used to
describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as
binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick supplements that were added to the burnt lime, to
obtain a hydraulic binder, were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cment, and cement.

Cements used in construction can be characterized as being either hydraulic or non-hydraulic,

depending upon the ability of the cement to set in the presence of water (see hydraulic and nonhydraulic lime plaster).
Non-hydraulic cement will not set in wet conditions or underwater; rather, it sets as it dries and
reacts with carbon dioxide in the air. It can be attacked by some aggressive chemicals after setting.
Hydraulic cements (e.g., Portland cement) set and become adhesive due to a chemical reaction
between the dry ingredients and water. The chemical reaction results in mineral hydrates that are not
very water-soluble and so are quite durable in water and safe from chemical attack. This allows
setting in wet condition or underwater and further protects the hardened material from chemical
attack. The chemical process for hydraulic cement found by ancient Romans used volcanic ash
(activated aluminium silicates[citation needed]) with lime (calcium oxide).

The most important uses of cement are as a component in the production of mortar in masonry, and
of concrete, a combination of cement and an aggregate to form a strong building material.

Chemistry[edit]
Non-hydraulic cement, such as slaked lime (calcium hydroxide mixed with water), hardens
by carbonation in the presence of carbon dioxide which is naturally present in the air. First calcium
oxide is produced by lime calcination at temperatures above 825 C (1,517 F) for about 10 hours
at atmospheric pressure:
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
The calcium oxide is then spent (slaked) mixing it with water to make slaked lime:
CaO + H2O Ca(OH)2
Once the excess water is completely evaporated (this process is technically called setting),
the carbonation starts:
Ca(OH)2 + CO2 CaCO3 + H2O

This reaction takes a significant amount of time because the partial pressure of carbon
dioxide in the air is low. The carbonation reaction requires the dry cement to be exposed
to air, for this reason the slaked lime is a non-hydraulic cement and cannot be used
under water. This whole process is called the lime cycle.
Conversely, hydraulic cement hardens by hydration when water is added. Hydraulic
cements (such as Portland cement) are made of a mixture of silicates and oxides, the
four main components being:
Belite (2CaOSiO2);
Alite (3CaOSiO2);
Tricalcium aluminate (3CaOAl2O3) (historically, and still occasionally, called 'celite');
Brownmillerite (4CaOAl2O3Fe2O3).
The silicates are responsible of the mechanical properties of the
cement, the tricalcium aluminate and the brownmillerite are essential to
allow the formation of the liquid phase during the kiln sintering (firing).
The chemistry of the above listed reactions is not completely clear and
is still the object of research.[

Safety issues[edit]
Bags of cement routinely have health and safety warnings printed on them because not only is
cement highly alkaline, but the setting process is exothermic. As a result, wet cement is
strongly caustic (water pH = 13.5) and can easily cause severe skin burns if not promptly washed off
with water. Similarly, dry cement powder in contact with mucous membranes can cause severe eye
or respiratory irritation. Some trace elements, such as chromium, from impurities naturally present in
the raw materials used to produce cement may cause allergic dermatitis.[1] Reducing agents such as
ferrous sulfate (FeSO4) are often added to cement to convert the carcinogenic
hexavalent chromate (CrO42-) in trivalent chromium (Cr3+), a less toxic chemical species. Cement
users need also to wear appropriate gloves and protective clothing

Setting and curing[edit]

Cement starts to set when mixed with water which causes a series of hydration chemical reactions.
The constituents slowly hydrate and the mineral hydrates solidify; the interlocking of the hydrates
gives cement its strength. Contrary to popular perceptions, hydraulic cements do not set by drying

out; proper curing requires maintaining the appropriate moisture content during the curing process. If
hydraulic cements dry out during curing, the resulting product can be significantly weakened.

Environmental impacts[edit]
Cement manufacture causes environmental impacts at all stages of the process. These include
emissions of airborne pollution in the form of dust, gases, noise and vibration when operating
machinery and during blasting in quarries, and damage to countryside from quarrying. Equipment to
reduce dust emissions during quarrying and manufacture of cement is widely used, and equipment
to trap and separate exhaust gases are coming into increased use. Environmental protection also
includes the re-integration of quarries into the countryside after they have been closed down by
returning them to nature or re-cultivating them.

Green cement[edit]
Green cement is a cementitious material that meets or exceeds the functional performance
capabilities of ordinary Portland cement by incorporating and optimizing recycled materials, thereby
reducing consumption of natural raw materials, water, and energy, resulting in a more sustainable
construction material.
The manufacturing process for green cement succeeds in reducing, and even eliminating, the
production and release of damaging pollutants and greenhouse gasses, particularly CO 2.
Growing environmental concerns and increasing cost of fuels of fossil origin have resulted in many
countries in sharp reduction of the resources needed to produce cement and effluents (dust and
exhaust gases).[55]
Peter Trimble, a design student at the University of Edinburgh has proposed 'DUPE' based
on Sporosarcina pasteurii, a bacterium with binding qualities which, when mixed
withsand and urine produces a concrete said to be 70% as strong as conventional material

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS
Many of the aspects of the cement making process are potentially environmentally damaging,
although these risks can be minimised. The areas of potential concern are listed below.
Dust emissions
The manufacture of cement generates large quantities of dust. These must be prevented (both
on environmental and economic grounds) from escaping to the atmosphere. The two areas
where dust has the potential to escape are via air streams that have been used to carry cement
(e.g. the mills or kiln) and directly from equipment used to transport cement (e.g. the various

conveyor belts). Thus to prevent dust emissions all transport equipment is enclosed, and the
air both from these enclosures and from the kiln and mills is treated in an electrostatic
precipitator to remove its load of dust. Here dust-laden air passes between an electrode
carrying 50 000 volts and an earthed collection plate. The electrostatic discharge between the
electrode and the plate forces the dust onto the plates, from which it is removed.
The current emission limit from the main stack at Golden Bay is 250 mg m-3 and at Milburn
is 150 mg m-3, while in Europe emission limits of down to 50 mg m-3 are becoming common.
This poses a significant challenge to the manufacturing operation both in capital cost to
IX-Materials-B-Cement-8

reduce emissions and monitoring of emissions to ensure compliance with existing resource
consents.
CO2
Cement manufacture is an energy intensive process. One of the most significant challenges
facing the industry into the 21st century is a requirement to reduce CO2 emissions. CO2 is
produced during the calcination phase of the manufacturing process and also as a result of
burning fossil fuels. Opportunity to reduce emissions through increased energy efficiency is
only possible on the latter of the CO2 emissions.
Quarry and plant water runoff
Runoff of storm water and treatment of waste water from quarries is a problem for almost all
quarry operations. Usually this is trapped in wetland areas where the water is treated in a
controlled manner. Within the factory runoff can be contaminated by oils and lubricants, but
the runoff is monitored and training programmes are reguarly undertaken to ensure this does
not happen.
Chrome bricks
Kiln bricks used to be made of hexavalent chrome, which is a carcinogen and causes
dermititus in some people. Since the problems associated with its use were identified both
Milburn and Golden Bay (along with almost all cement manufacturers internationally)
replaced these bricks with environmentally-sound magnesium-spinel bricks.
THE ROLE OF THE LABORATORY
The laboratory forms an integral part of the control systems on site with testing from raw
materials to finished product. The laboratory operates a 24 hour facility in line with a
continuous manufacturing facility responsible for the following aspects:
Testing raw materials prior to blasting in the quarry and assisting with development
of quarrying strategies forms the first step in the process.
Analysing rock samples from the raw mill at regular intervals during the day and
night and fine tuning the process to ensure chemical control is maintained.
Analysing clinker at the end of the cooler (before grinding) to ensure that the
manufactured process meets specification.

 Checking that cement mills are undertaking grinding correctly and that customers
receive the right product.
Checkings despatched materials for quality and compliance with NZ Standards
requirements. Certificates of conformance are issued to customers based on these
analyses.
Product development.
Testing work within the laboratory ranges from simple air permeability measurements to high
technology X-ray fluoresence analysis (see air pollution article). Qualifications within the
laboratory relect this wide range of testing and skills requirement with university qualified
staff working alongside others with minimal formal qualifications.