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Melanie Holcomb
RobertHallman

THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART

The Metropolitan Museum of Art

is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to
The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin

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Director'sNote
The MetropolitanMuseum is justifiably
proud of its exceptional holdings of
Byzantine and early medieval art, which
constitute the preeminent collection in
the United States and one of the world's
outstandingassemblages of this material.
In recognition of the importanceof these
holdings, we decided several years ago
that a new, greatly enhanced space was
necessary for their properexhibition.
The resultsof our efforts,the Maryand
Michael JaharisGalleries for Byzantine
Art, opened in November 2000. The
installation-in restoredand redesigned
Beaux Artsspaces, partof RichardMorris
Hunt's architectural plan of 1902includes an intimate, "cryptlike"gallery
under the GrandStaircase,featuringthe
great brick arches and sloping walls that
supportthe massive granitesteps rising
above. This area, now housing works
from Byzantine Egypt,has been inaccessible to the public since it was built.
Adjoining it on the north is a gallery
primarilydevoted to secular art of the
Byzantine and early medieval worlds;

This publication was made possible through the

generosity of the Lila Acheson Wallace Fund for
The Metropolitan Museum of Art established by
the cofounder of Reader's Digest.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin.

Spring 2001. Volume LVIII,Number 4 (ISSN
0026-1521). Published quarterly. Copyright ?
by The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Periodicals
postage paid at New York, N.Y., and Additional
Mailing Offices. The Metropolitan Museum of
Art Bulletin is provided as a benefit to Museum
members and is available by subscription.

and on the south is a gallery for liturgical

art of the Byzantine church and Middle
to LateByzantinesecular art.The galleries
are the firstphase of an extensive project
that will eventually encompass every
aspect of the holdings of medieval art.
The reinstallationwas organized by
PeterBarnet,the Michel David-Weill
curatorin charge;Helen C. Evans,curator;
and Melanie Holcomb, assistant curator,

in the Departmentof Medieval Artand

The Cloisters.The selection of objects
and the texts for this publication, presenting a brief survey of the riches of the
new galleries, are by Helen C. Evans,
with Melanie Holcomb and Robert
Hallman, researchassociate.
Of course, our plans for these magnificent galleries would never have
been realized if it had not been for the
extraordinarygenerosity of Maryand
Michael Jaharis,whose deep love of
and dedication to Byzantine art and
culture made them possible.
Philippe de Montebello, Director

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Editorof the Bulletin:Jennifer Bernstein

Forthis issue: Jane Bobko with EllynAllison
Production: Peter Antony
Design: Bruce Campbell
Photography by Joseph Coscia Jr.,Anna-Marie
Kellen, and Juan Trujilloof the Photograph
Studio of The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Frontcover: Christon the Cross, with the Virgin
and SaintJohn, detail of a box reliquary(see p. 39).
Back cover: Personificationof Ktisis(or Foundation),
detail of a floor mosaic (see p. 17)
Unless otherwise noted, all texts are by
Helen C. Evans.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art

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The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin

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The"cryptlike"
space underthe GrandStaircase,partof the Maryand MichaelJaharisGalleriesfor ByzantineArt

TheArts of Byzantium
The empire called Byzantiumlasted
more than 1,100 years-from the founding of its capital, Constantinople(modern
Istanbul,Turkey),in 330 to the conquest
of the city by the OttomanTurksin 1453.
The image that many have of it today
comes from William ButlerYeats'spoem
"Sailingto Byzantium"(1928): It is a
world filled with objects of "hammered
gold and gold enamelling/To keep a
drowsy Emperorawake;/Or [to be] set
upon a golden bough to sing/To lords
and ladies of Byzantium/Of what is past,
or passing, or to come." The citizens of
this Byzantiumare either "sages standing
in God's holy fire/As in the gold mosaic
of a wall" or-according to another
popular conception-plotters consumed
by complex and disorienting-that is,

byzantine-intrigues. The splendid works

in the MetropolitanMuseum'sinstallation
of Byzantineart in the Maryand Michael
JaharisGalleries demonstrate, however,
that the great empire was not a frozen
society but a diverse and vital state. These
artworksoffer us a profound, nuanced
understandingof the Byzantines'appreciation of beauty, faith, and power.
The Empire's First Golden Age
The firstgolden age of the Byzantine
Empire,known as the EarlyByzantine
period, extended from the founding of
Constantinople into the 700s. The
emperor Constantinethe Great (r. 30637) selected Byzantion, an ancient Greek
city on the Bosporus, to be the site of
the new capital of the Roman Empirein

Portraitof Gennadios, detailof gold-glassmedallion(see p. 9)

324. In 330 he transferredthe senate and

the imperialcourt from Rome to the former Byzantion,a largercity he named
Constantinople(the polis-or city-of
Constantine).There, at the junctureof
Europeand Asia, where the overland
trade routes of the Eastmet the sea
routes of the Mediterranean,the emperor
believed that he could best protect the
valuable Romanprovinces in Egypt,the
Holy Land,Syria,and the Balkansfrom
the empire'spowerful ancient enemy to
the east, the Persians.
Constantinewas the firstChristian
rulerof the Roman Empire.At the Battle
of the Milvian Bridgein 312 he had
defeated Maxentius(r.306-12) for sole
control of the empire; Constantine'ssoldiersare said to have paintedthe Chi-Rho,
or monogramof Christ,on their shields
after he beheld a vision that the new
faith would lead him to victory. In 313
he acknowledged the divine assistance
he had received and made Christianitya
legal religion in the empire. Under his
rule numerous major churches were
built at sites sacred to Christians,including the churchof the Holy Sepulchrein
Jerusalem(raisedat the spot where Christ
is believed to have been crucified)and
SaintPeter'sin Rome,constructedover the
cemetery, outside the city walls, where
the apostle is said to have been buried.
AlthoughChristianitywas only one of the
creeds that flourished in the culturally
and religiously diverse Byzantine state,
a Christianchurch, Hagia Sophia (Holy
Wisdom), was erected in the heartof
Constantinople,between the imperial
palace and the senate. Slowly and with
some resistancethe gods of antiquitywere
replaced by the ChristianGod. During
his brief reign, from 361 to 363, the
emperorJulianthe Apostate attemptedto
restorethe ancient Romanorder, including the gods of the classical world. By

Personification of Spring, detail of tunic decoration (see p. 25)

the late 300s, however, Christianitywas

the official religion of the state. More
and more objects richly decorated with
Christianimagerywere created, for both
ecclesiastical and domestic use.
Evenas Christianitytriumphed,
Byzantium'seducated elite continued to
rely upon Roman law and Greek and
Roman culture to maintaina highly
organized state centered on its major
cities and supported by the wealth and
dense population of the eastern territories. Emperorsupdated the old Roman
codes in Latin,which was still the official language of government.There
was a resurgenceof Greek culture, especially in literatureand in the visual arts.
Schools taught classical Greek texts, such
as Homer'sIliad,and importantByzantine
writers, like the sixth-centuryhistorian

Procopius (act. 550s), modeled their

works on classical ones.
In the mid-500s the emperorJustinianI
(r. 527-65), the greatest of the early
rulersof the empire, regained many of
the old Roman lands in the West.
Ravenna, not Rome, now served as the
western capital of the empire. Trade
routes extended from western Europeto
China. The artistictraditionsof the
Byzantine state flourished throughoutthe
empire, including in its southernmost
province, Egypt.
Partof the classical world since
its conquest by Alexander the Great
(r. 336-323

B.C.), Egypt was a source of

vast wealth for the Byzantines. It provided much of the grain that fed the
empire's cities. The finest linen, made
from flax, was woven in Egypt,and the
5

The Virgin,medallion from an icon frame (see p. 45)

most precious porphyry(purple marble)

was quarriedthere. Alexandria,at the
mouth of the Nile, became a Christian
diocese in 382. (Accordingto tradition,
the city's firstbishop had been the evangelist Mark[act. before A.D. 70].) The city
was one of the five major centers
of the church (the others were Rome,
Constantinople,Antioch, and Jerusalem).
Egypt,where men like SaintAnthony
the Great (ca. 251 -356) went into the
desert to live ascetic lives in contemplation of the divine, was also the source
of Christianmonasticism.The Egyptianborn Pachomios(ca. 290-346) wrote
rules for communal living, once others
began to follow holy men into the desert.
In 451 internaltheological debates at the
Council of Chalcedon led the Egyptian
church to separatefrom the church of
Constantinople.Ultimatelythe Egyptian

church came to be called the Coptic

church, as it still is today. (Theterm
"Coptic"was introduced by Egypt's
Arabconquerors in the mid-seventh
century; it is derived from a mispronunciation of Aigyptos, the ancient Greek
word for "Egypt."Indeed, "Byzantium"
was coined by the German humanist
HieronymousWolf [1518-1580] to
distinguishthe Roman state ruled from
Byzantion-Constantinoplefrom the
empire when it was ruled from Rome.)
The Early Byzantine World and the
Peoples on Its Borders
As early as the 160s Roman armies
under MarcusAurelius(r. 161 -80) had
clashed with Germanic tribes on the
empire'swestern border,in what is today
Romania. In the third century the Franks
living along the Rhine and the Goths

settled near the Danube began regularly

to attack the Romans.The tribal peoples
nonetheless also served as mercenaries
in the Roman and Byzantine armies. In
395 the Roman/Byzantine Empirewas
divided into eastern and western halves
ruled by Arcadius (r.395-408) and
Honorius (r.395-423), respectively,the
sons of Theodosius I (r.379-95), the
emperor who declared Christianitythe
state religion. The border peoples began
to establish their own kingdoms in the
western provinces, and many received
official recognition from Constantinople.
Theirarts combined Roman and Byzantine elements with Bronze Age and
Celtic influences.
The peoples on the western borders
began to convert to Christianity,though
not always to the church of Rome and
Constantinople.In 345 the Goths adopted
Arianism,a teaching that had originated
in Alexandriaand that in 325 had been
condemned as heretical by a council of
the church. Arians,who included several
Byzantine emperors, were opposed to
the official church position that Christ
was the equal of God the Father,holding
instead that he was created by God the
Father.When the Anglo-Saxons settled
Englandin the 430s, they created two
religious spheres: the Anglo-Saxons in
the west became Christians,while those
in the east remained pagans. Under King
Clovis (r.481 -511), the Franksconverted
to Christianityabout 496. By the 700s the
increasing numbers of Christianpeoples
in the West-descended from Germanic
tribes such as the Franks(France),Langobards (Italy),Visigoths (Spain), AngloSaxons (England),Vikings (Scandinavia),
and others-were growing more and
more distant from Byzantium and
establishing separate alliances with the
church in Rome. In 800 Charlemagne
(king 768-814) had himself crowned
imperator Romanorum (emperor of
the Romans)by Pope Leo III(in office

795-816) in Rome. In 812 the Byzantine

court recognized Charlemagneas
basileus (king)of only the Franks.
As independent states developed on
the western bordersof the empire,
attacksby both old and new enemies
continued on its eastern borders.The
Persianshad long threatenedthe eastern
empire. By the fifth century they controlled the Christianlands of Armenia
and Georgia and attempted by force to
convertthe inhabitantsto Zoroastrianism,
the Persianstate religion. In 626 the
Persiansjoined with the nomadic Avars
to besiege Constantinopleby land and
sea, but the capital was saved by its massive double-walled fortificationsand by
the imperialnavy,which broke the sea
blockade. Farthersouth the Persians
successfully swept to the Mediterranean,
occupying the Holy Landand Egyptfrom
61 8 to 629. In the 640s, after having
briefly regainedthe bulk of that territory
from the Persians,Byzantiumpermanently lost most of its southernterritories,
from Roman Syriato northernAfrica,to
the rising power in the East,the Arab
armies fighting in the name of a new
religion, Islam.
Within the empire the Iconoclastic
Controversy-an intense debate over the
role of images in religious devotionsdeeply divided the population. In 726
the Byzantineemperor Leo III(r. 71 741) forbade the use of icons.
The Empire'sSecond Golden Age
In 843 those in favor of the use of religious images finally prevailed. Icons in
all media, from ivory and gems to paint
and mosaics, appeared everywhere.
A concurrentrevival in the economy
helped to create a second golden age,
the Middle Byzantine period (8431261), which ended with the Crusades.
As in earlier centuries, the state played a
dual role as the voice of Christianorthodoxy and as a political superpower.The

emperor continued to reign as Christ's

representativeon earth. Greek became
the dominant official language; classical
scholarship remained the basis of the
educational system.
As Byzantiumentered a new diplomatic era, it developed regularcontact
with the Islamic caliphates, Christians
living in Islamic states, and Western
rulers. Duringthis period Byzantium's
sphere of influence embraced Kievan
Rus' (a state that took in partsof modern

Ukraine, Belarus,and western Russia),

Bulgaria,Georgia, Armenia, Syria,the
Holy Land, Egypt,Cyprus, Norman
Sicily, and southern Italy.The multiethnic
culture of Byzantiumnot only influenced
the artsof other nations but also absorbed
for its own use elements from the Latin
West and the Islamic Near East.
In the east some of the territorylost
to the Arabswas regained, through
both diplomatic and militaryefforts.
Under the emperor Basil II(r. 976-1025)

Soldiers, detail of Christ Bearing the Cross (see p. 65)

the second golden age of Byzantium

reached its zenith; the empire'sterritories
included much of Armenia in the east
and Bulgariato the northeast.In 1071,
however, the Byzantineforces were
routed at the Battleof Mantzikert,on the
empire'seastern border.This defeat
markedthe beginning of the empire's
final loss of its eastern territoriesto
Islam,a process that took centuries.
The empire was more successful in
extending its influence northward,to the
Slavs, through missionariessent from
Constantinople.Saints Constantine
the Philosopher(also known as Cyril;
ca. 827-869) and Methodius (ca. 815885), who undertookthe firsttranslations
of numerous liturgicaltexts into Old
ChurchSlavonic, were the most important among these emissaries. Byzantium's
proselytizingefforts bore fruit in 988,
when the powerful state of KievanRus'
recognized Christianityas its official religion, under the aegis of the church in
Constantinople.
Westernstates continued to have
ambivalentrelationswith Byzantium.In
962 Otto I (r. 936-62) was crowned
imperatorin Rome. The Byzantines recognized him only as basileus of the
Franksyet sent the Byzantine princess
Theophanoto be the wife of Otto II
(r.973-83). Religioustensions between
Constantinopleand Rome became
increasinglycomplex. In 1054 a papal
delegation from Rome argued violently
with the patriarchof Constantinople
over doctrine; so irreconcilablewere
their differences that they pronounced
anathemas upon each other. This was
the beginning of the Great Schism that
to this day divides the Easternand
Westernchurches.
In 1095 Pope Urban II(in office
1088-99) responded favorably,however,

to a request from the Byzantineemperor

Alexios I Komnenos(r. 1081-1118) for
aid against the Muslim occupiers of
Jerusalem.Latin-speakingknightsfrom
western Europecame east to try to
regain the Holy Land.(The FirstCrusade,
in 1099, ended in the recaptureof Jerusalem.) The Crusadesgreatly increased
the interactionbetween Byzantine and
Westerner,and a circuit of small
Crusaderstates was established along
the Mediterraneancoast, including
fortresses at sites of strategic importance, such as Montfortand Kracdes
Chevaliers(in modern Israeland Syria,
respectively). Relations between
Crusaderand Byzantineforces deteriorated, though. During the Fourth
Crusade in 1204 the Western knights
began to occupy Byzantineterritories,
and ultimatelythey took Constantinople.
The Latin Empireestablished there
lasted until 1261.
The Crusaderpresence altered the
shape of the Byzantineworld. Through
alliances with the West, kingdoms like
ArmenianCilicia gained independence.
Small Byzantine successor states were
founded atTrebizond,Nicaea, and Epiros.
Many Westernersremained in Byzantine
lands,adoptingelements of Byzantineculture and patronizing Byzantine arts;others took Byzantine works and learning
home with them, where they influenced
Western culture. Some of the most
prized Byzantine artistic treasures and
most famous of Constantinople's
Christianrelics were broughtto western
Europe.Among them was the Crown
of Thorns,which was sold by the last
Latinking of Constantinople, Baldwin II
(r. 1240-61), to his cousin Louis IX
(r. 1226-70) of France.(Louisbuilt the
churchof Sainte-Chapellein Paristo
house the crown.)

The Final Flowering of the Byzantine

World
In 1261 MichaelVIIIPalaiologos(r. 125982), a Byzantine nobleman descended
from three imperialfamilies, retook
Constantinopleand established the
dynastythat ruled the empire during its
last centuries. In this era the artsflourished in spite of a series of militaryand
financial crises that reduced both the
empire'sterritoryand its prestige.Internal
power struggles,controversiesover
accepting Rome'sterms for repairingthe
Great Schism, and encroachment on
Byzantineterritory,especially by the
Mongols and laterthe OttomanTurks,
diminished the authorityof the centralized state. Nevertheless, writers,artists,
and architectsworking in urbancenters
such as Mistra,Thessalonike,Constantinople, and Trebizondcontinued to
enrich Byzantine culture.
The church remainedthe chief repository of art and intellectual endeavor, and
it was throughthe Orthodox church that
Byzantineart and culture lived on in the
empire'sformerterritoriesand in Russia,
decades afterthe Ottoman conquest of
Constantinoplein 1453. Moscow saw
itself as the heir to Constantinople; as
the Orthodox monk Filofeyof Pskov
(1465-1542) proclaimed in 1511: "Hear
me, pious Czar [VasilyIII(r. 1505-33)].
All Christiankingdoms have converged
in thine alone. Two Romes have fallen, a
thirdstands, a fourththere shall not be."
Icon paintersfrom Creteproduced images
for both the Orthodox and the Latin
church. Byzantine scholars and scholarship traveledas far west as the courts of
Italy,France,and Flanders.Long afterthe
empire ended, Byzantine art and culture
set a standardfor luxury,beauty, and
learningthat inspired its successors,
West and East.

THE EMPIRE'S

FIRST GOLDEN

AGE

Medallion with Portrait of Gennadios

Box with Sleeping Eros

Goldglass
Roman
Made250-300, probablyin Alexandria,
Egypt
Diam.15/8 in. (4.1 cm)
FletcherFund,1926 (26.258)

Silver
Romanor Byzantine,said to havebeen
found in Tartus,Syria
Made300s

This exquisite portraithead shows a

youth fromAlexandria,the cosmopolitan
Egyptiancity that had been founded by
Alexanderthe Great (r.336-323 B.C.)in
331 B.C.The medallion was probably a
prize for the winner of a musical contest:
the inscriptionin Greek-the cultural
languageof the city-identifies the youth
as "Gennadios,most skilled in music."
The masterfullynaturalisticimage, drawn
with a fine point on gold leaf, was applied
to the upper surface of a dark blue glass
disk.A second, clear disk was then placed
on top of the first,to seal the image. The
beveled edges of the disks suggest that
the medallion was meant to be mounted
and worn as a pendant.
The medallion dates from a time when
the Roman Empirewas increasingly
aware of the need to better protect such
wealthy eastern provinces as Egypt.
Gennadios'scity, the major port at the
mouth of the Nile, would become
the third-largestcity in the Byzantine
Empire,afterConstantinopleand Rome.
Under Byzantine rule it would also
continue to be the great intellectual
center it had been under the Greeks
and Romans.

This silver box was probably meant for

domestic use, possibly as part of a lady's
toilet. Itatteststo the continuingpopularity
in the eastern provinces of the empireeven as Christianityincreased in importance-of images drawn from the cults
of the classical world. Worked in high
relief, the oval box displays on its lid a
charming sleeping Eros,the classical
god of love; he reclines on a lion's skin,
with his bow in hand. The sides of the
box are decorated with playful putti
holding garlandswith bulls' heads, an
ancient symbol of fertility,at each end.
These motifs are relatedto the cult of
Dionysos, god of wine, and they persisted
in the Byzantine world into the Middle
Byzantine era (843-1261). The images
may have had a cultic significancefor the
owners of the objects they adorned.

W.

93/4

in. (24.8 cm)

FletcherFund,1947 (47.100.33)

Sarcophagus with a Greek Physician

Marble;missingthe lid and the lower-right
frontedge
Roman,fromnearOstia
Carvedearly300s
L. 847/8in. (215.6 cm)

Giftof Mrs.JosephBrummerand Ernest

in memoryof JosephBrummer,
Brummer,
1948 (48.76.1)

10

The owner of this sarcophagusselected

its central image to ensure that his learning and skills would be recognized for
eternity.A sitting man carefully studying
a scroll is depicted in the pose that in
the classical world denoted educated
men or philosophers.The contents of the
chest before him-a basin for bleeding
patients and more scrolls-identify the
figureas a physician,perhapsa teacher of
medicine. On top of the chest is an open
medical kit;the incised depictions of the
surgeon'stools are still faintly visible.
Although the sarcophaguswas found
near Ostia, the port city of Rome, the
figure's style of dress and the use of
Greek for the inscription suggest that
the owner was one of the many Greek
doctors practicing in the region. Rather
than naming the owner, the inscription

curses the person who might reuse the

sarcophagus:"Ifanyone shall dare to bury
another person along with this one,
he shall pay to the treasurythree times
two thousand [the unit of currency].This
is what he shall pay to [the city of] Portus
[Ostia], but he himself will endure the
eternal punishment of the violator
of graves."
Duringthe 300s Christiansadopted the
philosopher'spose to depict the learned
men of their faith, including Christ,the
apostles, and leading figures of the
church. The undulating motifs, or strigils,
on each side of the central sarcophagus
image were inspired by the tools used by
athletes in the gymnasiums to scrape oil
and sand from their bodies; strigils,too,
would appear in Christianart.

Fragmentary Base of a Bowl with

Jewish Symbols
Gold glass
Roman,probablyfromRome
Made300-350
Max. w. 3Y/2in. (8.9 cm)
Rogers Fund, 1918 (18.145.1a, b)

This rareexample of gold glass decoratedwith Jewish symbols retainsonly a

portion of its Latininscription,which
translates:"Drinkwith blessing in preparation...." The images in the top register
would have been meaningful to Jewish
communities throughout the empire.
Still nearly whole, the upper portion
of the glass displays an open Torahark
with a gabled roof and six scrolls on its
shelves. At each side of the ark are a
seven-branched menorah and other ritual
implements:to the right, a shofar (ram's
horn) and an unidentified roundel;to
the left, a scroll and the remnantsof an
etrog (citron).While such decoration is
usual on Jewish objects of this period,
the images in the lower registerare less
common. Judgingby other examples
of Jewish gold glass, the lower register
depicted a banquet scene-a fish set
on a tripod table before the cushioned
couch on which the diner would recline.
All that survives is a portion of the fish
on the tabletop and the cushion of the
couch. Togetherthese images are believed
to have symbolized the owner's hope
of salvation through the redemption of
his or her people.
To make such glass, gold leaf was
cut in the form of the design, then
placed on top of one piece of glass and
covered with another to seal it. Goldglass medallions, originally the bases of
bowls, are found in the tombs of people
of all religions from the early 300s. Most
have been discovered in Rome and are
thought to have been pressed as markers
into the mortarof newly sealed tombs.

11

Bowl with Saints Peter and Paul

Terracottawith green glaze
Roman or Byzantine, found in a catacomb
on the Via Appia, Rome
Made about 350
Diam. 51/2in. (14 cm)
Fletcher Fund, 1952 (52.25.1)

On the exteriorare four regularlyspaced

Christograms,formed from the first letters of Christ'sname in Greek:chi (X)
and rho (P).They are framed in martyrs'
wreaths signifying his sacrifice for the
sins of mankind.Christogramsare among
the earliest images of the Christian
faith. According to legend, in 312
Constantine'ssoldiers painted the ChiRho on their shields before defeating
the army of Maxentiusat the Battleof
the Milvian Bridgeand thus winning
control of the Roman Empire.
Insidethe bowl Peterand Paulare
shown seated, facing each other in animated discussion (see detail). The two
saints are often depicted on works made
in Rome; both were especially important
to that city, as they were said to have
been martyredthere. Numerous goldglass medallions with representationsof
them have been discovered in Christian
tombs in Romancatacombs. This bowl
was found on one of the city's major
roads, the Via Appia, where many tombs
of the affluentwere located.

12

SaintsPeterand Paul,detailof insideof bowl

Detail of Sarcophagus with Scenes

from the Lives of Saint Peter and
Christ
Marble;missing the lid; upper portion of
the scenes of the life of Christ restored
about 1906-7
Roman, from Villa Felice (formerly
Carpegna), Rome, and Burrwood,
Cold Spring Harbor,New York
Carved early 300s, in Rome
Gift of Josef and Marsy Mittlemann, 1991
(1991.366)

The sarcophaguswas carved about the

time Christianitywas recognized as a
legal faith in the Roman Empire.It was
brought to the United States at the
beginning of the twentieth century and
installed at Burrwood,the Walter
Jenningsestate in Cold SpringHarbor,

New York,before it was given to the

MetropolitanMuseum.
Both ends and one side of the sarcophagus are decorated-the side with
scenes from the lives of Saint Peterand
Christ.Representationsof Saint Peter's
Arrestin Rome (center)and of the Miracle
of Saint PeterDrawingWaterfrom a Rock
in His Jail Cell (left)are carved in powerful, deep relief at the left end of the side.
They are among the earliestextant images
depicting Peter'sspecial relationship
with Rome.
When the sarcophaguswas published
in 1879, the lower legs were all that survived of the scenes from the life of Christ
on the right.Misidentificationof the figures led to inaccurate restorationof the
upper portionof the four scenes: the Entry
into Jerusalem(right),the Cureof the Man

Born Blind, the Multiplicationof the

Loaves,and the Raisingof Lazarus.The
soldier to Peter'srightand the heavily
bearded Christ (an image not found in
fourth-centuryart)entering Jerusalemon
an ass are partof the restoration.The colt
and the hooves of the ass are original.(See
below: Christis at the right;Peter is the
third and seventh figure from the right.)
Roughly carved in very low relief on
the ends of the sarcophagus are two Old
Testamentscenes: the Three Hebrews in
the FieryFurnace(the early church consideredtheirstorya foretellingof mankind's
salvation through Christ)and Adam and
Eveafterthe Fall,by the Treeof Knowledge
(theirswas the sin that Christredeemed).
The Three Hebrews may also reflect the
early church fathers'frequent description
of Rome as a new Babylon.

13

Head of Emperor Constans

(r. 337-50)
Marble
Byzantine
Carvedabout337-40
H. 101/4 in. (26 cm)
Rogers Fund, 1967 (67.107)

14

The firstChristianRoman emperor,

Constantine,had four sons. This classically styled head probably represents
Constans, the youngest. The head, meant
for a statue, is crowned with a pearlbordereddiadem of the type worn by
Constantine'sfamily.
A devout Christian,Constans became
rulerof partof the western empireincluding Italy,Africa,and much of

Greece-in 337, at about age seventeen;

he took command of the remainderof
the western half of the empire in 340.
He defeated the Franksand was the last
emperor to visit Britain.In 350, before
he was thirty,Constans was killed by the
usurper Magnentius (r. 350-53). By
the end of the fourthcenturymost of the
western empire was no longer under
the control of Constantinople.

Two Panels of a Diptych Announcing

the Consulship of Justinian
Ivory
Byzantine
Made 521, in Constantinople
Each: 133/4x 53/4in. (35 x 14.5 cm)
Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 191 7
(17.190.52, .53)

These handsome ivory panels announce

the election of Justinianas consul and
were presentedby him to a memberof the
senate. The rank of consul was once
the highest in the Romanstate, and in the
sixth century it was still an important

honorific. JustinianI (r. 527-65) later

became the greatestemperor of the Early
Byzantine period.
Eightelegantly carved lions' heads
surroundedby acanthus leaves, at the
corners of the panels, focus attention
on inscriptionswritten in Latin,the official language of the empire in the early
period. The inscriptionsacross the top
of the two panels give the donor's name
and titles: "FlaviusPetrusSabbatius
Justinianus,noble, officer, and chief of
the cavalry and commander in chief
of the infantryand consul entering his
office at the propertime."Those in the

central medallions read: "Thesegifts,

slight indeed in value but rich in honors,
I as consul offer to my senators."The
small crosses at the top and bottom of
the medallions are the only indication
of the donor's religion. Once hinged
together, with the names of the other
consuls inscribed in wax on the interior,
the panels probably served as an invitation to the great public games that new
consuls hosted in Constantinople'shippodrome. Earlierconsular diptychs, also
made of ivory,often displayed events
from the games, including animal fights
and gladiatorialcontests.
15

Steelyard Weight with Bust of a

Byzantine Empress and a Hook

Fragment of a Floor Mosaic with a

Personification of Ktisis

Copper-alloy
weightfilledwith lead;brass
hook
Byzantine
Cast400-450

Marbleand glass
Byzantine
Made500-550; modernrestoration
Overall 533/8x 33 in. (135.6 x 83.8 cm)

HarrisBrisbaneDickand FletcherFunds,
1998 (1998.69)
Purchase,LilaAchesonWallaceGift,and
Dodge and RogersFunds,1999 (1999.99)

H. 91/8in. (23.2 cm); wt. 5.04 lb. (2.29 kg)

Purchase,RogersFund,Bequestof Theodore
M. Davis,by exchange,and Giftsof George
J. PierpontMorgan,Mrs.LucyW.
Blumenthal,
Drexel,andMrs.RobertJ. Levy,by exchange,
1980 (1980.416a,b)
Steelyardweights used to measure heavy
goods like grain were often shaped as
busts of empresses. The sober images
may have been meant to enhance the
weights' authorityas accurate measures,
or they may have served as remindersto
the public of the government'sduty to
maintaintaxis, or order and harmony in
the universe-in part by ensuring the

16

legitimacy of commercial contracts

involving weights and measures.This
unusually detailed bust representsa
rankingmember of the Byzantine court,
whose elaborate jewelry atteststo the
wealth of the state. Her dress and
demeanor suggest that she is an empress
of the Theodosian dynasty,which ruled
between 379 and 450.

The bust of a richly bejeweled woman

stares from this fragmentof a floor
mosaic that was once part of a large
public building. The partiallyrestored
Greek inscriptionnear her head identifies her as Ktisis,the personificationof
the act of generous donation or foundation. To emphasize her role as donor,
she holds the measuring tool for the
Romanfoot. On her righta man extends
a cornucopia toward her as if offering a
gift; the Greek word for "good" is near
his head. Originallya similarfigure probably appeared to her left, and an inscription by his head would have completed
the legend "Good wishes."
The classical traditionof personifying
abstractideals continued during the
ChristianErain many places around the
Mediterraneanbasin, including Antioch
(modern Antakya,Turkey),Cyprus, and
North Africa.The carefully arrangedand
sized marble and glass tesserae forming
this floor fragmentare typical of the
exceptional mosaics created throughout
the Byzantine world in the 500s.
The MetropolitanMuseum acquired
the two figures independently. They
were restored in accordance with an
old photographof the mosaic in a dealer's
storeroom, showing the figures in their
original arrangement before being
separatedfor sale.

Bust of a Lady of Rank

Marble
Byzantine
Carved late 400s-early 500s, probably in
Constantinople
H. 207/8 in. (53 cm)
The Cloisters Collection, 1966 (66.25)

This superblycarved portraitbust presents a pensive woman with a compelling

gaze who holds a scroll, the symbol of
an educated person. Her long fingers
draw attentionto the scroll, indicating
her pride in being among the cultured
elite in an era that prized learningfor
both men and women. The delicate, sensitive carving and the highly polished
finish suggest that the figure was made in
Constantinople,perhaps as partof the
funerarymonument of a leading member
of the imperialaristocracy.

Pectoral with Coins and

Pseudomedallion
Goldwith niello
Byzantine
Madeabout539-50
Diam. medallion (with beading): 2%/8in.

(5.8 cm)
Giftof J. PierpontMorgan,1917
(17.190.1664)
This handsome, imposing pectoral is
one of thirty-fourpieces of gold jewelry
said to have been found at the turn of
the twentieth century,possibly at ancient
Lycopolis(modernAssiut)or Antino6polis
(Antino6;modern Sheikh Ibada),both in
central Egypt.(The hoard is now divided
among the MetropolitanMuseum;the
BritishMuseum, London;the Freer
Galleryof Art,Washington, D.C.; and
the StaatlicheMuseen-Preussischer
Kulturbesitz,Berlin.)Whether the pieces
were indeed discovered together or were
assembled from differentsites, they representthe standardof luxuryamong the
elite in Egyptunder Byzantine rule and

attest to the close connection between

the wealthy province and the capital
Constantinople.
The pectoral may have been made for
an aristocrator general associated with
the Byzantine court. Its large central
medallion, formed from two gold sheets
worked in repousse, features an unidentified emperor on the front and the
personificationof a city, probably
Constantinople,on the back. The gold
coins date from the reign of the emperor
Theodosius II(r.408-50) to 539, when
JustinianI introduceda new style of representingthe emperor on coinage. The
makingof the pectoral may have coincided with that change. A framed, solidgold imperial medallion of Theodosius I
(r.379-95), from the same hoard (Freer
Gallery of Art), probably once hung
from the pectoral. As on the diptych of
JustinianI (see p. 15), there is a discreet
reference to Christianity:crosses in

niello, a black alloy, appear on the two

very small medallions either side of the
central medallion.
Pair of Jeweled Bracelets
Gold, silver,pearls,amethysts,sapphires,
glass, quartz,and emeraldplasma
Byzantine
Made500-700, probablyin Constantinople
Diam.31/4in. (8.3 cm)
Giftof J. PierpontMorgan,1917
(17.190.1670, .1671)
These elaborately decorated bracelets
are two of four from the hoard that
contained the pectoral with coins and
pseudomedallion, above. Featuring
gemstones of different colors framed
and enhanced by luminous pearls, they
representone of the most highly prized
jewelry types of the EarlyByzantineworld.
On the interiors are sheets of gold
pierced to form openwork designs.

19

Lintel Fragment
Limestone
Byzantine
Made about 400-550, probably in Syria
20 x 191/2in. (49.5 x 17.8 cm)
Purchase,Anonymous Gift, 1969 (69.15)

The deeply undercutpatternson this

architecturalfragmentresemble the decoration on lintels from church doorframes in Asia Minor,particularlyin the
northernregions of Roman Syria.The
equal-armedcross in the medallion at
the center representsthe Greek letter

20

chi (X);the vertical arm of the cross

ends in the letter rho (P).Togetherthey
constitute a variant of the Christogram
(see p. 12). The Chi-Rho is found wherever Christianityreached, from Gaul in
western Europeto Egyptin the south.
The alpha (A) and omega (w)flanking
the cross-the firstand last letters in the
Greek alphabet-were also symbols
widely used by the early church.They

referto a vision beheld by John the

Evangeliston the Aegean islandof Patmos,
where he had been exiled by the Romans.
In a letterto the seven churches of Asia
Minor,John described the message from
God that was communicated to him by
an angel: "Iam Alpha and Omega, the
beginning and the ending, saith the Lord,
which is, and which was, and which is
to come, the Almighty"(Revelation 1:8).

The Antioch Chalice

Silvercup set in a footedsilver-giltshell
Byzantine,fromRomanSyria,possibly
Antiochor KaperKoraon
Madeabout500-550
H. 71/2 in. (19 cm)
TheCloistersCollection,1950 (50.4)
This vessel is one of a group of massive,
elegantly worked silver objects called the
Antioch Treasure,which testifies to the
generous support offered to the early
church by Christiancommunities. When it
was discovered in 1910, the treasurewas
believed to have belonged to a church in
Antioch, a wealthy Roman city on the
eastern shore of the Mediterranean.Saints
Peterand Paulwere among the earliestfollowers of Christto preach in the city, where
it is said, the disciples were first called
Christians(Acts of the Apostles 11:26).
Antioch, along with Rome, Constantinople,
Jerusalem,and Alexandria, was one of
the five great cities that led the early
church. More recently,however, it has
been argued that the treasurewas partof
a largergroup of silver objects from the
church of Saint Sergios in KaperKoraon
(modern Kurin,Syria),a small town under
the ecclesiastical control of the church
of Antioch.
The silver cup inside the shell was
once identified as that used by Christ at
the LastSupper (Matthew26:27-29)-the
so-called Holy Grail.The elaborate vine
scrolls that form the container for the cup
encircle figures seated in the classical
philosopher'spose, as well as birds and
animals. Two of the figures may be representationsof Christ(see detail).The Antioch
Chalice may not be a chalice at all, however. In outline it is identical to the standing lamps typically used in churches
during the first half of the sixth century.

Detailof AntiochChalice

Plaques with Saints Peter and Paul

Silver
Byzantine, from Roman Syria, possibly
Antioch or KaperKoraon
Made about 550-600; shown before the
latest restoration
10Y4 x 81/2 in. (27.3 x 21.6 cm) (.1);
105/8

x 81/2in. (27 x 21.6 cm) (.2)

Fletcher Fund, 1950 (50.5.1, .2)

The plaques,which are partof the Antioch

Treasure(see the Antioch Chalice on
p. 21), depict two of the most important
original followers of Christ.The image
of Saint Peterestablished by the early
church was of a man with a round face,
short hair, and a beard. Here (above
left) he holds a cross and gestures as if
preaching.At his waist are the keys to
the kingdom of heaven given to him by
Christ(Matthew16:19). The early church
representedSaint Paulas a man with a
long face, receding hairline, and pointed
22

beard. Here (above right)he holds a

book-an appropriate symbol for
the authorof much of the New Testament.
Both men stand under arches flanked
by peacocks. The early church often
described heaven in architecturalterms;
thus, arches are often considered representations of paradise.These two plaques
may have framed an image of Christ,
composing a tripartiteicon for
contemplation or veneration.
Ivory Pyxis Depicting Women at the
Tomb of Christ
Byzantine
Made500s, in the easternMediterranean
H. 4 in. (10.2 cm)

Giftof J. PierpontMorgan,1917 (17.190.57)

The Gospel of Luke(24:1-10) describes
a group of women-including the Virgin
Mary,MaryMagdalen, and Mary,mother
of James-at the empty tomb of the risen

Christ.The decoration on the back of

this pyxis shows three women standing
with their hands outstretched, in the
orant (praying)posture used in the early
church. Here, on the front, two Marys
swing censers as they approach a domed
building, where tied-back curtains reveal
an altar. In the early church the altar
came to be understood as a symbol of
Christ'stomb. On the altar is the Gospel
book, Christ'sword. Above it is a hanging lamp. Narrativescenes such as this
made the words of the Gospels visible
for the devout, and they established traditions for the depiction of events in the
life of Christthat influenced subsequent
Christianart.
This finely carved pyxis was worked
from a cross section of an elephant's
tusk. Such containers may have been
used to carrythe bread of the Eucharist
to those too ill or too elderly to
attend church.

Flask with Adoration of the Magi

Silver and silver gilt
Byzantine
Made 500s
H. 123/ in. (31.5 cm)
Purchase, FrederickC. Hewitt Fund, by
exchange; Rogers Fund and Schimmel
FoundationInc. Gift; Gifts of J. Pierpont
Morgan, Mr.and Mrs. Marc B. Rojtman,
Mr.and Mrs.John D. RockefellerJr.,LucyW.
Drexel, and Anonymous, by exchange;
Bequests of Mary Stillman Harkness, George
Blumenthal, Gwynne M. Andrews, and
Michael Dreicer, by exchange; Theodore M.
Davis Collection, Bequest of Theodore M.
Davis, by exchange; Rogers Fund, by
exchange; and The Cloisters Collection, by
exchange, 1984 (1984.196)

Some early depictions of events from the

life of Christinclude details that were
omitted from laterstandardrepresentations of the scenes. The images on this
flask, which may have been used by a

Christiancommunity in the East,include

examples of such unusual iconography.
At the left the ChristChild is sitting
uprightin his mother'slap. Above the
ChristChild is the starthat, according to
the Gospel of Matthew (2:1-12), led the
three wise men to Christ.The archangel
Gabriel is shown dramaticallystriding
forwardto present the three Magi (not
shown in this illustration)to the Christ
Child. Only in the ArmenianInfancy
Gospel, a popular early text elaborating
the Gospels' descriptionsof Christ's
young life, is Gabriel described as the
wise men's guide. At the base of the flask
are phoenixes, whose legendary rebirth
from the ashes may have been meant to
symbolize the salvation offered by
Christ'sbirth.

23

Arch with Running Vines, Leaves, and

Fruit
Limestone
Byzantine, said to be from the Monastery of
Apa Apollo, Bawit, Egypt
Carved 500-600
Max. w. (with capitals): 92 in. (231 cm)
Gift of EdwardS. Harkness, 1929
(29.9.2a-v)

Two Capitals with Grape-Leaf-andVine Pattern

Limestone
Byzantine, said to be from the Monastery of
Apa Jeremias,Saqqara, Egypt
Carved 500-700
H. 221/2in. (57.2 cm) (.66); 22 in. (55.9 cm)
(.76)
Rogers Fund, 1909-10 (10.1 75.66, .76)

By the sixth century elaborate monastic

complexes had developed at many sites
in Egypt,includingBawit,in centralEgypt,
and Saqqara,near Memphis. By the time
the elements of this arch were carved,
these monasterieshad become partof the
Coptic church, the EgyptianChristian
church that had begun to separatefrom
the church of Constantinopleand Rome
afterthe Council of Chalcedon in 451.
These carvings were probablyoriginally painted in vibrantcolors similarto
those found on textiles (see pp. 25-27).
While the motifs have roots in classical
antiquity,the carvers no longer sought to
make visible the logic of the architecture. Instead, the carvings form a veil
over the stone that denies its solidity and
mass-a style popular throughoutthe
Byzantineworld in the sixth century.
(The most elaborate works of this type
are in the great church of Hagia Sophia
in Istanbul[Constantinople].)With the
Arab conquest of Egypt, carvers of
elements like these entered the service
of the new rulers and influenced the
development of Islamicart.

24

Tunic Decoration: Square with a

Personification of Spring
weave in multicoloredwool
Tapestry
Byzantine,saidto havebeen excavatedat
Panopolis(modernAkhmIm,Egypt)
Woven300-500
91/4x 97/8in. (23.5 x 25 cm)
Giftof GeorgeF.Baker,1890 (90.5.848)
Panopolis,an importantweaving center
duringthe pharaonic period, continued
under Byzantine rule to be a significant
site of textile production.The decoration
on many Byzantine-eraworks from
the town is based on motifs popular in
the Greek and Romanworld. Personifications of the seasons, for instance, are
found on domestic art of all types.
This brightlycolored square may have
been one of a set of four panels representing the seasons that decorated a
tunic or, possibly, a domestic textile. The
flowers suggest that the woman symbolizes spring. Her elaboratejewelry is a
token of the good fortune and prosperity
that such personificationswere thought
to bringto their owners. The careful
modeling of the face, particularlyof
the eyes, is encountered in images in
other media, including mosaics. Traces
of similarvivid colors are found on
architecturalsculpture.

in the Victoriaand AlbertMuseum,

London.)The complete work may have
been a wall hanging or a curtain.
Although Egyptwas a major center of
textile production, exceptional fabrics

were widely imported.This example is

thought to have been woven near Constantinople and is representativeof the
luxury goods available to the elite in
the southernmostprovince of the empire.

Fragment of a Large Hanging with

Bird and Basket
Tapestryweave in multicolored wool

Byzantine,excavatedin Egypt
Woven300-400, probablyin Herakleia
(modernAnatolia,Turkey)
251/4x 193/4in. (64 x 50 cm)
Gift of George F. Baker,1890 (90.5.153)

The intricatelywoven depiction of a bird

perched on a twig by a basket of grapes
is almost painterly.This fragmentwas
partof a large,richlycolored textile meant
for domestic use. (Anotherfragmentis
25

Hanging with Heads of a Dionysian

Group
weave in multicoloredwool
Tapestry
Byzantine,saidto havebeen excavatedat
Antinoopolis(Antinoe;modernSheikh
Ibada,Egypt)
Wovenabout500
401/4x 621/4in. (102 x 158 cm)

Dionysos's bald tutor (bottom row, second from right).The rich jewelry worn
by several of the figures is similarto that
in the MetropolitanMuseum'sjewelry
hoard said to be from either Lycopolis
(modernAssiut)or nearbyAntino6polis,
in Egypt(see the pectoral and bracelets
on p. 19).

Tunic with Dionysos and Dionysian

Motifs

Tunics, usually worn in layers, were the

standarddress in the Mediterranean
world. Most that survive were found in
graves in the dry sands of Egypt,as was
this one. The outer tunics of the eliteofficials,nobles, well-to-do citizens-were
long and elaborately decorated, with
long sleeves. The garmentswere ornamented with woven bands (clavi),squares,
or medallions-decoration not merely
for its own sake but also as amuletic protection for the wearer. Purplewas closely
associated with imperial power, and its
use for the patternshere suggests that the
tunic was made for a leading citizen of

Plain-weavelinenwith designsworkedin
linenand purplewool in tapestryweave
Byzantine,saidto be fromPanopolis
(modernAkhmim,Egypt)
Woven400-500
72 x 53 in. (183 x 135 cm)
Giftof EdwardS. Harkness,1926 (26.9.8)

Byzantine Egypt.
The tunic's richly woven bands and
squares are filled with images of the
followers of Dionysos celebrating his
revelries. Dionysos himself appears in
the squares at the shoulders. The god
long remained popular in Panopolis.

Giftof EdwardS. Harkness,1931 (31.9.3)

Evenas Christianitybecame more firmly
established in the empire, images of
older gods remained popular.Thirteenof
the fifteen exquisitely woven medallions
on this large wall hanging are at least
partiallypreserved.They are encircled by
ivy, a symbol of Dionysos, the ancient
god of wine, and contain busts of participants in the Dionysian revelries.
Among the horned satyrsand beautiful
nymphs and maenads are Herakles
(top row, second from left) and Silenus,
26

About the time this tunic was woven,

Nonnos of Panopolis(act. early fifth
century)wrote a long epic poem, the
Dionysiaka,on Dionysos's conquest of
India,a frequentsubject in Egypt,where
another conqueror,Alexanderthe Great
(r.336-323 B.C.), had ruled and was
buried. It is unclear if the continuing
interestin Dionysian themes had any
religious significance. (Nonnos, for
instance, is thought to have also written
a verse paraphraseof the Gospel of John.)

Bollard with a Fisherman

Bronze
Byzantine
Made400-450, probablyfoundon the
Italianpeninsula
H. 7 in. (17.8 cm)
EdithPerryChapmanFund,1963 (63.206)
This young fisherman wears a short
tunic cinched at the waist, an unadorned
version-suited to farmers,servants,and
seamen-of the more elaborate garment
from Byzantine Egyptshown at the left.
With a net cast over his shoulder and a
tiller in his left hand, he stands before a
weighted bollard-a post around which
small boats were tied to a wharf.The
cleat used to secure the mooring line is
formed by two loops in the shape of
fingers protrudingfrom the bollard.
Perhaps from a dock in the Italianport
city of Ostia, this charmingfigure exemplifies the small-scale decorative yet
utilitarianstatues found throughoutthe
Byzantine Empire.

MH

27

delightfullyplump eros is one of the

many classical subjects that remained
popular as Roman Egyptbecame
Byzantine Egypt,and as the paganism
of antiquityyielded to Christianity.
Fragments with Personifications of
Victory and the Nile
Ivory
Byzantine
Carved 500s, probably in Egypt
L. (Nile) 21/2in. (6.4 cm); I. (Nike) 41/8 in.
(10.5 cm)
The CloistersCollection, 1971 (1971.49.1, .2)

small, childlike figures surroundingthe

Nike are erotes, who in Egyptsymbolized the number of feet the riverneeded
to rise each year to ensure fertilityand a
good harvest. Erotesalso appear beside
the superbly carved, longhaired old man
who personifies the Nile. The delicate
refinementof his face is echoed in the
personificationof the riverfound on
the surviving floor mosaics of the
Great Palace of the imperial court in
Constantinople(now in the Mosaic
Museum, Istanbul).
Polycandelon with Crosses

Plaque with an Eros

Bone, with traces of red and blue paint
Byzantine
Carved 300-500, probably in Egypt
31/2x 23/8in. (8.9 x 6 cm)

Gift of Mr.and Mrs. Charles D. Kelekian,

1978 (1978.431)
Rogers Fund, 1978 (1978.432.1,2)

Ivoryand bone plaques were used to

decorate small caskets and furniture,
such as couches and chests. Many
plaques were incised, while others were
carved in relief. Carvingsof both types
frequentlyappeared on the same object.
Images incised on plaques often featured raised ridges outlining portions of
the design, as is the case here. The interiorof each section thus delineated was
filled with colored wax, so that the
plaques resembled the richly colored
textiles and painted stone sculpturesthat
were also produced in Egyptabout this
time (see pp. 24-27). Tracesof red and
blue paint on the eros's cloak hint at the
originalvibrancyof this plaque, when
bright colors framed and enhanced
the creamy whiteness of his body. The
28

It is possible that these fragmentsare from

an ivory celebratingthe annual flooding
of the Nile River.The figure who appears
to fly, bearing a wreath, is a Nike, or
personificationof victory. (Images like
this one, which are common in classical
art, may have been the models for depictions of angels in Christianart.)The

Copperalloy
Byzantine
Made 500-600
Diam. 101/2 in. (26.5 cm)
Promised Gift of Miriam N. Rosen

Oil-filled glass vessels were hung from

the round openings in this flat, circular

Lamp Handle with Griffin's Head

Copperalloy
Byzantine
Made500-700
H. 67/8 in. (17.6 cm)
Giftof Max Falk,1987 (1987.441)

~1~~~!^~

~form

- ; b_

_
I7^^^^^^^^^^^Ul^
!^^^^rVi^^^^^^^fmfS
^^^massive
-.^^^^^^^^*
^^^^^B^possibly
TB

Standing lamps were widely used in the

Byzantine world and were often decoratedwith Greek and Roman motifs.The
griffin,a mythical beast long associated
with light and protection from evil, was
sacred to the god Apollo. Itsferocious
~combined the body of a lion with
the wings and curved beak of a bird of
prey. Christiansadopted the griffinas a
symbol both of protection and of royal
status, and at times marked images of
~griffinswith Christograms.The strong
profile of this griffinand its piercing gaze
give it an air of authorityand rank.The
size of the handle suggests that
it was fastened to a large standing lamp,
one meant for a public building
or a palace.

hanging lamp, or polycandelon. Such

lamps cast beautifulshadows, magnifying
the designs of their disks on walls and
floors. The shadows from this lamp,
which is decorated with crosses radiating
from the center, would have emphasized its Christiansymbolism. Enormous
hanging lampsmay have been used to
lightthe great church of Hagia Sophia
in Constantinople,which the poet and
courtier Paulthe Silentiary(act. sixth
century)described in 563: "Thusis
everything clothed in beauty... no
words are sufficientto describe the illumination in the evening: you might say
that some nocturnal sun filled the
majestic churchwith light."
29

AND THE PEOPLES

THE EARLY BYZANTINE

WORLD

The Vermand Treasure

The Rhine and Danube Riversdefined

the bordersof the Roman Empirein
western Europe.They separatedthe citizens of Rome from the many peoples
who inhabited Germania,as the Romans
called the vast area beyond the frontiers.
By the fourthcentury many Germanic
tribesmen-whom the Romans referred
to as barbarians-had been enticed by
money and gifts to serve as mercenary
soldiers within the empire. This group
of objects-a set of three mounts for
spear shafts-was found in the grave of
a barbarianwarrior stationed in the
Roman province of Gaul, where more
than 75,000 soldiers safeguardedthe
Rhine border.
Although the grave had been looted
before its discovery by archaeologists in

Provincial Roman, found in Vermand,

France
Made about 400

Three Mounts for Spear Shafts

Silver gilt inlaid with niello
L. 11/8 in. (3 cm) (.143); 33/4in. (9.4 cm)
(.144); 43/4in. (12.2 cm) (.145)
Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 191 7
(17.192.143-.145)

30

ON ITS BORDERS

1885, it remains unsurpassedamong

barbarian-warrior
graves in the number
and quality of objects it held. Among the
goods were an ax, spears, a sword, and a
shield (the boss and handle of the shield
are also in the MetropolitanMuseum).
The exceptional craftsmanshipand rich
design of the spear-shaftornaments suggest that they belonged to a high-ranking
militaryleader.The pieces are intricately
cast with scrolls, rosettes, and fantastic
animals. Theirsurfaces are gilded, with
vivid patternscreated by niello inlays.
The six-pointed interlaced star prominent
on one mount was not a Jewish symbol
at this time; it appears as a decorative
motif in both Roman and Germanic art.
MH

Buckle

Crossbow Brooch

Gold, with garnets

Byzantine, found in Komarom,Hungary
Made 400-500, probably in Constantinople
L. 13/8 in. (3.5 cm)
Purchase, Rogers Fund, Alastair B. Martin,
Norbert Schimmel Foundation Inc., and
Levy Hermanos Foundation Inc. Gifts, and
funds from various donors, 1986 (1986.341)

Gold
Late Roman or EarlyByzantine
Made about 430
L. 45/8in. (11.9 cm)
Purchase, LilaAcheson Wallace Gift, 1995
(1995.97)

This buckle was discovered near the

Danube River,east of Budapest,alongside silver-gilt-and-garnetsheath fittings
from a battle dagger and sword (now in
the BritishMuseum, London).The buckle
and the sheath fittingswere probably
partof the grave goods of a Germanic
tribal leader, but the rich combination of
gold and garnetsand the buckle's fine
workmanshipsuggest that it was made
by a jeweler in Constantinople. Byzantine emperorsfrequentlygave tribal
chieftainsfrom outlying regions opulent
pieces of jewelry or weapon fittingsas
signs of friendshipand alliance (or as
small bribes).Using money often obtained
from the Byzantines, Germanic leaders
also commissioned pieces from workshops in Constantinople,displayingthem
as symbols of their wealth and links with
the powerful civilization in Byzantium.It
is thus probable that this buckle traveled
far from its maker before being buried
MH
with its owner.

The crossbow brooch, used to secure

an official's cloak, was often offered
as a political and diplomatic gift by
Byzantine emperors.This particularly
sumptuous example, like some others of
its type, may have been presented to a
Germanic king. Of exceptional length
and weight (78.4 grams),the elaborate
clasp offers a superb example of the
openwork technique mastered by Byzantine jewelry makers:tiny perforations
punched into gold sheet form an intricate
design. Embeddedin the lacy patternof
stylized vine scrolls is a Latincross, an
allusion to the empire's power based on
its faith.The tip of the cross, enclosed
within a circle, forms a Christogram.The
Greek lettersalpha and omega, symbolizing the all-encompassing natureof
God (see p. 20), are suspended from
the arms of the cross.
While most ancient broochesemployed
a simple catch plate to fasten the pin,
this piece requiredthe wearerto unscrew
the onion-shaped terminalon the right in
order to release it. The novelty and relative complexity of the screw mechanism
no doubt enhanced the value of this
exquisite imperialgift.

MH

31

The Vrap Treasure

Gold,silver,and silverwith partialgilding
Avaror Byzantine,foundin Vrap(modern
easternAlbania)
Made600s-700s
L.(longestbelt fitting):5 in. (12.7 cm);
h. (ewer): 91/8in. (23.2 cm)

Giftof J. PierpontMorgan,1917
(17.190.1673, .1678, .1679, .1683, .1686,
.1697, .1704, .1705, .1 707, .1708, .1 710,
.1711a, .1712a)

32

The ensemble of objects on these two

pages, found together in Vrap, attests to
the wealth of the Avars,a nomadic tribe
of mounted warriorswho inhabitedthe
Eurasiansteppes. Fromthe sixth to the
eighth century,the Avarsmaintained a
complex relationshipwith the Byzantine
Empire,at times protectingthe empire's
borders,at times raidingthe very lands
they had agreed to defend. Tributepayments from Byzantiumas well as war
booty provided the Avarswith enormous
amounts of gold and silver.Avargoldsmiths created works of exceptionally
high quality and were counted among
the tribe'srulingclass.
The treasurecontains an arrayof belt
fittings,some richly decorated (see
above), some unfinished or defectively
cast. Italso includes severalvessels: a
ewer with an inscriptionin Greek ("The

voice of the Lordis upon the waters"

[Psalms29:3]); a sixth-centuryByzantine
bucket used for drawingwater;and simple
goblets (see opposite). A more elaborate
goblet is decorated with personifications of four ecclesiastical centers in
the Byzantine world-Cyprus, Rome,
Alexandria,and Constantinople(for the
last, see detail).
Why these variedobjects were brought
together remains a mystery.Some scholars have suggested that the objects were
partof a treasurebelonging to an Avar
chief; others have speculated that they
were the propertyof an Avarcraftsman.
Although some have attributedthe vessels to a provincial Byzantine artist, it is
more likely that most of them were created in emulation of Byzantine works
admired from afar.
MH

Personification of Constantinople, detail of a goblet

33

Plate with Presentation of David to

Saul

Museum, Nicosia.) Cypruswas an important trading center in the eastern Mediterraneanduringthe EarlyByzantineera.
Plate with Battle of David and Goliath
The treasuremay have been buried by a
Silver,cast, hammered,engraved,punched,
wealthy person or family in the midand chased
as Arabsinvadedthe island and the
Cyprus 600s,
Byzantine,foundin 1902 at Karavas,
EarlyByzantine period came to an end.
Made629-30, in Constantinople
The decoration on the plates illusDiam. 101/2 in. (26.7 cm); 191/2 in. (49.4 cm)
tratesevents early in the life of the Old
Giftof J. PierpontMorgan,1917
Testamentking David-up to his slaying
.396)
(17.190.397,
of Goliath and his marriageto Michal,
A set of nine beautifullyworked silver
daughterof KingSaul. The plates are
plates was among an impressivehoard of grouped by size: there are four small
gold and silver objects found at Karavas, plates, four medium-size plates, and one
a small town near Lambousa(ancient
great plate (opposite and detail p. 36).
northern
shore.
On the medium-size plates events from
on
Lapithos), Cyprus's
David's life are presented before an
(Theplates are now divided between the
and
the
arcaded
Museum
lintel, an architecturalform that
Cyprus
Metropolitan

34

was often used in Byzantine art in depictions of the imperial court. The symmetry
of the design is also typical of Byzantine
imperialart, suggesting the taxis, or
harmonyand order,that the emperor
was supposed to provide for his people.
Above, David is presentedto KingSaul,
as described in 1 Samuel 17:32-34. He
stands bravely before the seated ruler,
asserting his willingness to battle the
giant Goliath.
The David plates, with their naturalistically renderedfigures, fall within the
classical traditionof elegantlywrought
silverfor domestic use. Elaboratedishes
displayed at banquets in the Byzantine
Empirewere usually decorated with
classical subjects. The David plates may

bbb,

. .

"I,
I

PI
OW-11.19-0
......

David Battling Goliath, detail of the large plate

be the earliest survivingexamples of the

use of biblical scenes on display plates.
Illustratedon page 35 is the largest
and most importantof the David plates.
At banquets the eight smaller plates may
have been arrangedaround it-in the
biblical order of the events depicted on
them-to form a Christogram.
The story,from 1 Samuel 17:41-51, is
told in three registers.At the top David
confrontsGoliath before a personification
of the brook from which he gathered

36

the stones for his sling. In the middle

he battles Goliath with his sling (above);
the fluttering ends of his tunic and
mantle emphasize his lack of armor.
While the heavily armed Goliath seems
assured of victory,the startledposes of
his comrades at the far right herald a
differentfate. At the bottom David
beheads the fallen Goliath.
In 628-29 the Byzantine emperor
Heraclius(r.610-41) defeated the Persian
general Razatisin single-handed combat,

ending a long and costly war and regaining Jerusalem,Egypt,and other Byzantine
territory.The contemporaryFrankish
chronicler Fredegariuswrote that
Heraclius "advancedto the fray like a
second David."The backs of the nine
David plates are markedwith silverstamps
dating from 613 to 629/30, during
Heraclius'sreign. Thus the plates may
referto his victory over the Persians.

This incomplete, massive gold girdle was

partof the treasurethat contained the
Gold
David plates (see pp. 34-36). It may have
Cyprus
Byzantine,foundin 1902 at Karavas,
been
worn as an insignia of office, which
afterdiscovery
Madeabout583; reassembled
suggests that the owner of the hoard was
L. 26/8 in. (67.5 cm)
closely connected with the imperial
Giftof J. PierpontMorgan,1917
court in Constantinople.
(17.190.147)
The four medallions depicting the
Trust
Purchase,MorganGuaranty
Company
of NewYork,StephenK.Scherand Mrs.
emperor MauriceTiberius(r. 582-602)
MaximeL.HermanosGifts,RogersFund,
probablywere minted for him to present
and fundsfromvariousdonors,1991
as gifts to high officials and nobles when
(1991.136)
he assumed the office of consul in 583.
On the front is a bust of him; he is in
imperialdress and holds the mappa, or
white handkerchief,with which a new
consul opened the games that he was
requiredto stage for the populace of
Constantinople.On the back of the medallions the emperor is shown in military
Girdle with Coins and Medallions

dress, standing in a chariot drawn by

four horses. He holds a globe surmounted by a small Nike offering a
crown of victory.To his side is a Christogram, symbolizing the religion of the
Byzantine state.
The girdle also contains thirteen
coins, including one from the reign of
Theodosius IIand four from the brief
joint rule in 527 of JustinI (r. 518-27)
and JustinianI. Old coins were frequently used for jewelry, since under
later rulerstheir historic value and their
worth in gold often exceeded their worth
as currency.All the coins and medallions
are stamped CONOB,an abbreviation for

Constantinopolisobryzum (pure gold of

Constantinople),indicating that they
were minted in the capital.

37

The Attarouthi Treasure

Silverand silvergilt with copperliners
Byzantine,fromnorthernSyria
Made500-650
H. (chalices):67/8-93/4 in. (17.5-24.9 cm)
Purchase,RogersFund,and HenryJ. and
DrueE.Heinz Foundation,Norbert
Schimmel,and LilaAchesonWallaceGifts,
1986 (1986.3.1-.15)
These well-wrought liturgicalvessels
belonged to a Christianchurch in the
affluentmerchanttown of Attarouthi,in
Syria,while the region was still partof
the Byzantine Empire.Byzantiumlost the
area in the early seventh century,firstto
the Persiansand then to MuslimArab
armies.The works were probably buried
in haste as the Byzantinearmy retreated.
Inscriptionsin Greek on the objects
indicate that many of them were donated
either to Attarouthi'smajor church,
dedicated to Saint Stephen, or to a
38

smaller church, dedicated to SaintJohn

(probablySaintJohn the Forerunner,who
in the Western church is called John the
Baptist).In the inscriptionsdonors also
requested salvation for themselves or for
loved ones, thus preservingthe names of
several citizens of the town: Anastasia;
Diodoros; Eudoxia;John, deacon of Saint
Stephen; Erthaand Stephen, children of
Kyriakos;Kerykos,son of Michaelios;
and Martyrios.
The chalices, censers, and strainer
were employed in the Divine Liturgy,or
Eucharistservice, in which Christianstake
wine and bread in commemoration of
Christ'ssacrifice and death. The chalices,
with their tall foot and large cup, are typical for the early church, and their generous size suggests that a large community
of Christians resided near Attarouthi
prior to the rise of Islam.As wine was
poured into the chalices, the strainer
was used to remove impurities.

The censers, which retaintheir copper

liners, held hot coals and incense. One
of a deacon's duties was to swing the
censers, releasing the perfume of the
incense to honor the Gospel, the altar,
and the objects used in the service.
The dove is unique among the vessels
and may be the earliest surviving representation of the Holy Spirit.
Among the figures decorating the
works are the Virgin, with her hands
raised in the orant pose of the early
church; Saint Stephen, one of the first
seven deacons of the Christianchurch
and its first martyr;archangels; andan unusual feature-military saints in
armor(those slaying dragons may be
the first known depictions of Saint
George). Starsand crosses on several of
the chalices may represent, respectively,
the star of Bethlehem that announced
Christ'sbirth and the cross on which
he died.

Box Reliquary of the True Cross

Silvergilt,gold, cloisonneenamel,and
niello
Byzantine
Madeabout800, in Constantinople
4 x 27/8in. (10.2 x 7.4 cm)

Giftof J. PierpontMorgan,1917
(17.190.715a, b)

The cross upon which Christwas crucified is said to have been discovered in
the early fourthcentury by Saint Helena,
mother of Constantinethe Great. During
the Byzantine period small fragmentsof
the TrueCross were distributedas gifts
and housed in precious containers where
they could be venerated by the faithful.
Relics of the TrueCross were one of the
most importantdiplomatic gifts offered
by the Byzantine court.
This small, finely made cloisonneenamel box is one of the earliestexamples
of a staurotheke,or reliquarymade to
contain a fragmentof the TrueCross.
On the frontof the lid Christis shown
alive on the cross, wearing the colobium
(long tunic, usually sleeveless or short-

sleeved) popular in EarlyByzantine

depictions of the Crucifixion. He is
flanked by the mourningfigures of the
Virgin and Saint John. On the back of
the lid, worked in niello, are depictions
of the Annunciation to the Virgin,the
Nativity, the Crucifixion, and the
Anastasis,or Harrowingof Hell. (The
Anastasis, showing Christreaching forward to draw Adam and Eve out of purgatory,was an image that evolved in
Constantinople about 800.) Together
the images promise eternal life for
mankindthrough Christ'sbirth and sacrifice on the cross. The lid slides back
to reveal five compartments,arranged
in the shape of a cross, for housing
the relic.

39

THE EMPIRE'S

SECOND

GOLDEN

AGE

figures] who serve as models, and . . .

pay these images the tributeof salutation
and respectfulveneration."In 843, with
the official restorationof the use of icons,
this description of the proper decoration
of churches was rapidly realized.
This head of Christmay have been
partof a scene that decorated the upper
walls of a church. The words of Photios
(ca. b. 810, d. after 893), onetime patriarch of Constantinople,may be borrowed
to characterizeChrist'sexpression. Inthe
late 800s Photios wrote, describing the
Church of the Virgin of the Pharos, in
Constantinople:"Paintedin color mosaic
cubes [is] a manlike figure bearing the
traitsof Christ.You might say He is overseeing the earth and devising its orderly
arrangementand government, so accurately has the painter been inspiredto
represent,though only in forms and
colors, the Creator'scare for us."

Mosaic Head of Christ

Glass
Byzantine
Made 1100-1200
11 3/8 x 81/4in. (28.9 x 20.9 cm)
Lentby Mary and Michael Jaharis

40

In 787 the Second Council of Nicaea

decreed that churches and houses
should be filled, and all manner of
objects decorated, with images of God,
Christ,the Virgin,the Holy Spirit,and
revered angels and holy men. The council reasoned that the more frequently
these images-whether painted or in
mosaic or other materials-were seen,
the more did those who viewed them
"rememberand long for those [holy

Processional Cross
Silverwith gildingand silver-giltmedallions
Byzantine
Madeabout1000-1050
235/8x

173/4

in. (60 x 45.1 cm)

RogersFund,1993 (1993.163)
Elaboratelydecorated crosses were
widely used duringthe Middle Byzantine
era in religious, military,and imperial
processions.This exceptionally handsome cross is ornamentedon both sides
with medallions that include inscriptions
in Greek, identifyingthe holy figures
depicted. The central medallion on the
frontshows a bust of Christ.He is
flanked on the crossarmby the Virgin
and John the Baptist,both of whom raise
their hands in supplication to him on
behalf of mankind.(Representationsof
Christ between Mary and John were
popular duringthe Middle Byzantine
era. This standardcomposition is called
the Deesis.) Above is the archangel
Michael, and below, the archangel
Gabriel. They are dressed in the robes
of the Byzantinecourt.
In the central medallion on the plain
back is SaintThalelaios, a physician
martyredin the late third century,who
carriesthe symbols of his profession:a
medical case and a lancet. At the ends of
the crossarmare the popular Byzantine
saints Nicholas and John Chrysostom.
The archangels Uriel and Raphael
appearabove and below, respectively.
On the base is an inscriptionin Greek:
"Supplication[gift]of Leo, Bishop."
A homily attributedto SaintJohn
Chrysostomdescribes the cross as a
"powerfor those who are ill" and "the
purificationof sickness."Thusthis cross
may have been an offeringconnected to
an illness. Or it may have been meant
for a specific site dedicated to Saint
Thalelaios.Thalelaios is one of the saints
named in the ceremony for the purification of water, and the cross may have
been used in that rite.
41

Base for a Cross

Base for a Cross

Copper alloy
Byzantine
Made about 1000-1100, probably in
Constantinople or Asia Minor
H. 101/2 in. (26.7 cm)
Purchase, Max Falk,Alastair B. Martin,
Stephen Scher, and William Kelly Simpson
Gifts, in honor of William D. Wixom, 1993

Copper alloy
Byzantine
Made about 1000-1100, probably in
Constantinople or Asia Minor

(1993.165)

42

H. 41/2in. (11.4 cm)

Fletcher Fund, 1962 (62.10.8)

These bases may have held processional

crosses that were carried into and
through churches, towns, and cities.
They representin miniaturethe church
type most popular during the Middle
Byzantine centuries: a square building
topped at the center by a dome. The
interiorof the structurewas designed to
suggest an equal-armed cross.
The church was the center of public
religious life. Often a bust of Christ
looked down on the congregation from
the dome. Mosaics (see p. 40) and frescoes covered the upper walls; marble
revetments lined the lower walls. Such
luxuriousfurnishingsmade the church a
symbol of paradise.

Decorative Panel
Marble
Byzantine, possibly from Constantinople
Carved 900-1 100
27 x 311/2in. (68.6 x 80 cm)
Fletcher Fund, 1947 (47.100.47)

Marblepanels of this kind were employed

throughoutthe Byzantineworld to define
the interiorspaces of churches. They
were commonly used to form the base of
the templon, or barrier,that screened the
altar and apse from the nave, where the
congregation assembled. They were also
combined to make low walls for the
galleries around the nave or to frame
windows; often the patternswere carved
so as to allow the slabs to be mounted

horizontallyor vertically.Such panels

were widely exported and are frequently
found in Italianchurches, especially in
the area of Venice. Many Byzantine
designs were copied outside the empire,
at times on marble that had been
importedfrom Constantinople.

43

Tip of a Pointer
Gold, enameled in the cloisonne technique
Byzantine
Made about 1080-1150, in Constantinople
H. 1 in. (2.5 cm)
Purchase, LouisV. Bell Fund and Henry G.
Keasbey Bequest, 1997 (1997.235)

The Byzantinecourt delighted in color

and intricatedesign. The complex patterns
and the red, blue, white, and translucent
green enamels on this tiny masterpiece
suggest that it was produced in an imperial workshop (only a small group of surviving enamels can be thus attributed).
Thistip may have been made for a pointer
used during public readingsof texts,
probably religious ones. Indeed, the tip's
motifs and colors echo the decorative
patternsin illuminatedmanuscriptsof
the period.
The artistemployed the cloisonne
enameling technique. Compartmentsare
outlined on the metal surface with thin
bands (cloisons) of gold or silver,then
filled with colored glass paste and fired
at a high temperature,so that the melting
glass forms a solid surface.The process
often requiresseveral firingsbefore the
final polishing.

Medallions from an Icon Frame

Gold, enameled in the cloisonne technique
Byzantine, from the Djumati Monastery
(modern Republic of Georgia)
Made about 1100, in Constantinople
Diam. (each): 31/4in. (8.3 cm)
Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 191 7
(17.190.670-.678)

These nine medallions with Greek

inscriptionsidentifyingthe images are
among the finest examples of the enameler'sart.They are from a group of twelve
enameled portraitsthat once decorated
the frame of an icon of the archangel
Gabriel.Across the top of the frame
three of the medallions formed a Deesis
composition-Christ flanked by the
Virginand John the Baptist.In descending order on the sides were the busts of
the apostles Peterand Paul(left),then
those of the four evangelists (only the
medallions depicting Matthew, Luke,
and John survive, right).Across the base
were the portraitsof Saints George,
Demetrios (now in the Musee du Louvre,
Paris),and Theodore(now in the Georgian
44

State Art Museum, T'bilisi). Peterand

Paulstill have the attributesfound on the
Antioch Treasureplaques that bear their
images (see p. 22). Both Pauland the
evangelists hold handsomely bound
manuscriptsof their writings. Saint
George, in courtly dress, holds a small
cross, symbolic of his martyrdom.
The Byzantine emperor Michael VII
Doukas (r. 1071-78) was marriedto
Mariaof Alania, daughterof the Georgian
king BagratcIV.These medallions may
have been sent as a gift from the Byzantine to the Georgian court in connection
with the imperial marriage,and they
may have helped to inspire the production of cloisonne-enamel medallions
in Georgia.

?OSL.W-,

,<DCbO<T"I
^?<f0<<

i-

Double-Sided Pendant Icon with the

Virgin and Christ Pantokrator
Gold, enameled in the cloisonne technique
Byzantine
Made about 1080-1120, in Constantinople
11/4x1 in. (3.3 x 2.4 cm)
Purchase, LilaAcheson Wallace Gift, 1994
(1994.403)

Thistiny icon was meant to be worn

around its owner's neck and to be used
for personal devotions. It is a tour de
force of enameling, for the Byzantine
artisanhas, with exceptional skill,
worked both sides of a single gold sheet.
Inscriptions,in Greek, identifythe figures
as "Motherof God" and "Christ,Kingof
Glory."TheVirgin,on one side, lifts her
armsand looks, as if throughthe pendant,
toward Christon the other side. Christ,
shown as the Pantokrator(Rulerof All),
turnshis eyes to the right,seemingly looking back at his mother.She is set among
the greens and blues of the earth, while
he appearsin a field of gold-a miniature
version of his depiction in the domes of
Middle Byzantinechurches.

46

Icon with the Crucifixion

Ivory
Byzantine
Carved mid-900s, probably in
Constantinople
5 x 31/2in. (12.7 x 8.9 cm)

Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 191 7 (17.190.44)

This icon, meant for personal devotions,

was once the central panel of a triptych;
the two lost wings closed to cover it. The
exquisitely carved figures are raised so
far from the backgroundthat they are
almost three-dimensional.The crucified
Christ,his body slumped in death, is
flanked by the Virginand SaintJohn the
Evangelist,who stand in mourning poses
typical of Byzantine art. Below Christ's
feet a group of Roman soldiers draws lots
for Christ'scloak (the event is identified
by an inscription in Greek). Beneath
them is a unique image described in
an inscriptionas "the cross implanted in
the stomach of Hades."The inclusion
of Hades is a visual affirmation of
the Christianbelief that through his
sufferingon the cross, Christwon a
victory over death.

Revetments from an Icon of the Virgin

Gold,enameledin the cloisonnetechnique
Byzantine
Madeabout1100, in Constantinople
Halofragments:
5/4 x 11/2 in. (13.3 x 3.8 cm),
51/4x 17/8 in. (13.3 x 4.8 cm)

Giftof J. PierpontMorgan,1917
(17.190.644-.648)

is an abbreviated inscription in Greek

These intricatelyworked cloisonneenamel panels once covered an icon that for "Motherof God";to the left of the
panel was a small image of Christin
depicted the Virginturningto the side
with her hands raised in supplication.
heaven, to whom the Virgindirected her
The same image appears in miniatureon
prayers.The two lower panels define
the double-sided pendant icon (opposite). the slope of her shoulders, with a small
The type is called the Hagiosoritissa,or
cutout at the lower left for her upraised
of
the
the
relihands. Another portion of the frame is
after
Virgin
Holy Soros,
in the Musee du Louvre,Paris;other
quary chest (soros) in Constantinoplein
which the Virgin'smantel was kept.
sections are in the Georgian State Art
Museum, T'bilisi.
(Thisrelic was used to invoke her aid
as protectressof the city.)
Two of the panels are from the Virgin's
halo; three are from the backgroundthat
covered the icon. On the upper-leftpanel
47

Icon with the Koimesis

Ivory
Byzantine
Carved late 900s, probably in
Constantinople
71/8x

57/8

in. (18.7 x 14.9 cm)

Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 191 7

(17.190.132)

48

One of the most importantnew images

to develop with the triumphof icons was
the Koimesis,or Death of the Virgin,
which is firstfound in Byzantine art in
the 900s. This image became one of the
most popular in the Middle and Late
Byzantineworld. It often appeared over
the doors of churches,to be contemplated
by the faithfulas they left the service.
Here, the Virginis shown lying on a

pallet for the dead. Christstands behind

her, holding up her soul (which takes the
shape of an infant)and offering it to
angels who will transportit to heaven.
The apostles, led by Saint Paulat her feet
and Saint Peterbehind her head, stand
witness. Holes in the ivory suggest that
it was used to decorate the cover of a
book, probably in the LatinWest, where
the practice was popular (see p. 61).

Three Panels from a Casket with

Scenes from the Story of Joshua
Ivory
Byzantine
Carved about 900-1000, probably in
Constantinople
H. 25/8 in. (6.6 cm) (a); 2 in. (5 cm) (b);
23/8in. (6 cm) (c)

Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 191 7

(17.190.137a-c)

These three panels and their ornamental

borderswere once partof a casket illustratedwith the Old Testamentstory of
Joshua'sconquest of the Promised Land.
Each panel is delicately carved in a
manner reminiscent of manuscript

illuminations, and each scene is identified by an inscriptionin Greek.The first

panel, designed to fit arounda lock plate,
shows the conquest of the city of Ai;
inscribed on the narrowframe are the
words "AndJoshuastretchedout the spear
that he had in his handtowardthe city....
And the ambush arose quickly . .. and
slew the men of Ai" (Joshua8:18-21).
The second panel shows the captive king
of Ai, first bowed in submission before
Joshuaand then hanged on a forkedstake
at the far rightof the scene. The inscription alludes to Joshua 8:23, 29: "And
the king of Ai they . . . brought him to
Joshua ... [and] he hanged on a tree

until eventide." On the third panel emissaries from the Gibeonites approach
Joshua.The inscription is adapted from
Joshua 9, "TheGibeonites Displaying
TheirTornClothes."Joshua'sstory was
often invoked in the Middle Byzantine
period, when the Byzantinesfrequently
identified themselves with God's Chosen
People and likened their own military
victories and defeats to those of the Jews
many centuries earlier.
The portraitheads in profile on the
borders may refer to antique coins.
Traces of paint indicate that this work
originally may have been as colorful as
the illuminatedmanuscriptsof the period.

49

Icon with Saint Demetrios

Ivory
Byzantine
Carved about 950-1000
73/4x 43/4in. (19.6 x 12.2 cm)
The Cloisters Collection, 1970 (1970.324.3)

Standingerect, a spear in his hand and

a shield at his side, Saint Demetrios is
shown ready to protect the Christian
faithful. The name of the popular
Byzantine militarysaint is inscribed in
two parts in Greek. Martyredin
Thessalonike,the second most important
city of the empire in the early centuries
of the church, he has long been the
patron saint of that metropolis. Images of
saints in militarydress are rare in Early
Byzantineart (they appearon the chalices
of the AttarouthiTreasure,on p. 38) but
typical of the Middle Byzantine period.
The cleft in the base of the frame may
have supported a standardfor carrying
the image in processions or into battle.
The holes drilled through the back indicate that it may have been used in the
LatinWest as a cover for a book (see
pp. 48, 61).

50

;ItD:

"4--,

I -

I I

Casket with the Deesis, Archangels,

and the Twelve Apostles
Ivory,with later copper-alloy-gilt mounts
Byzantine
Carved about 950-1 000, probably in
Constantinople
x 37/t in. (18.4 x 9.8 cm)
7%/4
Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 191 7
(17.190.238)

This small casket is a rareexample of a

work carved from solid panels of ivory,
a most valuable material.On the lid,
within a central medallion flanked by
four others, Christappears enthroned in
majesty.In the upper two medallions
are the Virginand John the Baptist,each
identified by an inscriptionin Greek;
together with the image of Christ,they
form the popular Middle Byzantine
Deesis composition. Two unidentified
archangels, the guardiansof heaven,
appear in the lower medallions, indicating that the figures depicted are in paradise. The same group appears on the
frontof the silver-giltprocessional cross
illustratedon page 41 . Vine-scrollpatterns

similar to manuscriptmotifs frame the

whole panel, and roundels with apostles
and evangelists, each identified in a
carefully carved Greek inscription,decorate the sides of the casket. Saints Paul,
Peter,James, and Andrew are shown on
the front; Philip and Thomas, on the right
side; Bartholomewand Simon, on the
left; and John, Mark, Luke,and Matthew
on the back. At one time the casket was
covered with paint applied so thickly
that it obscured the inscriptions.Recently,
Museum conservatorsremoved all the
color afterthey exposed sections of
the front and lid in their original
unpainted state beneath a late-medieval
but not original lock plate.
51

Two Panels from a Casket with the

Story of Adam and Eve

hammersa metal object on his forge.

Two surviving Byzantine caskets that also
illustratethe story of Adam and Eve
include, among similar scenes of grief
and toil, the personificationof Ploutos
(Wealth),a figure meant to remind the
person who stores jewels or money in the
casket that prosperityis a gift from God
and that God favors those who repent

These finely carved, thin ivory panels

were once attached to the wooden core
of a casket decorated with scenes from
the lives of Adam and Eve. Both panels
show the couple, who are identified by
inscriptionsin Greek, laboringaftertheir
fall and expulsion from paradise.At left
Adam and Eve are seen harvestinggrain.
She wears a long tunic; he, a short one.
At right Eve works a bellows as Adam

Ivory
Byzantine
Carved about 900-1100, probably in
Constantinople
L. 3 Y in. (9.5 cm) (.138); 378 in. (9.8 cm)
(.139)
Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 191 7
(17.190.138, .139)

RH

their sins.

1Psri

-i.

%'*
.

A.

7V.

w9

/i
A.

al

,,

I
.i '

'

52

H-"

a ....

1,71.

S'
,,,?,

-"

!,

a.
/
.&

Casket with Warriors and Dancers

Bonepanels
Byzantine
Carvedabout1000-1100, probablyin
Constantinople;
copper-giltmetalwork
added1400s, probablyin Italy
L. 11/8 in. (28.8 cm)

Giftof J. PierpontMorgan,1917
(17.190.239)
Bone-paneled caskets used at home by
the well-to-do were often decorated with
classical subjects, for the learning, literature, and images of ancient Greece and
Rome remained alive and vibrantin the

Eastthroughoutthe Byzantine period.

The erotes that dance and wage mock
battles on the sides of this casket and
tame a female pantheron the lid recall
imageryassociated with the ancient cult
of the god Dionysos (see pp. 9, 26-27).
The enthusiasm for classical learning in
the Middle Byzantine era and the effort
to reconcile it with Christiantheology
were effectively described by the writer
and teacher John Mauropous in the
eleventh century:
Ifperchanceyou wishto exemptcertain
pagansfrompunishment,
myChrist,

Mayyou spareformy sake Platoand

Plutarch,

Forbothwereveryclose to yourlawsin
both teaching and way of life.
Even if they were unawarethat you as God
reign over all,
In this matteronly your charity is needed,
Throughwhich you are willing to save all
men while asking nothing in return.
In the aftermath of the Fourth Crusade,
when caskets like this reached the
Latin West, they were often used in
churches as containers for the relics
of Christian saints.

53

Temple Pendant and Stick

Gold,enameledin the cloisonnetechnique
Byzantine
Madeabout 1080-1150, in Constantinople
H. (pendantwith loop):1 in. (4.9 cm);
h. (stick):2 in. (5.1 cm)
RogersFund,1990 (1990.235a, b)
7/8

Ring of loannis (John)

Signet Ring of Michael Zorianos

Goldand niello

Gold
Byzantine
Madeabout1300
Diam. in. (2.3 cm)
RogersFund,1918 (18.145.42)

Byzantine

Made900-1000
Diam.1 in. (2.4 cm)
Giftof GuyandValerieTempestMegargee,

7/8

1992 (1992.239)

The incised, stylized vine scrolls on the

sides of this ring and the letters on the
face are filled with niello, which heightens the contrastwith the gold ground.
The Greek inscription begins "Lord,
help [your]servant loannis, imperial
spatharios...." What follows cannot be
readilyunderstood.Spatharios(SwordBearer)was a title originally reservedfor
membersof the imperialbodyguard.By
the Middle Byzantine period, however,
it had become an honorific indicating
little more than the respectable status
of loannis, the owner of the ring. He
may have used the massive jewel as a
signet ring.

Styles in the rings worn by the aristocratic men of Byzantine society changed
slowly. This handsome, heavy gold
example, which closely resembles the
tenth-centuryring at left, is inscribed in
Greek, "Seal of Michael Zorianos."
About the year 1300 a certain Michael
Zorianos was principalofficer of the
Despotate of Epiros(in central Greece),
one of several Byzantine states that arose
duringthe Latincontrolof Constantinople.
He was also one of the founders of the
Churchof the Taxiarchaiin the town of
Mokista.This ring may have belonged to
him and have been used to seal official
RH
documents.

Temple pendants were worn by members

of the Byzantine aristocracy.Probably
attached by a loop to the hair or to a
headdress, they dangled near the temple
or the cheek. This intricatelyworked
pendant, which features the head of a
man within a medallion on the front and
complex patternson the reverse, may
have been made in an imperial workshop. Itscolors and designs are similarto
those on a pointer in the Metropolitan
Museum'scollection (see p. 44). The
hollow interiorof the pendant probably
held a perfumed piece of cloth.

|
|
*

L
ls

p:

17

RH

A:e
tOS

| t
HH

IV

54

The stick would have been used to

guide the cloth in or out of the pendant.
Fragmentsof the metal strips,or cloisons,
that outlined the patternsremainon the
stick;the now-empty cells were once
filled with vividly colored powdered
glass and fired to make this miniature
cloisonne masterpiece.

Cameo of the Virgin and Child

Agate
Byzantine

Carved about 1050-1 100, probably in

Constantinople; gold setting made about
1800 by Adrien Jean MaximillianVachette
in Paris
H. (cameo without frame): 1/8 in. (4.1 cm)
Lent by John C. Weber

Wealthy Byzantineswho wore temple

pendants may also have worn or carried
masterfullycarved cameos like this one.
The miniatureicon displays the Virgin
with her arms upraised in the orant pose.
Barelyvisible on her breastis a medallion
of the youthful ChristEmmanuel,who
representsthe preexistentword of God.
Such images, which became popular in
the eleventh century,are often called the
VirginBlachernitissa,after a famous icon
of the type thought to have been housed

in the BlachernaiMonasteryin Constantinople. The exquisite carving of the agate

and the careful arrangementof the
design to take advantage of the colors of
the stone demonstratewhy the demand
for Byzantine hard-stonecarvings persisted long afterthe empire was overthrown.The elegant gold setting, crafted
about 1800 by AdrienJean Maximillian
Vachette, a leading goldsmith of his day,
testifies to the appeal of such Byzantine
luxurygoods in Napoleonic France.

55

Temple Pendants (Kolty)

Mostin gold or electrumwith cloisonne
enamel;one in silverwith niello
KievanRus';mostfoundin 1842 in or near
the Desiatynna(Dormition)Churchand in
1906 nearMykhailivs'kyi
Zolotoverkhyi
(SaintMichaelof the GoldenDomes),Kiev,
Ukraine
Made1000-1200, in Kiev
Max.h. 23/8in. (6 cm)
Giftof J. PierpontMorgan,1917
(1917.190.670,.680, .684, .699, .700,
.702-.704, .707-.709)
When KievanRus',a powerful new state
to the northof the Byzantine Empire,
accepted Christianityas its official religion in 988, the aristocracyalso adopted
the mannersand dress of the Byzantine
56

court. Local artistssoon produced their

own versions of Constantinopolitan
fashions. These temple pendants of precious metals worked in cloisonne
enamel or niello are local variantsof
more intricatelydetailed works made for
the Byzantine court (see p. 54). In one
pair busts of saints appear silhouetted
against a gold ground. In others confronted birds-and one pair of birdlike
sirens, each with a feathered tail-flank
motifs that may representthe tree of eternal life. One set retainstraces of the
strandsof pearls that may have originally
encircled most of these ornaments. On
the pair worked in silver and niello,
griffinsfrom classical mythology appear
in forms that may be related to the arts
of the Vikingswho founded Kiev.As in

Byzantium,temple pendants may have

been worn next to the face by both the
men and the women of Rus'.The works
shown here were perhaps buried by their
owners when the Mongol armies under
Batu Khansacked Kiev in 1240.

Bowl with Fish

I?
X
:, * :,..'
, -"''tiy^
'?^'^^Gift
;-i/' . ("
:, *.

''.

*~~~~~

:*~~~~~~~~~

white slip, and transparent

glaze
Terracotta,
Byzantine
1OOos-1200s
Diam. 101/8 in. (25.7 cm)
of Christopher
C. Grisantiand SuzanneP.
2000 (2000.322)
lineFawbush,

.Made

'

were a popular food in Byzantium,

and large specimens were often offered
importantgifts. Using the sgraffito
technique, a potter with a sure hand
incised this slyly smiling fish swimming
among the reeds into the white slip covthe interiorof the bowl. He then

'il:Fish

\:'/-f

/Jr.'~~

''~

~~ ,j~~~~~ -as

,I~' - /^^^// /
%,'

;t
..'
:', .(.*^'^
==========
,
Bird
Bo"wl
. of Prey
with^

*thatering
,

applied a transparent glaze over his sketch

~"^^~~~~~~~~~~~~~
^
''^N|^,~ ?*'~-:-: ~..;.:

but did not bother to glaze the exterior

of the dish. The inventive economy of
and sense of humor found in this

T/et,

wt slp:

~line

drawing rarely appear in Byzantine art;

when they do, it is usually, as here, on

humble pottery.
Bowl with Bird of Prey
whiteslip, and transparent
Terracotta,
glaze
Byzantine

200s
Made1OOOs-1

that the dowry of the hero'swife includes

from Abasgia [in
"twelve snowy
e orgahawks
an
twe
fales
moe
,
modern Georgia], twelve falconers, and

the same numberof falcons."

in. (24.4 cm)

Diam. 9%5/

AnonymousGift,1984 (1984.302)
Craftsmenof the Middle Byzantine
period produced not only elegant goodsce
for the elite but also inexpensive earthenware for household use or export.This
simple bowl covered with white slip,
into which the patternwas scraped or
incised in a technique called sgraffito,
has the soft sheen of bone and ivory
carvings.The well-executed bird with a
hooked beak may be a falcon trainedfor
hunting,a popular pastime of the elite.
ConstantineManasses, a writerwho
lived from about 1130to 1187, described
hunterscarryingfalcons tied to the back
of either hand. They would release the
strapswhen the momentcame forthe birds
to fly up and seek their prey.The Middle
Byzantineepic poem Digenis Akritis,
about a Byzantine-Arabborder lord, says

..

....

'

..

?'.

57

THE FINAL FLOWERING

OF THE BYZANTINE

WORLD

The elegant articulationof the bust on

this beautifullycarved capital is evidence
of the artistic revival in Constantinople
after its restorationto Byzantine rule in
1261. The archangel Michael, who is
identified by an inscription in Greek,
wears a jeweled tunic and a diadem and
holds both an orb and a staff.These elements of dress and attributesof authority
reflect the long-established connection
between archangels, who are the
guardiansof heaven, and the Byzantine
emperor,Christ'srepresentativeon earth.
This image may have been partof the
decoration of the upper section of a tomb
built into a niche. It is said to have been
found near the ruins of the Monasteryof
the Virgin Peribleptos(All-Seeing),established in the early eleventh century by
the Byzantine emperor Romanos III
Argyros(r. 1028-34), who was buried
there. In the Late Byzantine period the
site remained important,and the imperial court visited its church annually for
the Feastof the Presentationof the Christ
Child in the Temple, one of the Twelve
Great Feasts(Dodekaorton)of the
Orthodox Church (see p. 66).

Panel with a Griffin

Marble
Byzantine, possibly from Greece or the
Balkans
Carved 1250-1300

Capital with Bust of the Archangel

Michael
Marble
Byzantine, from Constantinople; possibly
from the Monastery of the Virgin Peribleptos,
now the Sulu ManastirMosque, Istanbul
Made about 1250-1300, in Constantinople
H. 9:Y4
in. (24.7 cm)
Purchase, Gifts of J. Pierpont Morgan,
George Blumenthal, and Messrs. Duveen

58

Brothers,by exchange; Bequests of George

Blumenthal and Anne D. Thompson, The
Collection of Michael Dreicer, Bequest of
Michael Dreicer, and Theodore M. Davis
Collection, Bequest of Theodore M. Davis,
by exchange; Rogers Fund and Mr. and Mrs.
Maxime L. Hermanos Gift, 1983 (1983.167)

231/2 x 201/2 in. (59.5 x 51.5 cm)

Purchase, Rogers Fund and Jeannette and

Jonathan Rosen Gift, 2000 (2000.81)
A number of images that originated in

the classical world remained popular

throughoutthe historyof Byzantium.
Forexample, griffinswere accepted as

Christiansymbols in the firstcenturies of

the Byzantineera (see p. 29). They often
continued their traditionalrole as protectors of the dead. As time went on, these
mythicalcreatureswere increasingly
associated with royalty.Byzantineartists
frequentlyportrayedAlexanderthe Great
in a griffin-drawnchariot, surveying his
vast realm from the air. Derived from the

late-third-centuryAlexander Romance,
that image of the great ruler has been
found as far west as Englandand on
works made for the Muslimstates located
on the Byzantine Empire'seastern and
southern borders.
The elaborate overall patterningof
this marble panel and the arrangement
of the griffinwithin a medallion are

reminiscent of designs on silks made for

both Byzantine and Muslim patrons.The
small crosses on the bordersconfirm that
the work was intended for Christianuse.
Griffinslike this one are found on Late
Byzantine tombs, where they may have
had the dual function of announcing
the royal status of the dead and offering
them protection.

59

in which he drew this connection, while

emphasizing the superiorityof the
Christianheroes: "Ipainted the champions [the two Theodores] armed, so that
Satan, humbled, may turn his back and
may not assault us boldly. 'Not even
Herakles,'they say, 'is a match for two."'
Carved in reverse, the Museum's
intaglio may have been used for sealing
documents.A less carefullycarved inscription in Greek on the back of the gem
calls upon Christto help the anonymous
RH
owner of this miniatureicon.

Cameo with Christ Emmanuel

Steatite
Byzantine
Carved about 1200-1400
H. 1 /8 in. (2.9 cm)

Intaglio with Saint Theodore Teron

Slaying a Multiheaded Dragon
Agate
Byzantine

Carvedabout1300 or later

Purchase,WilliamKellySimpsonGift,1987

H. 13/8in. (3.4 cm)

(1987.23)

Giftof NanetteB. Kelekian,in memoryof

CharlesDikranand BeatriceKelekian,1999

Steatite,a soft stone that can be rubbed

to achieve a fine patina, eventually
became even more popularthan ivory as
a medium for carved icons. An inscription in Greek, "JesusChrist,Emmanuel,"
beside the halo of this steatite image of
the young Christidentifies him as a symbol of the Logos, or the preexistentword
of God. Typically,his halo contains three
arms, representingthe cross upon which
he was crucified. By contrastwith the
crisp folds at the neck of his tunic and
the tooled ornamenton the crossarms,
Christ'sfacial featuresare deeply worn,
probablythe resultof repeated touching
or kissingof the holy image by the
icon's owners.
The name Manuel, a shortenedversion
of Emmanuel,was a popular choice for
Byzantine men. The emperor Manuel I
Komnenos(r. 1143-80) drew attentionto
his name's association with Christby
including an image of ChristEmmanuel
on many of the coins minted during
RH
his reign.

(1999.325.227)

60

TheodoreTeron(the Recruit)was one of

the most popular militarysaints in the
Late Byzantine era. Likehis counterpart
Saint George, he is well known for having killed a dragon. On this remarkable,
minutely detailed intaglio, the incised
carving depicts the event in a style that
reflects the revivalof classical culture in
Byzantiumduring the fourteenthand fifteenth centuries. In contrastwith earlier,
more formal and static depictions of
saints killingdragons,as on the Attarouthi
chalices (see p. 38), Theodore leans dramatically forwardon widespread legs to
thrusthis spear into the fearsome beast.
This depiction may deliberately referto
the battle between the classical hero
Heraklesand the hydra,also a mythical
multiheaded monster.The Byzantine
court poet Manuel Philes (ca. 1275ca. 1345) preparedan inscriptionfor
an icon of SaintTheodoreTeronand
SaintTheodore Stratelates(the General)

Book Cover(?) with Byzantine Icon of

the Crucifixion
Silvergilt on wood backing,insetwith ivory
icon, sapphire,glass,and crystal
Iconcarvedabout 1000, in Constantinople;
settingmade before1085, at the Monastery
of SantaCruzde la Ser6s,Jaca,Spain
H. (setting):101/2 in. (26 cm); h. (icon): 53/8 in.
(13.7 cm)

Giftof J. PierpontMorgan,1917
(17.190.134)

Byzantine ivory carvings have long been

prized in the West. This icon of the
Crucifixionwas carved in the empire,
probably as the central panel of a triptych meant for personal devotions. It
displays a conventional Byzantine
arrangementof the scene, with the Virgin
and John the Evangelistflanking the
crucified Christand gesturing in recognition of his sacrifice. The Savior'seyes
are closed in death. Beside his head are
the busts of two angels, who also gesture
toward Christ,and a rayed sun and
crescent moon.
Laterin the century the panel was
broughtto the Benedictine monasteryof

Il

Santa Cruz de la Ser6s, said to have

been founded by Queen Felicia(d. 1085),
wife of Sancho V (r. 1076-94), king of
Aragonand Navarre.Therethe icon was
converted into the central panel of a

plaque that may have been the cover for

a book (Byzantine ivory icons were
widely used as book covers in the West)
or as partof a votive work, possibly a
reliquary.On the rightside of the

plaque is a small Islamic sapphire

sealstone with four of the ninety-nine
BeautifulNames of Allah inscribed
on it.

61

Incipit Page of the Gospel of John,

from an Armenian Gospels
to the illuminatorSargis;scribe
Attributed
unknown
Pigmentsand gold on vellum
Madeabout1300-1310, at the Monastery
of Noravank',Siwnik',GreaterArmenia
12112 x 9/4

in. (31.7 x 23.6 cm)

RogersFund,1938 (38.171.2)
Evenas Turkishand Mongol rulerswere
taking over the territoriescontrolled by
Byzantiumand neighboringChristian
states, the empire'sculturaland artistic
traditionscontinued to influence the
Christiancommunities within those borderlands.The Armenianpeoples on the
eastern frontierof the empire had recognized Christianityas their state religion
in the early fourthcentury.While the
Armenianchurch remained independent,
manyArmenianschose to become important citizens of the empire, serving as
militaryleaders and even as emperors.
Others continued to fight for independence from all overlords. In the fifth
century,when much of Armeniawas
occupied by the Persians,an Armenian
alphabet had been developed for the
translationof religious texts. Here, on
the incipit (opening) page of the Fourth
New TestamentGospel, images of birds
have been arrangedto form the
Armenianletters.
This single leaf, originally partof a
complete Gospels, was probably illuminated by the artistSargis,who worked at
the Monasteryof Noravank'in Greater
Armenia.At that time the region was
occupied by the Mongols, whose armies
in the thirteenthcentury had swept as far
west as Hungary.The formatof the page
is based on the Byzantine manuscript
tradition,as are the floral patternsin the
decoration. Unlike most illuminatorsof
Byzantium,however, Sargischose as his
primarydecoration the four symbols of
the evangelists. Eachone appears in the

62

capital letterthat stands at the beginning

of the firstword-the angel for Matthew,
the lion for Mark,the ox for Luke,and
the eagle for John.The symbols are
repeated in the headpiece, the panel of
dense ornamentationsuspended over the
text: on top angels flank a bust of Christ
in heaven framed by a pair of peacocks;
within its borderstwo pairs of confronted
lions and oxen flank a pair of eagles.

Page with the Ascension of Christ,

from an Ethiopian Gospels
Pigments on vellum
Painted in the early 1400s, in the LakeTana

region
161/2X 111 in. (41.9 x 28.6 cm)

Rogers Fund, 1998 (1998.66)

In the Middle and Late Byzantineperiods

the influence of Byzantineart persisted
far to the empire'ssouth, even though
the area had come under Islamic control
in the seventh century.Axum, a kingdom
in northernEthiopia,had become a
Christianstate in the fourthcentury. In
the sixth century the Axumites had
assisted the ByzantineemperorJustinI
(r. 518-27) in his effortsto control the
trade routes to the Eastthroughthe Red
Sea, and at that time Greek texts were
translated into Geez, the classical
language of Ethiopia.
In this fifteenth-centurymanuscript
written in Geez, the depiction of the
Ascension of Christ is inspired by
the Byzantinetradition.Christis being
carriedto heaven in a mandorlaas his
mother and the apostles stand witness
beneath him. He is borne up, however,
not by angels, as in Byzantinedepictions
of the scene, but by the four symbols of
the evangelists.These may also have been
intended to remindthe viewer of the
apocalyptic beasts of Ezekiel'svision in
the Old Testament,which is the source of
the evangelists'symbols (Ezekiel1:4-14).
The image is one of a series of illuminations in a Gospels produced in the Lake
Tanaregion of Ethiopia,which became
an importantmonastic site beginning in
the thirteenthcentury.

63

models by Italianartistsfor works such

as this one. It has been attributedto
Berlinghiero,one of the first paintersto
work in the Byzantine-influencedItalian
style later called the manieragreca
(Greek manner).This image of the Virgin
and Child, in which the mother draws the
viewer's eye to her son by the gesture of
a hand, is modeled on a Byzantine icon
type called the Hodegetria (afterthe
Hodegon Monastery in Constantinople,
where the original icon was first kept).
The viewer is led to recognize by the
gently pointing fingers that Christ is
the way to salvation. The Virgin'sdeeply
furrowed brow indicates an awareness
of her son's future sacrifice and death.
According to legend, this image was first
painted from life by Saint Luke. It was
the most widely copied icon type for the
Virgin in the Byzantine world.
During the Latinoccupation of the
capital the original icon, which directly
or indirectlyinspiredBerlinghiero'swork,
was transferredfrom the Hodegon to
the Pantokrator
Monastery,then underthe
control of the Venetians. In 1261, when
the emperor Michael VIIIPalaiologos
(r. 1259-82) regained Constantinople, he
entered the city walking behind the icon.
It is said to have been cut into four parts
and destroyed when the city fell to the
Ottoman Turksin 1453.

Christ Bearing the Cross

Virgin and Child

to Berlinghiero
Attributed
(act.by 1228,
d. by 1236)
Temperaon wood, gold ground
Paintedabout1230, in Italy
31 5 x 21 /8 in. (80.3 x 53.6 cm)
Giftof IrmaN. Straus,1960 (60.173)
64

In the thirteenthcentury the Crusader

rule of Constantinople,burgeoning commercial trade, and the growing activity in
the Eastof the new Western mendicant
religious orders, the Franciscansand
Dominicans, led to an increasing awareness of Byzantine art in Italy.Icon types
popular in the empire were used as

NicolaosTzafouris(act.by 1489, d. 1500)

Oil and temperaon wood, gold ground
Paintedabout 1489-1500, in Crete
271/4x 2112 in. (69.2 x 54.6 cm)

BashfordDean MemorialCollection,Funds
from various donors, 1929 (29.158.746)

Afterthe conquest of Constantinopleby

the Ottoman Turksin 1453, much of the
coastal territoryof the empire, including

certain islands, was annexed by the

Italianmerchantstates.This occurrence
fostered the interactionof Western and
Byzantineartistictraditions.Crete, which
came underVenetian control in 1204,
developed a style of icon painting
intended to appeal to both Orthodox and
Latinpatrons. Nicolaos Tzafouriswas
one of many Cretan artistsworking in
the city of Candia (modern Iraklion)

immediatelyafterthe fall of Constantinople. He wrote "Nicolaus Zafuri

painted it" in large letters, in Latin,
across the bottom of this image and perhaps also "[Christ]Being Draggedto
the Cross,"which is inscribed above the
scene in Greek.The use of Greek for
the title implied that the image would
follow the Byzantine iconographic
formula,with Christshown beside the

cross, being carriedto Golgotha by Simon

of Cyrene, as described in Matthew
27:32, Mark15:21, and Luke23:26.
Instead,the icon follows the Western
traditionthat shows Christbearing the
cross himself, as stated in John 19:17.
Since Tzafourisproduced works for
export as well as for local use, it is possible that this painting was destined for
the Italianmarket.
65

The Presentation in the Temple

Temperaon wood, gold ground
Byzantine
Painted1400-1500
171/2x 16%in. (44.5 x 42.2 cm)
Bequestof LizzieP.Bliss,1931 (31.67.8)

66

The delicately attenuatedstyle of this

icon would long remain influential.
The event depicted is identified by a
Greek inscriptionas "the Purification."
Paintedduringthe century in which the
Byzantine Empirefell, the icon shows
the Virgincalmly presentingthe Christ
Child to Simeon for the customary rite of
purificationin the temple at Jerusalem.
LikeSimeon, the prophetAnna, who
stands between Maryand Joseph, recognizes the infant'sdivinity,as is indicated
by the Greek text on the scroll in her
hand: "Thischild created heaven and
earth."On February2 this important
occasion in the early life of Christ is

celebrated as one of the Twelve Great

Feasts(Dodekaorton)of the Orthodox
Church.
Icons painted on wood have remained
the principal objects of religious devotion for Orthodox Christiansboth within
the former bordersof Byzantiumand
wherever the cultural descendants of the
Byzantines have settled. Paintedicons
are used for personal devotions, for
display in churches on feast days, and
to decorate the iconostasis (partition)
developed during the Middle and Late
Byzantine periods to separate the congregation in the nave of the church from
the sacred altar in the apse.

Chronology
EarlyByzantine Period, 330-843

313

Middle Byzantine Period, 843-1261

Late Byzantine Period, 1261-1453

early 300s

330

EmperorConstantine
the Great issues the
Edictof Milan, allowing Christiansto
worship freely within
the empire
Armenian,Georgian,
and Ethiopianpeoples
convert to Christianity
EmperorConstantine
the Great transfersthe
capital from Rome to

972

princessTheophano
988

Under PrinceVladimir
KievanRus' adopts
Christianityas its
official religion

1018-25

Under EmperorBasil II
Byzantine Empire
reaches peak of its
second flowering

1054

Startof the Great

Schism: the patriarch
of Constantinopleand
the pope of Rome
excommunicate each
other

1071

Battleof Mantzikert:
eastern territoriesof the
empire are lost to
Islamicforces

Constantinople

1099

Islamic armies conquer

the southernterritories
of the empire-Syria,
the Holy Land, Egypt,
and Jordan

FirstCrusadeestablishes the Latinkingdom

of Jerusalem

1204

FourthCrusadecaptures Constantinople
and establishes the
LatinEmpire.Byzantine
successor states arise in
Nicaea, Epiros,and
Trebizond

1261

Byzantine Empire
regains Constantinople
under Michael VIII

Constantinople
410

Sack of Rome by the

Visigoths

ca. 496

Conversionof Clovis,
king of the Franks,to
Christianity

532-37

633-47

Marriagein Rome of
Otto IIand Byzantine

JustinianI erects
the great church of
Hagia Sophia in

726

Byzantineemperor
Leo IIIforbidsthe creation and veneration
of icons

795

FirstrecordedViking
raidson Scotland and
Ireland

800

Charlemagneis
crowned emperor and
augustus (a title) by
Pope Leo IIIin Rome

843

Restorationof the
veneration of icons is

Palaiologos
1453-61

Constantinopleand the
remaining imperial
lands fall to the
OttomanTurks

proclaimed

67

Acknowledgments
Thispublication is dedicated to the
memory of MargaretEnglishFrazer
(1940-1999), for many years the
Museum'sspecialist in Byzantine art
as a curatorin the Department of
MedievalArt and The Cloisters.

Special thanks must be offered to Peter

Barnet,Michel David-Weill curatorin
charge of the Departmentof Medieval
Artand The Cloisters,who broughtgreat
support and enthusiasm to the development of the Maryand Michael Jaharis
Galleries, the firststep in his planned
reinstallationof all the medieval galleries.
I am indebtedto many people for their
assistance in the researchfor the new
galleries, which served as a basis for this
Bulletin.William D. Wixom, former head
of the department,and KatharineR.
Brown, the Museum's former specialist
in early medieval art, made important
contributionsearly on in the project.

68

JenniferL. Ball, Sarah Brooks, Hope

Cullinan, Maria Fragopoulou,Lyle
Humphrey,Daphne Kostopoulos, Patricia
Lurati,JudyOfek, Daniel Perrier,
Aranzazu M. Sarasola,Vega Solana, and
TarraZynda were fellows, interns,and
volunteers who also aided the project.
ProfessorsThelma K.Thomas,Angela
C. Hero, and Henry Maguireare colleagues outside of the Museum who
provided valuable assistance. Within
the departmentBarbaraD. Boehm
and CharlesT. Little,curators;Christine
Brennan,collections informationcoordinator;RobertTheo Margelony,assistantfor
administration;and ThomasC. Vinton,
principal departmentaltechnician, must
be thanked for their advice and efforts.
I am deeply gratefulto other Museum
colleagues, particularlythe talented
members of our conservation and design
departments,for their unstintingefforts
in the successful completion of the new
HCE
galleries.

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