Boiology11P1 Book72dpi

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(Inorganic Compounds
WuCF dO Ud*
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szUJ UNOK qB VOd bIF dO WDO u
WObFL
rKF q
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Water U???*
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r d W rOEM w bU c WOK w
(Minerals) WObF*
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Uu qJ vK uJ b WOK WK s UN mK WObF vK WO U u

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w UJOKO uOUJ Ud q WOK U Ud WOUM WOK q WOK uK
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WObF*
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YK WOC
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(Organic Compounds)
WuCF Ud*
d dUM UNO UC b sObON udJ dBM s fOz qJA uJ bIF WOzUOLO u

w XuJ UN_ WO UMzUJ w Ubu v W WuC XOL sOdOM sO_ q
w WuCF UdL U vK WO WOK u WO UMzU
rKF q
w WOz u WF v UNHOMB sJL
vK UM sO WuQ bOudJ
vb U??u??A?M? UdJ UN
WOKK u?? qJA udJ WOzU
WO
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wzuC UM WOKL w WM tFMB
WOI l??M? B? v?? ? ?_ W??M? ? K? q??J? A?
bOudJ
bOOK
bOudJ
WuM uL
UMOd
(Carbohydrates) bOudJ
sObON udJ w dUMF s u W s uJ
v sObON W wu vK WM sO_
sO sObO WM UL w UNM uJ sO_
ud W L s
uJ dJ WOe' WGOB V R
w u W v bOudJ nMB
(Monosaccharides) dJ
WU
Ò b n YO CH2On w UN W UF WGOB ud s UNKJO uJ
C5H10O5 u dJ C4H8O4 dd dJ C3H6O3 bUbdOK dJ UNOK WK _ s
UNGO uGudH uuKG dJ UNL s u b wN udJ WOb dUJ U
WOUL dUJ w UL UIK q qJ vK uJ b WU_ dUJ C6H12O6WOe
wU qJA dE WOb
CHO
CH2OH
CHO
OH
HO
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
OH
ud
OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
CHO
dd
bUb dK
CHO
CH2OH
H
OH
CH2OH
O OH
H
OH
OH
H
OH
O H
H
OH
OH
OH
OH
HO
OH
OH
CH2OH
uuK UO
uuK UH
uuK
jI WOzUM mOB
dJ
sO_ uIM u dJ WOe WGOB U
WU_ dUJ s nAJ UA

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VN b U VOU bU
qLF uD
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s q r u w uuK uK s q r u w U q l{
r u w ud uK
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UL sOIO b wKG wzU UL w W VOU_ l{
r u WOL U
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W VOU_
Ud uuKG s nAJK d d bu q
UL dJ dJ s nAJK WIdD c `KB q
(Disaccharides) dJ WOzUM

dehydation reactionsnOH UH od s WU dUJ s sOe U s uJ
C12H22O11 w WOzUM dUJK W UF WOe WGOB uJ pc H2O UL e e qLA w
WOzUM dUJ vK WK _ s
uuKG s sOe U s uJ dOFA dJuUL
CH2OH
H
OH
H
OH
OH
uuK
CH2OH
H
H
+
OH OH
H
OH
OH
uuK
CH2OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
O
H
OH
OH
H
OH
OH
H
+ H2O
OH
uU
jI WOzUM mOB
ud e uuK e U s uJ bMLA VBI dJ dJ

u e uuK e U s uJ VOK dJ u
bMLA VBI dOB s dJ dJ r nO
YK WOC
dJ WOzUM s nAJ UA

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b U VOU XbM uK nH HCl uLO dOB U dJ
qLF uD
U wu r
q n{ r u w dJ uK s q l{
XbM uK s
s q n{ r u w dJ uK s q l{
nH HCl uLOK dOB s sOdD XbM uK
UNO dOG sOu_
wKG wzU UL w sOu_ l{
^ sOIO b
d odL qJA w sO u UL `BO uK
(Polysaccharides) dJ bb ?
rKF q
dJ s?? WOK WU s?? be U??
w U??A? q??J? v??K? e??? u??u??K?G?
sOuJ qJ vK WOUM U
WOuO U w
UNL s WU_ dJ UOze s b s uJ dLK

(C6H10O5n WOe UNGO sOuJG uuOKUAM
b n e d qL YO (C8H13O5n WOe tGO sUJ
U O
(Starch) UAM
c uKO vL WLOI q uJ
uuK UH e s uJ wU dLK
UL c w UAM e UM uI UL w c sOJuKO vL WdH q UL w

wUO cG c
WK j
OH
H
OH
OH
H
OH
OH
H
OH
OH
H
OH
OH
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
O
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
OH
r ud w sO UH WD
UA e
(Glycogen) 5uJG
w uuK UH Ue s dLK u uO bM CF bJ w e wuO UAM vL
u d UNMJ WdH q qJA
L UAM q s U dH
w eL sOuJG e uJ
d sOuJG Ue sO jddJ WU bM uuK e n wu s bJ
WUD U U t b c uuKG Ue
H
O
H
OH
H
O
OH
OH
OH
CH2OH
H
O
H
OH
H
O
H
OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
r ud w sO UH WD
6 CH2
H
OH
H
O
H
CH2OH
H
H
H
O
OH
OH
H
OH
H
CH2OH
H
H
OH
H
O
H
OH
OH
H
O
r ud w sO UH WD
sOuJ e
jI WOzUM mOB
Cellulose uuOK
rKF q
dH U??? w?? wLCN UN
pc U??H? j?? ? rOD U??L? e??
ULe dIH ULMO UAM rC lOD
rC r UO j rOD W
uuOK
UuO UF w bu UdOJ UM
uuOK rC lOD UA_ WK
c eOuOK vL re dH YO
uuK dJ v uuOK u
O
OH
H
w sOuJG UAM s nK UL w c WdH dO

UUM b Ue b uJKG Ue sO jd u
UU b W Ub uuOK
CH2OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
H
bu e uJ uuK UO Ue s wU dLK

= UNCF l jd uuK e s
q W KJA
H
O
H
OH
OH
H
H
OH
CH2OH
H
OH
H
H
OH
H
OH
CH2OH
H
O
OH
H
OH
H
CH2OH
H
O
H
OH
H
OH
OH
r ud w sO UO WD
uuOK e
Chitin 7UJ
rKF q
qLF uO UNM lMB sOUJ U
d Wd w
WOU qUON UdDHK WuK b VOd w qb

q VOd w uuOK tA bb iF dAK
sOdOM UNOd w qb w sOuuK UOze s uJ UM
OH
H
H
NHCOCH3
O
OH
H
w s???U??J? q??b?? UHM d??A?

wU UNKJO VOd
H
O
H
NHCOCH3
CH2OH
H
O
OH
CH2OH
CH2OH
H
NHCOCH3
sUJ e
jI WOzUM mOB
UNM
dc d dJ bb UM
WOUM WuK b VOd w b sOJ uuOKOLO
dJ bb s nAJ UA
_ u*
VOU (IKI) uu uK U uuOK sD uuOK UA W sOuJ UA
U
qLF uD
U wu r
sOuJ uK q r u w UA uK s q l{
r u w
sOu_ v uu uK s q n{
pUE q sU wzU UL w sOu_ l{
q sDI s WFD vK UA W vK uu uK s dD l{
pUE
WuO( bOudJ WOL

WUDK dUL bBL bF
WOK w WUD UB s rN bB
L WOK w WuCF uL s UdO U w b

lOL U_ bUb dOKG qJA
UdO WOMb uL WOMO _ uL q WuCF UdL
w WdJ bOOK WdJ UMOd w UL WOK e UuJ iF VOd w qb
w UAG VOd w qb
L WOK w WuCF uL s UdO UM w WOU UM qJA
RNA VOd w ud qb
d WK j
(Lipids) bOOK
U OU
uJ
w UN dUMF s uJ UL w c w qzU wL VK UN u WuC Ud
sO sObO ud bOudJ
u UNS wUU vK UNO sObON W
WUD s d WOL
dHHL bOOK ue ub w UNOd w nK bb Ud bOOK rC
bdO
(Fats and Oils) ue ub

X ue X q wU UbBL ue U ub vK WK be WOuO uA bF
^
dOK vL wu Vd WOM uL s ue ub uJ UuB u X c
qOM pOULU iL WOMb uL vK WK _ s
ue U (saturated) WFA uJ UN WuJL WOMb uL iF _ WK ub uJ
(unsaturated) WFA dO WOM uL vK UNzu WKzU uJ
lA
dO lA
5
uNH*U uBI* U
R
tGO ue w UL (oleic acid) pOO_ iL WFAL dO WOMb uL vK WK _ s
WOMb uL s uN be w UL (stearic acid) pUO iL U C17H33COOH WOe
C17H35COOH tGO WFAL
WO WUFL `{u UL dOK e l WOM uL Ue W U s ub e uJ
H
H C O H
H C O H
H C O H
O
HO C R1
H
O
H C O C R1
O
HO C R2
O
HO C R3
O
H C O C R2 + 3H2O
O
H C O C R3
dOK
WOM uL
u e
jI WOzUM mOB
rKF q
r W??U?? s?? b??ze?? u??b??
WIDM w?? W??U?? bK X e???
qLF WeL ub WI sD
r wL dK WU UL
U bB s
WOMb uLK WOudJ q qL R3 R2 R1 YO

ub s bu dG wDF WUDK U LN bB ub bF
bOudJ s bu dG tODF U nF{ wu dFuKO
dF uKO
(Phospholipids) dH H* bOOK
WuL l WDd UHu WuLL b YU wMb iL UNOd w ub tA
qJA dE lA dO wM iL b wDu wMb iL WOHO
ULK V
sOu
UHu
ULK V dO q
dOK
WOM uL
ULK V
ULK V dO q
UF_ w uL
dHH bOO e
jI WOzUM mOB
dHHL bOOK VOd
dHHL bOO s sOI vK u c uK UAG VOd w dHHL bOOK qb

qJA dE sOI WuJ U OzUIK dHHL bOO lL UL w UNF{ bM
U
ULK V
U
ULK V dO q
UL w UNF{ bM dHHL bOO lL
(Steroids) bdO
s Wb UIK s uJ wN dHHL bOOK ue ub s UNOd w nK
w c UNu w ucL ub u l tUA WOUL WFd WOb UNM W udJ
L WuO WOL bdOK ub w c UL UL
dOd u dN WOM UudN
bdO s bF
dOu
lOL U w uK UAG VOd w qb c dOuJ WLNL bdO s
dHB UBF l dH bile acids WU uL dOuJ s oA r bdO
U lOL UL Wc_ u iF s dOuJ vK uB r ub rC w bU
L tU vK U r
dOuJ s r WU s bJ ZM
OH
CH2
CH3
CH3
CH2
dOu e
HO
CH2 CH
CH3
CH3
CH2 CH2 CH3
CH3
dOu e
jI WOzUM mOB
UIMK WOC
WO UMzUJ r U w ub WOL U
Proteins UMOd U U
rKF q
w qb d WOMO U {uL UM
wMO _ iL q sOd VOd
VOd w?? q??b?? c?? ? s??O? d??u??O?
WOBF quM
dBM U?? u???? sOOMO sOCL
sO sOuO UL XdJ
w d?? _ dUMF v?? W??U??{U??
wMO _ iL VOd w qb
uJ sOuO vLL u dN
vK qLF t WOMO uL WF s
c rdK UKL CF UI
u WOKL w bU
WLN VFK ub bOudJ s bOIF d bF
bu dG wDF w szUJ U w rOEM UM YO s

s uJ dLK UMOd WUD s dF uKO sOd s
U OMO U CL dA UM WOMO_ uL vL WOU b
sObON udJ dUM s wMO _ iL Vd U HK
sOdOM dBM v WU{U sO_
d v wMO iL s nK
ud
rKF q
H
NH2 C
COOH
qOud WuL
sO WuL
wMO _ iLK W UF WOe WGOB

u U Od WOMO _ uL j
sO wMO _ iL
(CH3)w R Q ULK 5 wMO

_ iLK WOe' WGOB V R
WbO WD ULNMO WDd vL bO wzUM uJ U F sOOMO sOCL U bM
WbO WD
H
N
H
O H
R1
C
H
wMO iL
R2
N
OH H
C
H
.e
C
OH
wMO iL
N
H
R1
R2
N
+ H2O
C
OH
bO wzUM
vL ZUM S WOMO uL b b U bO w uJ WOMO uL W U bM

L (Polypeptide) bO bb
U OMO U CL s sOu u d uJ
YK WOC
WOMO _ uL s b q s uJ c wMOd u dN s Y

tHO U
Uu WOMO _ uL
b c UUM r U lOD WOUL Ub WOU_ WOMO_ uL _ uM
wuO sOd w du WOU_ WOMO _ uL UFD s UNOK uB s
wUM sOd s d WOzc WLO wuO sOd U c wUM sOd s d
U UM r U lOD dA UM Ub WOU_ dO WOMO_ uLwU uM
UMOd ub s nAJ UA

UMOd ub s q s nAJK d WId d
_ e wU_ lU nBK uKF UJ WUF pMJL
rKF q
u?? v?? U U??L? e?? s?? d??O??
q UNKLF U??O?I? s?? UNMJL W??O?U??{
ULe U???M? b??b??? U??u??
vL WuC WOU{ u?? U d??
(Coenzymes) ULe UId
L
wMO _ iL u c re
v U sOOL WG v sOdO
UM Uu
lOD eOu re s b?? e??
wu wzUL qOK WOKL eH
w b WOU w UMOu s e n
wu v qUH c U re UO
qLJ v WM sO W
(Enzymes) U1e
WOzUOLOJ UH w szUJ U q b
W WuCF uL UM WUD U bNsOOU Wd UHJ
WOU WOKb dOGL l q UF s tMOJL w szUJK
w szUJ r q WOzUOLOJ UH tu vK UHK
WuC bU q u uu U UL wzUIK qJA b
ULe_ vL sOOU UH Wd UN UL UNDOAM
WULOJ UH b Wd be WuO qu ULe
d b WKK UMOd s uJ UNO UNN r
w WKOK UOLJ U w ULe_ bu bO bb s
UH jOAM re q uI YO UNKL w b WBB
b
OK b
WNUAL UH s
.e qL b
WUD bI iH UN vK WOzUOLOJ UH b bU q u UUU ULe qL bLF

v WKUHL uL qu rO Wd b s tMJL UL Activation Energy qUH jOAM W
d b t b sJL wUU tOd tKJ w dOG qUH bF re d WU u
w uM vK re uu wzUOLOJ qUH Ò{u sJL qUH fH
re A WKUH U
re B WU U
w qU dOG B UL v A UL qu bM wzUOLOJ qUH U sO c qJA dE
WUD u
WUD u
re b qUH jOAM WU
A U
re uu qUH jOAM WU
B U
qUH U
qUH w re qJA
.e qL WO
luL vL re b U lu w WKUHL UL jd
rKF q
vK qLF WOzUOLOJ uL s bbF
jd w uL pK re qL n
U??? u j??A?M? l??u??L? l??
p U luL c w WKUHL UL
jAM luL w W U bOUO U U
u UL UbMuUL w ULe b_
nu luL cN sO_ U sO
fHM WOKL
tzu v WU{ U qJA eOL c Active site jAM

lu s d qUH s WOU W UN WOzUOLO UuL
wzUOLOJ qUH b r U c bF re w d
luL w uuL WOzUOLOJ UuLL WKUHL UL sO
luL s qBHM WU u v WKUHL uL u jAM
qUH qOL sJL UNM UH rO qUH j v jAM
w uM vK re uu wzUOLOJ
luL
WKUHL UL U
re l
+ jAM
WKUH U
re
qUH b WKd
q??u???? w??zU??O? L? O? J?
B U v A UL
A-B
U OK A U?? u???

B U v
B U?? ? U??B? H?
re s
re
qUH u V d b U d WUM WKUHL uL qJA sJL

re
dOK e WOM uL
b s e
eO
uuK ATP
eOMUuuK re
UHu 6uuK ADP
jAM l u* WKUH* u* 5 U WOHO

qJ t re w jAM luL Ub XMO bI
rKF q
vK WOU b UN WOzUOLO UuL vK u b
uL U dH U IU Xd d WO{d
qHI WO{d UNOK oK jAM luLU WKUHL
Lock and Key Hypothesis UHL
WKUHL uL qJ l dO Wb oUD YO qUH

c vL WUM UL sO ULNMO WOUI WKd w
Induced YL uLM U s uLM
jAM luL l WKUHL UL U bF fit model

qJA dE qUH b v R UL WKUHL UL qJ l U UL oUDO tKJ w dOOG b
jAM luL
WKUH u
WU U
luL qJ dOG
jAM
jAM luL
luL qJ u
jAM
re
YL uL qJA
vK dR sJL w dOG s bbFK b WU wzUOLOJ UNOd WFOD dE ULe bF

jAM UNFuL wzUOLOJ VOd UNKJ UNU
rKF q
w dJ bu Lysozyme re
dLKL qK U u iO
UdOJ u?? iF b?? w WdJ
UUN lMLO UdOJ qI wUU
.e UA w dR* W Ozd q
uF s
(pH) wMObON rd
re UA w dR d q u s Y
d W
YK WOC
d( W
re
re
qUH Wd bF
d W w dOJ dOG
s tuO re qJ vK dR
v (Natural) UFH wFOD qJA
p UF dO wFO dO qJ
dR YO d W l bM
d W
vK dU qJA WOUF d W
U lML jAM luL qJ
sOHK sOLe vKL d W qJ
r pc tF WKUHL uL

V qJA v dEMU qUH
WO s
J vKL d W sJL U vK qUH Wd bF UNO uJ w d W b

sOLe
vKL Wb s d W XCH ULK re UA qI UL
(pH) wMObON r d
w dOG v wMObON rd w dOG R bM qLF q pH wMObO r re qJ
w WKUHL UL jAM luL sO U r pc jAM luLK WOzUOLOJ UuLL WFO
dOG sO WF qJA `{u U UL nu qI wzUOLOJ qUH b bF S WU c
sOHK sOLe UAM pH wMObON rd w
re
qUH Wd bF
re

pH
sOHK sOLe q _ wMObON rd qJ
U1e UA vK d( W d UA
_ u*
U VOU U (IKI) uu uK nH uOUJ buK uK UA uK
nU bF h WOH ZK WU VN d eO
qLF uD
uOUJ buK uK s q UFK v n{ r U u w UFK s q lL
nH UF uK vK qB nHL
UAM uK s q UNM q w l{ UNL U VOU dC
u WdG d W vK r u d U K u Q w r u l{
W vK wzU UL w r u d W vK wzU UL w r
bO UNe WF_ VOU_ s u q v nHL UFK uK s q n{
hH WOH s nu q w uu uK s dD l{
dD q l{ WF_ VOU_ s u q s UFK UAM Ze s dD c ozU fL bF
d pUE q hH WOH nU b w
d pUE q tUuJ v UAM qOK r v ozU fL q d uD b
Nucleic Acids WuM uL( U F

uIM ud uM iL UL UNM sOu UM Xd WuM uL U IU X
(Ribo Nucleic Acid) ud uM iL (Deoxy Ribo Nucleic Acid) sO_
VOd YO s
RNA DNA 5 U R
UHu WuL s bOuOKuOM Vd YO bOuOKuO vL Ue s WuM uL uJ

s UNCF bOuOKuOM nK WMOdO bU sO_ uIM u u wUL dJ
qJA dE WOMOdOM bUI U iF
w d nzU UN S WuM uL w WOzUM bu bOuOKuOM u o UL WU{
Adenosine)UHuH w sOuM e q WUDU WOM WOzUOLO j w WUD se q WOK
ATP te d (Tri Phosphate
H
N
sO
N
O
O
p
O-
O
O
O-
H
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CH2
O-
UHu UuL
ATP e wzUOLOJ VOd qJA
H
H
HO u OH
jI WOzUM WGOB
qBH WK
WO dUMF s q tFK c uO b U dBM wu WO UL VOd w qb
WO UL w
uHuH ?
sOdOM
udJ
uOUJ ?
bb
u qJ U UD l WOLOUH WDd qJ vK UNu V bOudJ V

VOd YO s uuOK sOuJG UAM sO U
w szUJ r w WLNL WuCF uL s bOOK bF

WN s dHHL bOOK ub sO WN s bdO sO tA t U
d
dOuJK WuO WOL_ U
dOuJ vK r qB nO ?
WOHOu WOOd sOOUM s w szUJ r w WLN UMOd VFK
UMOd UNM uJ w bu U
WOOd buK WOe WGOB U
sO wMO _ iL l
NH2C COOH
H
sO wMO _ iL jd nO sO ?
H
ULNMO WDd r U bO wzUM suJ NH2 C COOH
CH3
WO WOK w WuO bU q u ULe qJA

ULe hzUB iF d
vMM qJ vK re UA d W sO WF `{
W??OK?? d???U??*
qBH
v p w V uF WOUO uKF w qzU wdF UH qB dO_ uIF w

U WdF XILF UNKCH w Wb WOdJ dUL UNL s Wb UOMI b
dUL u UL UNze sO WOKUJ UF v qu r UNHzU UNO d WOK

dQ
e U uM WOIOI uM WOzb U
sO dH U WdNL `zdA dOC r nO
UNHzU uM WOIOI WOK

qLF WO VO d YO s UNMO UI Wb dUL iF dF

UIU WOzuC dUL b

WOuO WOU U
WdN `zd dC
UNu sO UI WHK
L U
UJ nB
VO d YO s uM WOIOI uM WOzb U
sO UI
UNHzU uM WOIOI WOK
UuJ VO d nB
UNHzU WOK
UuJ VO d sO `{u
uK
UAG d uL UI d dA
WOK
UOC sO wHOu qUJ ZM
Microscopes dU*
qJA WUMB c Xu dA lU dI cM dUL WUM b
dUL v XKu v dD
dL s sO b v WOdJ dUL w dOJ u qB Wb WOdJ
udJOL `zdA lODI UN b
p w bU WOuO WOU U
`zd dOC r b
X UNB bMWdA UuJ bUA s UMMJLO uC UNM cHM b WIO `zd lDI c
iF s UNCF WMOF e eOL w WHK
L UGB Xb
UL qJA dE dNL
udJOL qJA
UOU Wb* dU* r s

Compound Microscope Vd* dN*
U CF UNCF s sODI eOOL UN sJL WU dB dF dUL s uM c w uC b

ddJO , wu v V dL dNL w eOOL u qB Resolution power qBHeOOL uI
UeOOL sJL ddJO , s q UNMO WUL uJ w e_ wMF c
qJA dE Vd* dN* UIU X
WOMOF UbF
UNOL V U Wb
L UbF UL U
d
dOJ u vK qB nO
WOOA UbF
c
WOe WbFU uBIL U
bCML
WdA l{u s
wb U
dOJ jUC
U{ bB
dOGB jUC
sODUC sdOJ sODUC s q WHO U

wb U sdOGB
b V w WOOA WbF dOJ u
bI U
UL `zdA bUA bM UN
V dL dNL qJA
WOz U) `zd dOC% UA

_ u*
sOKOL WG U `zd WOD WOU `zd WOJO o WOA bO
wzu{ dN
qLF uD
WOU Wd vK U dD l{
pO s WIFK wA uWUu WMu rH nu wKb VU nDK jA
OK l{
UL jK WOUe WdA vK UL dD vK VA
uF WIUF UL s
UL dD l
u UUI uJ v UNF{u WUML We U UL dD vK Wd UD l{
bUA U r WHK
dOJ u b
U U
h
bUA U r UL dD v sOKOL WG s dD WU{S WIU uD
b
dL U) `zd dOC% UA
_ u*
,eO d wK uK uU w u sD Lancet rIF VU dD
V d dN `zd WOD WOU `zd Nomal Saline
qLF uD
dBM pF d ` uJU sDI s WFD qK
d d uJU dBM ` r nDK ubU dBM e r t s VU d
UL
d UL , wKL uKL s r vK u u w b s dD l{
dL U
OK u_
WdA vK UNF{ uKL s dD c r
WHK
dOJ u b
U h WdA UD l{
rOIFK eO d u b
UL
WOU W U) `zd dOC% UA

e wU_ lU nBK uKF UJ sF WOU W U
`zd dOC r
wU
Dissecting Microscope wdA dN*

wdA dNL e U qJA dE
szUJ e iF bUAL tb
sJL t_ wdAU wL
L tdA r c
d
L w q
WU uO bUA sJL
WIKFL UOKLFU WIOb WOd UOKLF d w b
UL
sOFU
wdA dNL qJA
Electron Microscopes WOdJ dU*

b dUL s uM c w UdJ b

dOuU , dOG UNO eOOL u uC s
wzuC dNL WUu UN sJL w U_ ozU Ò{u s UNMJL UL wzuC dNLU WUI
s U {u WOdJ WF bB WOUe b WOOUMGdN Ub wdJ dNL w b

vK dUL WELK (Fluorescent Screen) uKH WU vK uB lL wzuC bBL
d
uOK qB dOJ u UN WOdJ_ dULUN rO WOduu Wu
UL dU* c s 5u vK edM
Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM
cUM wdJ dN*
bB s UdJ r YO WOK

K oOb VO d Wb WOOzd _ dNL c dF
WO UN dL WMOFU bDB WOdJ WF_
UB r ULMO WMOF UdJ iF d
pc
w UdJ bDB UbM d UNCF XOA
uJ WOduu WuK uKH WUA WMOF Xd
uUU dNL c q sJL WMOFK dJ u
u vK uBK WOL dOUJ UuKFL qOK
qJA dE WMOFK
cUM wdJ dNL qJA
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM
Ù* wdJ_ dN*
wU
`D W Ò{u dNL c b

qOK vK qLF uU t qB UdOJ bF WMOFK
WO u qJ vK UdNE tO u UuKFL
WOK
Ue iF Wb dNL c b
UF_
UIK u UJ W w b
UL DNA q
qJA dE UNHOMB q s
ÙL wdJ dNL qJA
YK WOC
d dU u s Y
The Cell
WOK)
UNu U) UJ
UNUJ w nK
UN w szUJ r w WHOu VOd b bF
WOK U IU Xd
b UCO b U w UL dOG uJ b u_ rEF w UL U U qJA uJ b UNu
U w UL U OeG WKJON CF U w UL U OuD WbG U
w UL U FJ qJA uJ
UJ d UKL CF
d
rKF q
d dGB w WOUM U
rEFL r YO s U
d ? d WUFM WCO dD
r U??? WCu dD s
r s d ? d U WCu
dL b WOK
sO uM WOzb U
rEF dD d YO dNL X
sO UdD dO uM WOIOI U
U ddJO
ddJO
WO( UMzUJ w UNu U UL U) d U R
l UNL v rK UNFK{ u qJA WFJ WOK `D WU sO U
UIMK WOC
k U rK UNFK{ u qJA WFJ WOK

WOK vK dDI dOG WOK
bU c UNL WMU UND WU WOK
dD q ULK
qJA dEuK
UAG d uL U UOKL w UNUU
UNL WOK
`D WU sO WF qJA
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells uM WOIOI uM WOzb U)

w uM WOzb U s UOzb WJKL WeL dC UdOJ WOIOI UdOJ bF
uM WOIOI vL w U

u WOI s U L dG UNO d w j
dO (nucleoid) uOKuO vL Wu WIDM qJ vK WOu UNU lL uM WOzb U
U
WuK
Ub WOAQ WHKG UOC UN fO uK
UAG l WIU UNMJ u G WU
uuOK u
u uu UL d_ pULL w WO UMzUJ lOL U qLA uM WOIOI U U
UMMWOAQ WHKG UOC UN w Wd Uuud u u G WU W{
U I UNUM rO uM WOzb U
U uM WOIOI U
VO d wQ ULO
UNHzU WOK) e
rKF q
qJA dE WOz e W s WOK uJ
u??? ? u???M? ? W?? O? ?zb?? U?? ??

? ?
uuO vK dOG Uuu
U??F?? u??? (mesosome)
w b
w????? UAG q??
fHM WOKL
uK UAG
uO
uM
ubM uU
uO dO U r
u VI
wu UN
uK UA
bU r
wu UN
WOb WJ
UK
bb
uud
sOUd
Wu
u
ubM uU
WOb WJ
WMA
WOb WJ
UK
WOb WJ
uu
u
uu
WIO UOO
Wu
udM
u
u
dC bO
We d u
WIO UOO
sO uO
sOUd
uuO
u VI
uK UA uK b
WOuO WOK
WOU WOK
WOuO d WOU WOK qJA
Cell Membrane uK) UAG

uK
UAG UuJ k qJA dE
WdJ u
5d e dOu
bOK s UI
dHH*
uK) qJON UO
WOuO WOK) uK) UAG VO d qJA
tJL mK b oO UA u WOK
U uK
UAG jO
rKF q
UAG VO d Ò{u UL b XF{ bduU
dF c U OU bLFL uKJ dGM uL UNL
UMOd s U u s d UM
b WOK
uK
UAG w b
uLK WKUM UMOdU dL
Uu_
vK dHHL ub W d Wd
ddJO v qB b UAG b
QD UMOd W d uJ WOU w
UNL dJ
Fluid Mosaic Model qzU wzUHOH uLM ?

s wOz qJA uJ uK
UAG S uLM cN U I
WOD uJ b UMOd UNd
dHHL bOOK s sOI
wzUHO tQ UAG n UM s UAG w dzU
q w d X s UMOd bOOK iF l{u dOG
qzU tQ uLM n c WI
bOudJ jd UL WdJ UMOd uJ bOudJ s q WOD UMOd jd

WdJ bOOK WuJ bOOKU
The Cytoplasm uO

U s nQ qzU s uJ uM G uK
UAG sO U eO L w WO UL u
UOCF vL WBB
VO d tO oKF cytosol uuO vL WuC u WObF
UOCF c s WuO UOKLF s b uM UNM q h
YO
(Endoplasmic Reticulum) WO b WJA

dE uK
UAG VO d fH t UAG U qzU uKL Bu UO uM s uJ
qJA
WMA WOb WJ
UK WOb WJ
WOb WJA qJA
`D vK dAM uM G uK
UAG sO U qB
rKF q
w UKL W??O???b?? WJA
u WOKI WOKJON WOKCF U

UI W??d??C? uOU U??u??
CF
UOCF c r U Wd UOC uM G s VdI e

UOCF c u c e r U
UOCF c q vK u c e r U
WO nzUuU WOb WJA uI

UuuOK v ULe ddL UNU v WOK
q s d bFL UMOd ddL
wu UN d
WUb WOK
VJ
WuO UH tOK r U F U D qJA nO WOK
K wKb `D WU s be ?
WHK
L
WMA
WOb WJA UNM sA
e `D vK sOd UM WOKL r
dHHL ub US W UN ULe UKL WOb WJA UNM fK_ e u ?
uL dOUIF iF WOL WS W UN ULe WOMb uL bdO
(Ribosomes) U uud

wuud
RNA
sOd s uJ dOG Wd UOC
WJA `D vK UNCF jd WuM w UNFOMB b r RNA

w UMOd UM uI YO uM GU qBL WOb
uuO w d qJA d UNCF dAM WOK
U v bB

qJA dE WOK
U U
sOd UM uI YO
(Golgi Apparatus) w'u UN
uud qJA
WDMLWOzUAG UO_ s e Bu s uJ
qJA dE oLF qOK Q qJ uJ UO _ uI UNCF u qJA WdL
WKBu
wu UN qJA
U
w dJ WOuO WOUM U
w wu UN bu
rKF q
bOud US wu UN uI WOUM U
w Wd
Uuud s b?? u bu t
WOb WJAU U Dd uJ
u vK UL uuO w d??
tFOMB dL sOd
uK
b VO d w qb dJ bb
u Bu WOb WJA qd WOuO U
w
l Bu c ZbM r Uuud w UNFOMB r UMOd
WU{ UMOd VO d w qbF U r YO UN q v UbF qIM wu UN UA

wzUN qJA Ub rO UNO bOudJ iF
UAG l rK uO d qIM WOzUA Bu WO vK wu UN uL lOL UG
WL{UN UBF w U u UL r s d e w dR Wd u l UNUu WIKD uK

UN uI UL sOu ud q WU sO Ud UN U We
uK
UAG s Wd vI
rKF q
WUD w hI s XU WOK

r q v qb UNM e S
w tb
r tLC rO U
c?? h??I?M? uFO W??U??D? U???
w??c?? r??C?N?U?? v??L?? U?? v??K? U???
autophagy
WU U_ w UNMe

WL{UN ULe dbB wu
(Lysosomes) W
U( U_
U UJ w wu UN s qBHM Bu
U u sOF u vK u dH UAG U WHK
b
rC vK bI UN wzUL qOK ULe vL ULe s
bF c WuM uL ub UMOd bOudJ
uL U WOK
q wLCN UN WeML WU U_
pc WOK
WU s WCzUH WOzcG
d
q WdG U_ WOL rOd
wu UN
qJ vK uK
UAG s e WOK

l rK r ub vL WKBu
uI w W U U_ s d b
WKBu
WKBu
WKBu q WL{UN UNULe VB

r
U
Zu dD r UNUuJ rC vK qLF
uU U r
UH r v uuO v rCN
UNM
WOb WJ
ULe d WOK
u bM
WKBu suJ
UuJ qK uuO v WL{UN

w UA
WOL U
s hK
r c WOK

U
q s UNUuJ s UH
WOK
UOC sO WOKUJ WF qJA
qJA dE UL
rKF q
U_ q i_ ULe w qK s ZM se
d vL U VOB WOu d_ s WuL UM
ub r d v R UL ebOMOuJ vL ubK r{U re hI s V c fU U d UNU WU
U u v R UL tKL nuO Ub U w
rCN ULK WOK

q wLCN UN WeML W U U_ bF
UIMK WOC
UNH WO WOK

U UL tK v bH{ v WO u u UbM bHC UO w
YK WOC
p r nO
(Peroxisomes) U uOdO

s QAM UN UNUuL jO dH UA u YO s dNEL YO s WU U_ tA
bR ULe vK u WOK
w WIU UuO dO UI uL s QAM UL wu UN
u u U V d suJ sO _ v UNU{ uJU uC V d s sObO eM uI
e sO U v (H2O2)u (Catalase) U U U Le UM H2O2 sObON bO
W bJ U w uJ b Q uI bJ WOKJ U w UuO dO dJ tOL pc

WObOud u v UNu YO ub iQ W UN b R ULe UM UNC Zu WOL
UUM c U bM U u UL
(Mitochondria) UbMuU*
ZbM bI UNL UNKJ dOOG vK UNb l WHK
UJ U UN ubM uU UdH
WU{U wuD_ UNUJ dN s nUC vK bI UN dO ubM uU suJ UNM UM
qJA dE weK wDO
uBF dJU d UJ v
wK UA
uA(
wU UA
d_
ubM uU* VO d qJA
rKF q
wu u bu bJ WOK
ubM uU
WOBF WOK
U WOK
K uO UAM V nK
O bF U

UA ubMuOLK bK WOK s d b u
d_ vL WOF UOM qJ vK dF wK u wU
uA vL WOK WIDML wKb UAG jO Cristae
RNA s WOL Uuud v WU{U UMOd ULe s dO WOL u w Matrix
UbM uULU WU
ULe iF U b
UMO u DNA
uK
fHM WOKL qd iF UNO b YO WOK w WUD bOu UD UbMuUL bF
WHK
L WuO UNUOKL w WOK
UNb
ATP qJ vK WUD U
(Plastids) bO

V??U???D? WOUM U????
? w?? b??u??
wU UA
(Chloroplast) dC bO UdN
wK UA
bO WOK
b??O? VUD w?? bu
Ud WLK
bF UJ w?? b?? dC

d??? b??O????? b??F? U??U???M? w?? U??
bu U
rd
sO dC
W??u?? WOK w??
q??J?A? dE qJA WOd u??J?
Ud
wzuC UM WOKLF c??G? U UNHO

wU sUAG dC bO U
sO uL U rOEM vK LF wK
dC
bO qJA
q bu UL UNU bO q
Thyla- buU vL WOzUA `zUH bO
rKF q
Ud UNFL Wu wMF rd WLK
uO w u WeL dC
UdOJ
sOu vK u bu U vL WOA vK
u UO v WU{U qOuKJ s
bUL UGB
t UOC b? ?F? UbM uUL bO
UNOA nUC uLM vK bI UN WKI
lMB UNUMOd _ WOKb WOA_ s e bF

w d Uuu s q WOb WJA w
UNKb uu Uuu uuO
WKJA d qJ vK iF u UNCF Vd coids

GranumrdG vL U
d??C? W??G?? v??K? b??u?? ??U??? W??O?A? u????
WOUId dH WOU{ UG vK qOuK
eO TKL UMOd ULe iF v WU{U
Ud vL nO qzU dC
bOK wKb
Uuu UA UO u stroma WLK^
c RNA DNA v WU{U ULe UMOd
s d Uu UM wzuC UM WOKLF WU

ULe UM nUC uLM s bO sJL
UL WOUM U
w bO
(Chromoplasts)WuKL bO
W{UM UL uK
= UUM U_ uK= WHK
UG u
Leukoplasts uK WLb bO
c w uuL se
U w WU ub UMOd UAM se
e dL qLF
c UIO
(Vacuoles) WuK) uH

dOG WOuO U
w uJ UOFzD WOUM WOuO U
w bu WOzUA UO
WbF uJ b WOzD U
w UL bF WKOK bG bJ U w UL bF dO r
uH WUBF uH u W v U OHO uH nMB W{UM dL U
w UL
WOzcG uH WCIML
wKb eO nB s d Uu (Central Vacuole) Wed u WOUM U
w bu
zU u uuO Vu vK UOCF WOI U d
UNM UG U s uJ
WMU dC WU u u UL _ iF U_ uK wHM _ dL_
uI WOUM WOK
VJ UMOdU uL se
uH uI UNM UUM WK UuO bF UL

UL CH bze UL d vK qLF Contractile Vacuoles WCIM u UO_ w bu
UO_ w UL rCNK eU WOzc u uFood Vacuoles WOzc u bu UL uOOd w
WOb WJ
eJd
(Cytoskeleton)uK) qJON

ubM uU
U???O??O? U??O?? s?? W??J??

uuO q dAM WOMOd
sOKJA dE
U??O?M?O?F??? w?? U??N? U??A? ? r??
Wb WOdJ dUL qCH
s WJ
sO _
w rU UNKJ WOK

VJ
W d w?? UNUOC WOK
W d
uK UA
oO VOO
s We
WIOb uO
WDu uO
uJ WOK
q?? WOuO
sO jO
w UuJ W s uK
qJON
uK
qJON qJA
(Microfilaments) WIOb uO)
vK W d w U LN VFK sO_ sOd s sOHK sODO s uJ

UO_ w UL WUJ b_ uJ
WOKCF U
UI q uK
uL
WUb WOK
U w bU
(Microtubules) WIOb UOO_
WIOb uO
sOd s uJ dOdJO , wu UNu mK Uu WOuD VO d

U w pJH uJ UN YO U v VO d c dIH sOuOuO vL
VFK UNKJ vK kU WUb WOK
VJ WOK
WU V WHK

UF
wu UN s WNL Bu W d q WOK
UOC W d w
WIOb UOO_
YO uK
UI WOKL UM UuudJ W d pc uK
UAG v
eGL uO UNM uJ
Intermediate Filaments WDu* uO)
fO sOIU sOuM sO j UNL q qJ vK nK WOMOd UO
WDuL uO
XU qJA WUb WOK

VJ UNS c pJH uJ vK bI UN
uO qJA
dNE UL uK
qJON
wdJ dNL w
u bK U VJ c sOdOJ sOd s bK w WDuL uO

uJ
dO WOJOUJO
rKF q
UAG w bu UMOd s W_ q U
sO UDd uJ uK
qJON
ZOM U vK bU c Desmosomes WDd U_ vL uK
(Centrosome) udM

WIOb UOO_ rOEM ed edL r U C vL
e d r
eJdL s?? t??K?b?? b??u?? u??M? s?? d??I?U?? lI

WIO UOO
eJd
w wu lDI
_ eJdL
WIO UOO
w w{d lDI
d eJdL
s udM uK
ULMO WOuO U w Centrioles
s eJdL uJ qJA WOUM U
w eJdL
tA WIK qJA Wd WIOb UOO_ s WO UuL l
udM nUC dH jLMU dF U c rU

wD s VD v udM q qIM WOK
UI q
U
rEF w WIOb UOO_ udM s uLM WOK

uI UudJ l jd w eGL uO UNM QAM w
e dL r VO d qJA
UI UM WOK
wD UU UNJd
(Cilia and Flagella) u_ b_

uK
UAG s bL WdF bz w UuO UOFzD UOzb iF U w bu
basal body bU r l uuO w qB
dHM UOO
u_ b_ b
eJdL VO d fH t
sOM
UOO_ s
WIOb
dOB bF dO b_ uJ W d b w
UM b u U buO u_ U U O
jL w u_ b_ dA U O WKu w
u bNK w{dF lDIL wH b wO d
bu YO qJA dE jLM dNE
qJ vK Vd WIOb UOO_ s UuL
e dL w sdHM sOOO vK jOL w
w b
sOM vL WOMOd uO UM
u_ b_ W d
rKF q
bb UMzUJ U iF w bu b??_ u??_
b_ t d w bU u t uML uOU U

U WdG U_ l V WOHM UL WUD wDG
v w iO UM sD WbN U bu wHM UN
rd UU WCu l vK qLF U
(Nucleus) uM
sO u bN w w{d lDI qJA
wdJ dNL w dNE UL jLM
e d bF
^ c WOKK WOu UL rEF u
w U LN VFK WuO UUAMK UuKFLK
b qJA dE uK
UI WOKL
uM e
uM G U F UuJ wK wU sUAG uM U

VI VO d
VJ tLb w WIOb uO

s WJA sD wKb tD
UH s bbF uM G `D u dJ UNKJ uM
uM s WHK
u Ud dL uM UN pores uI vL dOGB
UMOd mRNA Uuud q wU
UNDO v
uM e qJA
Uuud vK uM u uM q WFMBL ULe
rKF q
U uM G w VI q
WOKL rEM WOMOd UO wUL
qLF b??z t t uL d??
qJA dE t vK
uudJ VO d U UNM b b UMzUJ s u qJ

wWuM vL d d rO vK uM u
Uuud lM s WR
w Y WOK
w uM WOL UO UuU VK ULKF b
YK WOC
WOK
w uM WOL sO Wd s ldL
(Cell Surface) WOK) `D
WOK
`D WKJA uK
UAG U dH WOK
q lMB uL UNu nK
L U
U
WOuO U w uK G WOUM U w uK b q
Cell Wall uK) b'

u iF UdDH WOUM U
w uK
UAG U
WOK
WHO vK UL tJL w nK
UH b VUD
uK
b
qJA dE WOUM U
u lOL w wzb uK b bu
c uuOK UNL dJ bb bOud s uJ
Matrix WO U q uLG UO_ s WJ qJ vK uJ
b bL `L w sOJ U UNMO s WHK
u s uJ
bM b rb w uuOKOLON U WOK
uL bM uK

uK
b qJA
WOK
ZC
Cell Coat uK) G

rKF q
sO bu sOJ U?? s WI UM
WDuL WID vb WOUM U

WUB WOL UN uuOK U??
u VA
UuJ r s wN
w b
sOMGK U?? s??D?I?
U_ UDL WUM
WuC u s G WOuO U
rEF U
U
uD WuI vK qLF UMOd bOudJU
U
u vK kU UNCF WOuO U
UB vK
UNHzU WQ w UbU UL
WuK) WOA_ d u* UI
r UL WOK
K WHK
u u VKD c WO U
q WuO UH b
d p r fJFU UNK v U
U s uL c iF UI s b d u U
iF `L t YO Selectively Permeable WUHM UO tQ nu c uK
UAG
vK qLF WU UOP lL uN WOK
UUO V d u lML t s dLU uL
dD c s WOK
v s Ue rEF d rOEM
(Diffusion)
UA
Wd uJ UU lOL w wzuA qJA uN UL w Ue Uu_ d

L iHML eOd WIDM v UeU wUF eOd WIDM s
UMS aDL w UG Wu ` bM
u w UGB b uK l{ bM UG Ue UA WO UL dG w UG Wz rA
UeU wUF eO d WIDM s wzuA qJA WHK
UUU d uK Ue S UL s
U uK UL `B v f UFL UU UL Ue d Xu fH w iH
ML eO d WIDM v
qJA dE fU qJA WGBU
WOG uK
UA qJA
eO d WIDM v wUF eO d WIDM s UU lOL w wzuA qJA Ue W d

fHM U q uK
UAG d UNUe dAM uL s qOK b UM UA vb iH
ML
L q_ eO d WIDM v wUF eO d WIDM s udJ bO wU sO _
oONA WOKL w
s vK WOKb Bu b w sO _ eO d `B uNU TKL WOzuN Bu bL
v wUF eO d Bu s sO _ dAMO BuU WDOL Wub dOFA w eO d
v wUF eO d dOFA s udJ bO wU dAM fJFU q_ eO d Wub dOFA
q_ eO d Bu
(Osmosis) WuL WOU)

`KL s iH
M eO d
`KL s wU eO d
qOK uK s UL Ue UA WOU
`KL s U eO d
cLU eO d wU uK v cLU eO d
dE WOU
c Ò{u cHM t UA d
qJA
H2O
w sOHK
sOOK sOuK vK u_ u
uK u WFA eO d
eO d qOK U OK
UuKO cHM t UA
uK u WFA cLU

wU U OK
t UA sOuKL sO qBH cLU eO d
t s dLU jI ULK `L UuKO s cHM
WuL_
fJFU WF v WF s UL qIM
WuL WOU
qJA
WF w uKL u UH v R c v s vK v s UI bF sJ

eO d wU uK v cLU eO d qOK uK s UL lb w uI vL WF w t{UH
uL jGCU cHM t UA d cLU

uL jGC U U uL jGC `B UbM
U U sOUU UL UI bF `B qzU
WOU
WUu UL bIH c uKL vL
uK WuL
Hypotonic eOd X
uK vLO UL VJ c uKL U
u
U uK
eO d
iH
M uK
eO d
wU uK
eO d
WHK
eO d qOU q dL U qJ
WU qOU UM Hypertonic eOd

WuL WOU
dF Isotonic eOd
qJA
p d
gLJM UNS eO d wU wK uK w dL WOKq WOuO WOK l{ bM
p d
_U eO d qOK uK w UNF{ bM dL b WOK
qB U
WOK
w _ eO d fH t uK w UNF{ bM dL b WOK
qB U
dDI U w UNF{ bM WOUM WOK
dHM q
qOK uK wI U w UNF{ bMF uK
UAGU jO uuOK b WOUM WOK
U
U v UL u dL WuL WOU

qFH WOK
q v lbM UL S cLU eO d
jG{ bS WOK
b uIO UL u dL WO aHM WOK
S p oI r eO d
uI WOK
VJ UL Turger Pressure jG{ b jG{ vb uL jGCK f UF

p dOH U WuKL bb w{_ w uLM UUM iF lOD
UIMK WOC
rKF q
cLU eO d WKOK U
s UL qIM YO uL UNS WuKL WOU WO w d
L w XF{ UUM U iF
v uF WuKL WOU Wd w UUM u WeK WOU
c vL UNu V UL cLU eO d WOU WO v
uL WM qc `M WOKL V WuKF e_ s UL bIH Xu fH w Wc dOFA v UL u nu
uLK cHM uJ WOA_ iF UuKO WOA q WO dO WuK
WOA_ q WO uJ b WOA_
cHM dO UNCF
ULNMO dH `{ WuL WOU) q1 ULN UA q1 5KJA ^ R
qOK wK uK

cLU eO d
UA
UuKO
WOU
UA sO WUI
WuL_
Facilitated Diffusion q]N* UA

uM h
qIMK UMOd UNM nzUu u_ bF UMOd u uK
UAG X
qJ uK
UAG d tKI vK qLF t jd uL s sOF
qJ UA WOU
Ue Uu_ ddL vK qLF uM qJA quM c iF
WOKL UM WOK
tu bF tM qBHM ruK
UAG d tKI UM e l jd d UNCF
UMOd bUL r c qIM s uM c qJ XR qJA sOd qJ dOG qIM
qNL
UAU dF uK
UAG
wMO qzU
c
qU sOd
c
uM sOd
uO
uM sOd qNL UA qJA
qU sOd qNL UA qJA
eO d WIDML v U UNO UL eO d uJ w WIDML s eOd b l uL qI r

WIdD cN qIM WOKL iH
ML
3Na+
UNKI r w uL s WU U

uL d UJ iF WIdD cN
WOK
q s bOuOK uOM WOMO_
fJFU UNU v
qU
wMOd
Active Transport jAM qIM

d Ue Uu_ UI u
s eOd b b{ uK
UAG
2k+
ATP
ADP
v uL cN iH
ML eO d WIDM
dOH sJL nOJ wUF eO dWIDM
p
uOUu uuB W
C jAM qIM qJA
Wc dOFAU U
iF U

Uu_ c UB r dOFA q UeO d s q eO d Wd w buL Uu_ iF v
jAM qIM vL WIdD
UMOd jOAM ATP Ue N r YO WU v WKU UMOd v WOKLF c U
qIM vK WK_ s eO d b b{ WOzUOLO WOKL jAM qIM UNKLF UOIK UNKJ dOOG WKUM
WUu uK
UAG d uOUu uuB Uu_ a{ s WOKCF WOBF U
w b U jAM
U s uOUu Uu UNU v WOK
q s uuB Uu a{ r YO b qU sOd
U Pumps UCL WU c w vL w WKUM UMOd od s p UNK v WOK

WOBF WOK
w uOUu uuB WC sO c qJA dE WUD v c aC WOKL
U I UNdF w
qBH
WK
YO s cUM wdJ dNL V dL dNL sO U
qLF WO ? VO d dOJ u
uM WOIOI uM WOzb U

u qJ WK j
sOuM sO VO d w dH d
t sO UNHzU l WOb WJA VO d

qK
UNULe rEF UM UbM uUL lOD
U UO WOK
s e rCN W U U_ uI
uuO v uM q s UI Uuud UMOd lOD
UuO dO W U U_ sO tUA t U

DNA u w WuK
UuJL d
WIOb uO
WIOb UOO_ s q VO d w qb sOd u U
dH sODLM sO U
WOuO WOK
WOUM WOK
sO UdH d
u qJ WK j jAM qIM qNL
UA sO dH U
bu WK
WOB WU e u dz l{
uuOK rC lOD WO WO UMzUJ b

UdOJ u iF
V_
vF_
U
dH UA t WO VO d b
dC
bO
WOb WJA
ubM uUL
U r
wzuC UM WOKLF WM tFMB dJ vL
bUb dK
u uK
dJ
u
U dOu ud bF
vK

dHHL bOOK
UMOd
dJ bb bOudJ
bdO
WOU_ WOMO_ uL
UUM r U lOD
dAF s Ub be
dJ wUM sOd w du
cG s UNOK uB r

ULe WuO bUL quF
WBB

jI sOd s uJ
U eO d WOK
UNU
UH w pKN ?
vL Ue iF W w b
c dNL
uHuH
V dL
cUM wdJ
ÙL wdJ
uM WOzb U

dOG UNUuu
U u U u
UK WOb WJ u
WKOK UNO UbM uUL

bOudJ u b qL WO WOzUOLOJ mOB b
C3H6O3
CH2O4
C6H6O6
C5H10O10
wMO_ iL VO d w qb WO dUMF b

udJ
sOdOM
uHuH
sO
w b s _ uLF w UOCF r V
WHOu
WOCF r
rd
uI WOUM WOK

VJ
WuM uL UMOd bOudJ ub rCN uI
wzUN qJA Ub UMOd VO d w bF iF US uI
bdO dHHL ub i w UNULe rU
bJ U w uJ b Q uI
WUD U fHM WOKL qd iF UNKb b
ub UMOd UAM se

e dL qLF
WOuO U
w UI WOKL UM eGL uO uJ
b
UNM bu WOK
w WLN UMOd VFK
UMOd s dO s sOd q nK
UL
WuO UH ULe d= nO
WN s WOuO WOUM U
sO WN s uM WOIOI uM WOzb U
sO d UM
V `{ d dH c
^ p w d
WRL UOCF U v YK U uD uL qd UM sOM lU sO WOA bu
p r nO UNO s
d WuL WOU
K p u{ vK
WO UF s
UA v ZUM dJ u U Ud wzuC UM WOKLF uI w U

U w XF{ U dOG UL u S U UL w bMLA s dOG lD l{ bM
dL uK uK tS wKG
UNO uu sJ r WOC uJ UNS WcF UOL v wK j w gOF UO WOK qI bM ?
UNOL U WOCF c r U
WOHO WOK
w re U UJ lUU `{ sO re dH U bF w Wb WOK
p w XLU w UOCF d d tMe
tKI
bU hH ZzU h
b dNL WUu WHK
U
UMO l hH VU U
w
u
uKb dC bO
WOK)
bu
bu
bu
bu
bu
bu
bu
bu
bu
bu
bu
bu
WO WK_ s V
WdOJ WdD WOuO WOU v l_ U
nM
sJL l_ U

uuOK U Ub u
wzuC UM fHM wOKLF uI
sOuJG e
?
d
UbM uU vK WOK u q
b????u
U r eN
vUF U
d rOEF tK b
Nervous System wBF U???N'
qBH
WO I od s rK WOKb WOU WO s UuKFL wBF UN qI
r e v d_ b r WHKL dRL dOH r YO edL wBF UN v UNKIM
dRLK WU r VUML dU uI WHKL
w r WK s wBF UN qJA

WOU U s b dO b s nQ c mU U
Ub w Neurons UuBF vL hB
s d v UuBF WOBF U b qB b
UO QAM nO uB F
VOd UL WOK uOK W
U wBF UN VOd U qIM nO WOBF
s sJL UdO d WK_ c tze qL WO
qBH cN p bF UNM WU
vK U uJ
tze nzU b uB F
VOd nB
WHOu qJA YO s UuBF nMB
wBF UO suJ WOHO sO
u vK tUI WO wBF UO uNH `{u
wBF pUA WIDM w WOBF WOK
VOd Y??O? s?? w???B?F? U??N? ? U??? s??O??
WHOu
fJFML qFH WO l
YO s W??u?? t W??u?? sOKL sO UI
WHOu VOd
wBF UN d iF v dF
wBF UN
(Neuron) WOBF WOK) uBF

UN w WHOu VOd b wN wBF ZOM w WOzd UuJL s UuBF bF
(glia) WOI U vL WIO WU{ U vK UuBF v W U{U wBF ZOM u wBF
UNMO ULO qBH cGU UuBF be w bU wBF ZOMK WUb wDF b u w
qJA dE d nzU v W U{U UNOL
U
WU
WOK
WOB
UuB
U
WOI
U
UCO
WOI U
wBF ZOM w WUC WOIb WOBF U qJA
uBF e
wu v dLOK WFC sO UNu d r qJA w UNCF s UuBF nK
uBF e k qJA WOzd e_ w dA UN dL
Wd bz
tOOH bI
WOMOKO UI
u
WOK r
UH WOK
UH WOK
u
tOOH bI
wMOKO UA
UH WOK u
WOJUA
uBF e qJA
WO e_ s
uBF uJ
rKF q
UO u UuBF U
b Nissle granules q
Franz rUF b vK UN UA r
UFL s U w Nissle
WMA W??O???b?? WJA s??
c wDF d Uuud
oUMLK Ud uK UFL
U U u w
uJ UNuC q UuBF
UNLEF UI vK U
bM U????I?? v??K? t?? b?? b??I? H?
W_ iF UM sJ uCM
WOzD WOLA U q WOBF
U vI n??_ w WOKOO
vK U (Stem Cells) WOc
eUL bbU UD UI
cWBB U??u???B? v??
UN w?? U?? WOc U
U OU u d??? wBF
WUF w UNM UH WOUJ
UuBF nK
(Dendrites) WdA bze

w hUM w uOK b bF
WdH WOB bz
U s UuKFL qI WOK r s bF ULK dDI

dO w WOK
r u b UU UNKIM UL WOBF
U s UuKFLK qIL `D WU s be bF
UL WOBF
(Cell body-Soma) WOK) r
e W s d_ U
dzU WOBF WOK
r uJ
w UAG
WJA q??? b??? U??O?C? u???? ??u??? O? ?

UbMuUL Uuud WMA WOb
UNuC UeUL eJdL udM bIH UNMJ
udM WHO U
U w lL w UuudJ u uM
uM dLI vL b WK qJ vK W{UM

Ube WOKK i_ UOKLF WOBF WOK r uI
U I UNOK dF w WOBF quM lOMB uI ULUNKLF W WUDU
(Axon) wuD_ u;
bbF u tu b vK XU dD qJA wuD u WOK r s wuO b
bOF b UU wBF UO wuD_ uL qIM b ULe WIO UOO UbMuUL s
WOK
r s
WOJUA _U wNM WO d UUN U uJ tUN w wuD_ uL dH
WDOL UH U WOA s QAM WOMOd WOM UL vDG UNCF UNMO ULO UL nK
e wDF c sOKOL bL U c dH WOIb U u s w uLU
U s U OzUdN
UO_wMOKOL bLGU WUL WOuD_ UL vb wBF UO UI Wd s be UL
WOMOKO UO_ vb WUL dO WOMOKOL
UH WOK Wb UH WOK WUN s U w tOOH bI vL WOzUA ULG UH U sO bu
qJA dEwuD_ uL u vK d v bI s eHI YO wBF UOK ld qI Ò d
WOB U h UA
_ u*
WOB U eU `zd WOzu{ dU
uD)
WOBF UK eU `zd hH r dNL bU
rd vK e_ sO bUA U r
UO qI U& dDI uD YO s

wuD_ u; WdA bze 5 U R
WOK) r' WMU wBF
WOBF U) u
qJA UL sOOz sUOF o UNHOMB sJL w wBF UN w UuBF sO bu
WHOu
qJA YO s
nOMB
WOK r l WdA bze W WOK r s WU bze b vK nOMB c bLF
qJA dE u WF v qJA YO s UuBF nMB wuD_ uL
Wd bz
Wd bz
WdA bze UdH

Wd bz
Wd bz
wuD u
wuD u
wuD u
WOJUA
WOJUA
WOJUA
UD_ bb uB
VDI wzUM uB ?
VDI U uB
uL rb uB
qJA YO s UuBF u qJA
WHOu YO s
nOMB
UNu k qJA dE u W v U OHO UuBF nMB
(Sensory neurons) WO UuB
v d UuB d UNKIM U ed s WOBF UO qL VDI bO UuB
UB dNE c bI w UNU lI wuA q Ub edL wBF UN qB
wuA q s d w UB_ WOuA
(Motor neurons) WO d UuB
qIM edL wBF UN w WUd UL q UNU bu UD_ bb UuB
Ud V b UIU UdQ C uJ b w WU UC v tM d_
(Interneurons) WOMO WK
u UuB
UuBF sO jd edL wBF UNK WUd UL w UNKLQ lI WHK UJ w
UL
Wd bz
w qI
UI lu
WdA bze
w qILU
WOK r
WOK r
wMOKO bL
tOOH bI
wuD u
wuD u
wuD u
wMOKO bL
WOK r
WU WOK
WOKC
wd uB ?
q u uB
w uB
WHOu YO s UuBF u qJA
bze u YO s
WO d( WO( WOBF WOK) 5 dH b w V R
WHOu WOK) r lu
WdA
(Nerve Impulse)
wBF UO
U dRL UN{dF bM WOzUdN WOzUOLO dOG b WO WOBF WOK u vK UuKFL qIM

WOBF WOK u vK qIM nO wBF UO QAM nOJ wBF UO vL UO qJ vK
d_ WOK s
wBF UO suJ WO

UDIU dF ULO WOBF WOK
W WU w uJ v_ sOU w WOBF WOK dL
dR b s WLU WOK u vK WOzUdN WOzUOLO dOG b sLC WOU wzUdNJ VQ
(Polarization)
wzUdNJ VQ UDI
UAG wU vK wzUdN bN d bu dRL u q uBF UNOK uJ w Wd WU w

p WU WMA qb s Wu WMA U
s U uA UAG uJ YO uBFK uK
qJA dE XuHOK U bN d bI UAG wU vK Uu_ eOd V
dOLu
wU uK qzU
-70mV
uK UA

U oO VD
uBF u

q oO VD
uBF u
uuO
WOBF WOK UA wU vK bN d UO qJA
UDI U
tU WUI U U uBF q qF w WO quF rU

uuB Uu_ UNM d uOUu Uu_ uBF u UA WUH uL UA WUH
s d qbU uOUu Uu qb s d UU uuB Uu eOd qF UL
U
uOUu wu qUI U u 3Na uu Uu W a{ r uOUu uu W
C
qJA dE qb u 2K
UNL dJ WOK UG lOD WU WMA WuA r dO UMOd u
Na wU
K iHM
wMO qzU
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na
Na iHM
uO Na K wU
uO w uuL Na jd
uOUu uu WC l
ATP
p
ADP
dHH WOKL eH Na U
ATP NU
qJ dOG v R dHH WOKL

Na Uu dS `L UL sOd
K
K
K
WOK U uuL K U
UHuH WuL v R sOd l
bOF UHuH WuL bI

wK_ tKJ v sOd
sOd `B K r
Na l U eU
uBF UA w uOUu uu WC qL WO uL qJA
rKF q
WE s nK UNUH l Passive channels b vK U uH uJ UNCFUu_ Uu s u b UM
qO_ q WKUM WOzUOLOJ uL uu dQ Chemically regulated channels WOzUOLO dRL dQ UNCF d_
WOzUOLO uL UNuM Uu dQ WOBF UJUA lu w WOBF U U WdA bze w UNuM bu sOu
uMI ` tM WOzUOLO u dH UNOK uC jI UbMF WdB IL pc WOLA IL w UL WOU
w uuL uMI w UL Voltage - regulated channels uBF w bN d w dOG vK UL tM UNCF
`D WOzUeO dOG s dOQ oKG `H uM UM WOKI CF U q tKI qF bN b vK UI WOA_
jGC e fLKU WU WO IL w UL Mechanically regulated channels WOK UA
:Production of Action Potential
qFH bN suJ WO
uD V qFH bN b dOG uK UAG WUH S U dRL uBF dF UbM

uD l qJA dE WOU
Resting State UDI Wd W U
qb s WU WMA U uA WOBF WOK u UA uJ WOBF WOKK tOM uB q

XuOK wzUdNJ bN d uJ wUU U s Wu
Depolarization UDI W
w lHdL eOd Na u v WR uuB Uu uM `H uBF UA tOM bM
R WIKG uOUu Uu uM UI l uuB Uu u dL uBF q v U
suJ eH UNS XuOK WF bN v UDI W XK U Ob bN d W v
qF bN
Reverse polarization UDI UJF
uuB Uu u wUU uuB Uu uM s beL ` v R UDI W dL
UAG q qF UL WIKG uOUu Uu uM vI p UM WOBF WOK qb dO UOLJ
v lH b bN d uJ p bM UDI UJF vb U c tU WUI U u
XuOK
Repolarization UDI U
Uu u nu v R UL uuB Uu uM oKG XuOK bN d u bM
uOUu Uu d v WR UNDOAM r w uOUu uM `H Xu fH w qbK uuB
bN d iHM VU bN d WOK bOF pc
Hyperpolarization UDI u
qBO uOUu Uu d dL WuH uOUu uM UI uuB uM dL l
XuOK v bN d u v R c UDI WU w tOK U UL vK b v
XuOK v bN d uFO uOUu uuB WC jOAM qFH e U Ud c sJ

UDI Wd WU
Action qFH bN UDI U UDI UJF UDI W uD vb
w WOMe dH vL ULMO WOU wK ? bI qFH bN b W bL Potential

UN VO YO Refractory period uL dH UDI v uF qFH bN wK
qbK uOUu Uu UK uuB Uu a{ U V tM _ uBF s WIDML c
Na
Na
Na
Na
K
K
UDI UJF
qFH bN
Na
mv UAG bN
Na
WF bN
UDI W
UDI U
Wd WU
se
Na
wMO qzU
Na
Na
uOUu UM
K
WOK UA
uuO
uuB UM
UDI Wd WU
qFH bN suJ WO qJA
UDI u
wBF UO UI
sOKd sLC wBF UO UI WOKL
uBF u vK wBF UO UI
WOBF UJUA wBF pUA d d_ WOB WOK s UOK wzUOLO UI
uBF u vK wBF UO UI v _ WKd*

wMOKO uBF u u vK d lu s qFH bN qI r
u
wQ UL UNO{u sJL WKK uD qJA

W WOHO oUM b v rI uBF u UA
qFH bN
uM WuL vK UNM q u qFH bN b

Na
u WO v_ WIDML w qFH bN b Uu

bLFL uMI d WOK q v Na+ uuB Uu
K
qFH bN
K+ uOUu Uu d tFbN d dOG vK
Na
WUI U u uBF q `BO UK uMI d
tU
Uu dAM UAG s UL WIDML w qFH bN dR
K
qFH bN
UO WKJA UL WIDMLK uuO s uuB

Na
d dOOG v U R wzUdNJ UO UI tA UL U OK
u vK wBF UO UI qJA

wMOKO uBF
WF bN XuOK v XuOK s bN

Xu w UL WIDML w qFH bN b U
uOUu Uu d qFH UDI WU v uBF w v?_ WIDML ld tH

uuB u uM UK
u vK WUF WKK qJ vK wBF UO qIM WIU uD b dJ
UFA WUN w WOJUA _ qB v d lu s WOBF WOKK wuD_ uL

WO dD
d qFH bN qIM Continuous Conduction dL L q uL qIMU WO c dF
qJA dE sO d td uD s WKK w UAG `D
WIdD UO qI r sJL tS WOMOKOL UuBF w U
rKF q
dDI dQ wBF UO UI Wd
oUMLK UDI WS wBF uL
d VKD uK UAG w UL
b c?? ??u???O?? ?? U??u??_
uL Ud uK Uu_ Wd WUI
t?? k???? U ?O?zU??d??N? U ?J?K? w??u??D? _
ULK tOK WUIL XK dDI ULK
W??U??I? X??K ? w???B?F? u??? L? d??D?
Wd Uu_ Wd uO
L UO
U
d d w b
qB WL WOB U??? dL

UNU u l d UL Wd UCQ
WU dN s p UNMJL WOd
dD UbN UbM dO Wd
o b lML tOOH bI sO uuL ub _ quL qIM

u Uu sJL tOK uBF u UA d Uu_
bN b UbMF UDI W VO w bIF bM UAG
uuB Uu UO S uBF s v_ WIDML w qFH
`H sJL w tOOH bI tu bM uuO w dL
eHI tQ qFH bN bO qF bN b Uu_ uM UNO
qJA dE d_ bI s
WOMOKOL UuBF w rK UNCF s bF bIF UL
b d_ bI s eHI qFH bN S dOJ
vK tUI s
w d UL Ud o w uD WKK w uL u
wBF UO qI
UH WOK
UDI W WIDM
tOH bI
wMOKO UA
WOK r
u
WOMOKOL UuBF w wBF UOK e UI qIM qJA
Wd WOBF UO qIM (Saltatory
Conduction) eUI qIM qIM w WO c vL
_ q WU pKN qIM c v wBF UO Wd qB b quL qIM s d

q UN{ r w uuB Uu q qFH bN W{dFL WUL
Synaptic Transmission wBF pUA WIDM bM wBF UO UI WO WOU WKd*

dF qJA dE WOBF UJUA d wBF UN w d_ WOK s wBF UO qIM
wBF pUA WIDM
dH w UJUA vK WOBF UJUA d wBF UO UI WO UMO{u w eOd rO
UA d_ UU (ACh) sOu qO wBF qUM UN
wuD u
wJUA
wJUA q UA
WOb WJ
WOJUA Bu
WOB qu u
wJUA o
wJUA bF UA
wdJ dNL X dNE UL wJUA e uB sOL wJUA e wBF pUA VOd qJA
rKF q
d wBF UO qI w WU d UM
wKK , , mK wBF pUA
ub Xu v uF p w V
fO wBF qUM d uOUJ Uu
wJUA oA w wBF qUM d V
qOK X?? v?? U wJUA oA uF
wJUA oA oOC dE U O
r w WJFML UF _ S pc dOuU
WFd WU wDF w b ld X w
OK b?? sLC dRLK
UJUA s
WOBF UJUA b q ULKJ WOBF
WU XU dOQ w WOMe dH XK
d
organophosphorous gas UB_ U
rOD r ed sOu qO qL j
vI wJUA oA w vI sOu qO
U u v WR dOQ X WMA CF
sLC dOG b wJUA e v qFH bN u bM

qJA dE WOU uD
wJUA eK wJUA q UAG s e w UDI W
v wJUA e U U eOd uuL uOUJ Uu u
qFH bN u WO `H WU uM d uO q
Bu U eH UL wJUA e w uOUJ eOd UH v R uOUJ Uu u

wJUA e UAG WOJUA
wJUA oA v ACh wBF qUM s UuL WOJUA Bu d
U OzUOLO dR WKJA wJUA bF UAG vK UNIL sOu qO wBF qUM Ue U
bF uBF UA w qF bN b uOUu uuB Uu u uM ` v R
wJUA
WOKL nu wJUA bF UAG vK UNI sOu qO wBF qUM Ue sO U p
tUuJ v ed sOu qO re WUu ACh wBF qUM rOD r UbM UDI W
sOuJ pOK iL s
WOJUA bF WOK
WOJUA q WOK
WOJUA Bu wJUA
WOB qu u
wJUA q UA
wB qU
wJUA bF UA
Uu UM
Ca
uOU UM
Ca
wJUA bF UA
wJUA o
Uu uM
wJUA oA bM wBF UO UI qJA
rKF q
Ub U s dH rN wB qU u sOUM u U C vL sdHMu q d_ WOBF quM s bbF bu t
U b R UNL X WIDM q Ub w WU ed s dH sOU wBF qUM UM wc wBF UN
ud hI v R UL U bM rIF s WU U b w sOd ud eOd l v WO U UOLJ sOUb
eOd vK dR WO U UOLJ tU b Ub w U s dH sOudO wBF qUM UM uc bM dOu
U U U w UL hAK wHUF l{u
Structure of the Nervous System wBF UN' VO d

w dD wDOL wBF UN edL wBF UN UL sOL s wBF UN uJ
(Central Nervous System)
e d* wBF UN'
wuA q Ub s uJ d_ b UNKOK WO UuKFL wIK ed u

w bb qzUu ULNUL r cK
WLL WUL w bU dFA bK
wuA q wL dIH uLF dI Ub wL WLL UE
UI s uJ ULNOL ULN jO w UU WOA
wuJMF UAG uM _ sO qBH qJA dE uM _ wuJMF UAG WOU _
zU u eO
.(Cerebrospinal fluid wuA w
L qzU vL
wuJMF UAG
WLL UE
WO U _
wuA q
uM _
wuJMF UAG
aL
uM _
WO U _
wu VB
Wub WO_
UU WOA
Ub cG w Wub WO_
tUL qzU UbK WcGL Wub WO_ qJA
Y UU UN d b{ UUI d tK XO U UD r

t{d tu dL c UI WO u WHKL UBL w
YK WOC
sJL tKL UH w dQ dL tU Ub nK lu bb

WO s Y wOUMGL sOd duB vL Wb WOMI b
Magnetic Resonance Imaging - MRI WIdD c UN r w
MRI bU UbK u
(Brain) U
b
qJA dE rG, wu tK mK UD_ bF WOB WOK uOK W u s Ub nQ

aO
L Ub c wMO Ub aL WOU Ub e dF

UU WOA
aL
TU r
WLL UE
UNL
UNL X
aL
wMO Ub
WOUM bG
juL Ub
dDMI
qODL UM
wuA q
aOL
Ud U
wL qzU
wuA
aOL
dDMI
qODL UM
UbK wU dNE
Ub w wu lDI
Ub e qJA
rKF q
u WUHM `L eU U Ub
Ue q??? U??d??O? j??I? WMOF
bN U??L? sO_ uuKG
t WUL
qL s WM Ub be r
Wd qJA U??b?? WK Q?? U LK r
v b qL r WK s jI
sOdC uuKG sO_ Ub
sOUL sOU hI tHzUu Ub UOI
w wu bI guA v R
sO U sO_ hI dL U
u Ub w nK b bI ozU
U
b e
(Telencephalon - cerebrum) a*
UuKFL VUB
edL vK u Ub e d
wU r
oDM ed
qOKed
WOLK UuKFL
WUJ ed
lL ed
dO _
WO nzUuU WF WOBF

aL rI UOKF WOKIF nzUu WOd
s d UDd sOO d wHB v U Ou
ULNM qJ jO qJ WOBF UO_
lL ed
vMLO _
dOJH ed
wIDMLdOH w{Ud
eO qOK ed
wUe wUJL
sL_ Ud qI Ud ed d_ Ud qI Ud ed
_ VUB UOL
sOdJ UHB qJA
UU WOA
rJ YO aL w VUB bu
s d_ e w aL s sL_ nBM
w aL s d_ nBM rJ r
qJ r s sL_ e
b hH
vL bb UM aL `D vK bu
wN hH
wU_
nO sO qBHUNOL U Sulci nO

uB v WO d nB q rI aL
uHI hH
w WLL UE ULQ dF (Lobes )

wbB hH
qJA dEUNODG
aL uB qJA
U vK u (Cerebral Cortex) aL dA aLK WIOd WUd WOU

WID vL
dE WOHO e W v(Cerebral Cortex) WOL dAI rI dOB U UO WOBF U
w qJA
qI (Sensory Centers) WO ed
WOd WIDML
WO WIDML
u s u WO UuKFL
Ud rEM (Motor Centers) WOd ed
WDDL CFK W
Wd ed
e??d?? ?
(Association Centers) WL EM
b?? U??c?? dOJH e??d?? u
wFL edL
wLA edL
qOK uIWGK nuFdc

UdOH WO UuKFL
aL w WOd WO edL qJA
WKu WOMOKO WOB UO s uJ UMU iO_ wKb e' vL

(Diencephalon) wMO Ub
dL ULNM q d_ sL_ (thalamus) UNL s uJ
rKF q
UN w dOG b dLF bI l t
tK Ub r hI sLC wBF
o b w wb UuBFb hI
ULOEM w dOG Ub u b
dOG Ub w WOBF UJUA d
UN w WOBF U U?? q??
edL wBF
UuKFLK WLEM ed Uu aL U WO UuKFL

s WRL (hypothalamus) UNL X WIDM WO
u UNu rK WOKb WO U vK WE UL
u r d uM gDF u rOEM ed
d US rJ WOc nzUu nuF ed w wzUL
dDMI qODL UM l UF WOUM bG s UudN
i b jG{ fHM rEM w WOc nzUu rOEM w
VKI
qJA dEUb c sO sOOL sOdJ wHB sO q WK wMO Ub qJA

qJA
dO rb u
b sc U bO W d rJ e d
bu s R
w Ub c UuJ dF qJA dE :(Brain stem) Ub c

UF _U rJWOFL WdB UuKFL WUF tO r(Midbrain )juL Ub
UNL
s e
aL
Ub
WOu
pd q ULN WIKFL WJFML

u bB UU Wd d sOF
Ub
wMO
Ub
juL
TUH
ed u(Pons) d dDMI
wMObON rd sO_ eOd WU
fHM bF vK dDO wUU b w
dDMI
tIL
(Medulla oblongata) qODL UM
UM
qODL
VKI i bF rOEM e??d?? vK u

WO_ w UKL CF UI fHM
UF _ ed v?? W U{U rCN Wub
Ub c wMO Ub qJA
lK ROI fDF UF q WJFML
(Cerebellum)
aO*
hH ULNMO d wHB qJ vK sOOU sOB uB W s uJ Ub U d wU

qJA dE UO d tQ nu wuA q Ub s d e l qB b
s UuKFL vIK uN u WO UuKFL WUF s r u vK aOL k U
WOBF UO qdO r l{ vK UN s dF WOL WdB UuKF WOKb _
l{u s aL s WUI UuKFL rK bF r u vK WE ULK UNKL oMO CFK
U WOKJON CFK d qd c wuA q v UNKd r d_ tO udL
uKDL l{uU r pd UNU UN{UI
tUB aO* nK U w rK b U

R
wU_ hH
aOL
wU_ hH
aOL
b hH
wHK hH
WOOL dAI
wHK hH
qODL UM
aOLK wU dEM
b hH
aOL w UCO WUd UL VOd sO

aOLK w{d lDI
aOL qJA
d U `dA UA
u* _
nH sOUu UH `dA d U
qLF uD
bG
WduMB
Ub
WOu
Ub
wMO
sOUuH uK w Ub dL

UL WU b
Ub
juL
Ub q UHI b bF
dDMI
s q hH r d b ULU
UM
qODL
UbK U dN dEM
wMO UbK dN dEM
Ub c
aL
UbK wMD dNE sOD

o u k e dF
sOHB v tLI wu w
dB VBF
u k nB q vL U
dB VUB
k aL w bbF nO
WOU d uI u
dDMI
qODL UM
OK sOOL dJ wHB `H r
ULNCF s bOF ULbA p
aOL
wuA q
UbK wMD dEM
ULNDd w WOBF UO_ r U

U F
sOOL dJ wHB bU bF Ub w wD uL wu lDI qLF r

ULNHO s Y wMO Ub WIDM w WOUM bG WduMB bG k
WIDM w l WOu Ub u k WOUM bG tM vb c UNL X lu k
juL Ub
k qODL UM UNOK WKB tA jO UH dDMI k e_ wU hH
nK s dDMIU aOL UB
WIDML s Ub c wDG WOKH WIDML s aL nK lI YO aOL lu k
WOOL nO k WdNE
dA tA rEM qJA U FA U Od k aOL w U Ou U FDI qL
(Spinal Cord) w uA q(
rKF q
WOu Ub s U?? bu t
dOG wHK dO wU l_
w (Superior inferior colliculus)
w ULN juL Ub WIDM
WOFL WdB UuKFL WUF
WUFL UuKF vIK dOJ eU
s R?? ? ? U??N? L? s?? W??d??B? ?
sOMOF d Wd fJFML qFH
dOGB e lU uCK Wd
dDMI s?? WOFL U?? u??K?F? vIK
qFH s R qODL UM
c Wd d Wd fJFML
WOuB UNMLK
bL dLM wu tu mK qJA wuD wB ZO

e Ub c s
dIH tOL We F
WOMD I dNE WIDM v
uLF dI sO s d wuA wL qzU UU WOA
dE r e wU qB WOuA UB_ s U dIH
qL nu v R tO nK b S tOK qJA
WFu WIDML s d UBQ cG w r UC eN
WO nzUuU wuA q uI nK WIDM X
b WO IL d u WO UuKFL qI
s WU d qI Ub v WOLA UuKFL
WU UC v Ub
W JFML UF_ tM QAM U OB ed qJA
WOIM UB
wMD c
dN c
wuA q
wu VB
dNE c bI
Wb UB
UCO UL
WUd UL
WOMD UB
dNE c
WdN dI
We UB
wMD c
wuA qK w{d lDI
wuA qK WdNE WIDML

wuA q qJA
w uA q( VO d
U WKuL WOd UuBF U s nQ WU U s UM wKb e uJ
Wu WO WOI U s WOMOKO
U
d uK eF WOBF U) e v R
w UCO UL s wU e uJ wMD dN dI s U UN WUd UL
s d Ub wuA q v s WOBF UO qIM w WOMOKOL UL e s nQ
wuA VBF vL U c qJA ULU wMD dN c UNM qJ UB wuA q
WO WOBF U U u dNE c bI vL bI UH dNE c w bu
qJA qJA k
w uA q( U
b s
q w UCO WU
d U* wFu
5 U R
Reflex fJFM* qFH

r WUL bN tU r q WU dOG UNMLK W WFd WU
Ud scK rOIL WUL w UL U OK uJ b dRLU t wKb u vK WE UL
WJFML UF _ iF d bBL r dF q U OU d UJF u UJF
R uJ
q UNM R uJ d bb dD tu dF bM uOF q Ub UNM
ub Ue bM bO V q wuA
U
b s bB WJFM
UF vK d WK
j R
qIL qB w uBF b (Reflex Arc) wBF uIU dF c fJFML qFH
WbG U WOKCF UO_U WU uCF qB wd uBF wNM
ub b e U w b U tuD fJFML qFH UuJ UL
w qJAU uJ w fJFML qFH uD `{u c qJA dE
r_ I w U tOM v R UL WUH d dF d e q dR dOQ

bKU d
v qIM WdA bze w qF bN b r_ qIL jdL w uBF tOM
wuA qK dNE c bI w WO WOK r
uB eOH
w
dRL b
U eOH
qIL
dNE c bI
WOK r
dNE c
WO WOB
UCO UL
UbK UuKFL qOu
wBF uI
WUd UL
b
WU
wd uB
wMD c
w UuKFL WUF
edL wBF UN
uB eOH
wd
tuD fJFML qFH UuJ qJA
uL dH UbM WUFL WOKL b UuKFL WUF
rKF q
s d sLC UUJF UM
Polysynaptic w??? B? p?? U??A?
s b?? UNO UA w Reflex
WOBF U??J?U??A?? U??u???B?F?
U b WO WOK s uJ bI
WOd U WKu
q s?? QAM fJFM qF q??
d UbK UuKF tM qd wuA
iF w U LJ UMODF c uB
L WJFML UF _
XKL
tDI UNS UNbO U MU U
s U u _ bB s UNb bF
UNU nu UNKH c
U WOA UU WO UuBF s WKUM WOzUOLOJ

UM uJ U UO wJUA oA bF WKuL WOBF
UL WKuL UuBF tOM UN r WJFM UF

dU qJA WOd UuBF tOM
quL uBF s qFH bN qIMwd uB tOM
wMD c d WU uC v wd uBF v
WKUM WOzUOLOJ uL d WO dQL uCF WU
S UL c w WOd UuBFK WO dD _ s
V iIM w WOKJON CF u WU uC
_ bB s bOF b
w jDLU oU UL w wBF uI qOL sJL
wd uB
edL wBF UN
w uB
w qI
dR
C WU uC
fJFM* qFH UA
Knee-jerk reflex W d W{UH w fJFM* qFH WE
WU wd WO dOG WdD

W
b* _
qLF WId
bH WKC
tM
wu VB
wuA q
WUD wdJ vK WKD b fK

uJ YO dO u vMLO tK lC
WOb WOd
qH WKCF d vK dCU d VU uI
WHOH Wd{ qd WuU qd WH{
k U
q d b WIU uDd
pUE
WO WK pUS qJAU U MOF WOzUH qd Wd V d

qFH b vK p qLF nO rEFU bH WKC jd c e r U
fJFML
WdU d_ qIM c e r
= wuA q U dRL qIM c e r
=
rd vK b U qK l ?
UO d vK U dI r wuA q w qIL sO W UL Ud
fJFML qFH b tdG c se UL Wd dO wBF
sOHF{ v qB uI c d UO uu wIOI se v dOA WIOb UUOI ?
p dOH sJL nO t c se UF{ W
wuA q ed W vK Wd c b WOD WOUM s Wd c dOA U v
UuB eOH rO WO I tM wH{d du dIM UNO fJFML qFH b
UO qIM WO
UO_ v wd uB d d bB c wuA qK U OB
WHOH W Wb Wd WUI V iIM WOU_ bH WKC w WOKCF
U r pd p sOF g sOF W d s fJFML qFH WE sJL
U_ W VU Ud l WOzU uB sOF
Peripheral Nervous System wdD wBF UN' UOU

UB_ uI YO qJA dE Ganglia WOBF bIF WOuA WOUb UB_ s uJ
edL wBF UN
edL wBF UN v s UuKFL qIM
wdD wBF UN
Ub
UB_
WOUb
wuA q
WOB bI
UB_
WOuA
U w Ub mK Ub s WOUb UB_ QAM

dUF VBF b ULO oMF d v qB U dA wM
bB w WOKb UA_ v qB c dzU VBFU nu
sD
Ub mK wuA q s QAM WOuA UB_ U

UB_ dH dIH sO s wuA q s d U
WHKL r UC v WOuA
wBF UN qJA
5L v WHOu vK UL wdD wBF UN' rI

qIM WBB WO WOB U :(Sensory - afferent division WKb WO
UB_
WOU
WO WOKb WO s dRL dFA w WO IL s UuKFL
WOzuC IL Wd dOG fLK jGC r_ I q rK
edL wBF UNK UNKIM w UdO
wBF UN s d_ qIM motor
- efferent division
WU
WdL
UB_
v rI bN WOK v edL

(Somatic Nervous System) wL wB UN
dRLK U U VO w WOKJON CFU qB w WOuA WOUb UB_ qLA
WOKJON CFK WJFML UF _ iF W UU s WR wN WOU
(Autonomic Nervous System) w wB UN
bFL sOzdU WOKb WuA UC_U qB w WOuA WOUb UB_ qLA
WO U vK UHK W W UU s WR w UdO bJ VKI
rK WOKb
Wu t WKL UB (sympathetic) Wu WKL UB wc wBF UN qLA
qJA dE (parasympathetic)
WOFb bG
WOU UB
WOUFK bG
VKI
dDMI
UM
qODL
Wzd
Wb UB
bJ
bFL
UdJM
UB
WOu
UB
WEOK UF UB
WIO UF
WOMD
We
WOKJ
WUL
Wu t WKL
Wu WKL
wc wBF UN qJA
Wu UB_
Wu t UB_
bIF q uB
s UHQ U O LF sOKL
wuA q Ub w lI WOB ed
WOU WOBF bIF s WuL Uu
bIF qu
bI
U q sLC WOB UO (ganglion)
WOK r lI sOd sOuB UNO wB

bI
u
bIF bF
ULMO edL wBF UN w _ uBFK

Wu WO
uCF
bN
u
bIF bF
bN uCF
t WKL Wu WKL UB sO WOdA U qJA

Wu
WOB bI w wU uBFK WOK r lI

q uL bIF q lI c uL vL
vL U (preganglionic
fiber )
bIF
qJA dE bIF bF lI c uL
w b'U 5KL' 5U 5 dH iF UL sJ1

Wu t WKL'
Wu WKL'
Wd d w i_ bF UBI vK qLF

bM dD oKI bB bF WzbN
rest) WUDK WF d w UFD UM
(& repose
wUU i_ bF U t WUF WHOu

jGC d WNUL tON r WU l
du Vd VCG q b wHM
Fight & Flight dH dJ wHUF
UM WU Ub c s UNUB d

q w WeF WIDML s qODL
eF wUb UNU vL c wuA
s WOMDI WbB WIDML s UNUB d

bB UNU U C vL c wuA q
wMDI
bIF bF u s u bIF q u
bIF q u s u bIF bF u
bN uCF v d wBF pUA WIDM
d sOuB q sO wBF pUA WIDM

bNuCF s wuA q v
qO u WOBF UJUA sO wBF qUM

sOu
qO u WOBF UJUA sO wBF qUM

sdHMu sOUMu sOu
Wu t WKL Wu WKL nzU iF sO WUI w b sO
Wu t WKL' dOQ
Wu WKL' dOQ
uCF
WdI WdK nOJ RR oOOC
bOF WdK nOJ RR lOu
sOF
UFK d tOM
UFK d jO
WOUFK bG
W CF w Wub WO_ oOOC W CF w Wub WO_ lOu

WOKI
WOKI
Wu t WKL s UB UNKB
bK w Wub WO_ oOOC
b jG{ VKI i bF qKI
b jG{ VKI i bF be
b UN
WOzuN dLL oOOC U??? U?? ? W??O? zu??N? d??L? L? l??O?u??
wHM UN
UG
td wLCN UN UA qKI U?? ? ? ? N? ? ? ? ?? ? ? ? ?
td wLCN UN UA s be
uuKG s sOuJG UM eH uuK v?? sOuJG rOD eH wLCN
WOKJON CF w WU
u suJ s be WUL UI V u suJ s qKI WUL U V
wu UN
r e r pc UC_ nzUu WOFOD WU bOF v Wu WKL qL fJ Wu t WKL qLF WuK
wBF UNK WO JA

WOuuO WOB UdD{ s rM b w d_ s bbFK wBF UN dF
c s dOUIF iF wUF u bFU d UU
(parkinson disease)
uM U d
v sOU wBF qUM u b WO Ub U iF WOBF UdD{ s rU d

oDM w UdD{ v U R CF w U O VO r Ud s WRL Ub U iF
uJ WU w sbO UF V UL WOuO UNL wAL
qO_ qL j Ub v qB UbM sOUb U vK u dOUI bU WUFL r
sOu qO_ jO vK qLF dOUI WU WU w sOUb l WUI U O tOL e c sOu
dU qJA
w Y Ub d dLUe vL d dL s U iF UB
YK WOC
t WOUJ t{d dL c WFO u WUML WOLKF ldL
dB
rKF q
dI t VO b U uM fO dB
dUu uOKU d_ bMJ
s Uu s WUM WOBF UdD{ s rU

b rJ s U uAL wUb wzUdNJ UAM
wu bI U { uI W WOMA Ud UNB
w WuN dL c U
wFOD wzUdNJ Ub jD
dLK dNE c dB sJ VUG
Wu wzUdNJ Ub jD

jO wze d
t uJ b uK WKd w v_

d w WU WOU tK
UuM fO dB WOU tJ
Wu wzUdNJ Ub jD

dO d
jOD nK rNCF bIF UL

WU w tM dB Uu w Ub
qJA dE WUO
UbK wzUdN jD qJA
WOU
b WJ
uuKG WU c sO s tUUOU Ub e
w Wub WO_U W UN UdD{
Ub v WNL WO_ w Wu d wUb eM q b U s WOUb WJ ZM
e_ c `B t uuKG sO_ qB Ub s e_ b u UDI p s ZM
w UN rz XR wHO bI v R UL UNM WRL r e qL w rJ vK U dO
dO_ YKK UHA VJ U e WU s wUF wU YK WU UUU{ YK wu uL V
U
b UUN
rKF q
dO UUI s rU Ub Ud
WOBF UU WOIb UK WOFO
rIM U??? I? lOD W???{U??M?
WOMOM WKdL w W{UM dO UuBF
b pc dLF s?? WFd WM v
U UI s rU Ud UM uJ
uM l dL q UH WOBF
jI
UN V w UOKOHD UdOJ s bF u UM

U UbK UN U qB t WDOL WOA_ Ub
WLL d d s sO_ UN s b d
dJ UNBOA r dOUIF bU UUN c ZUF
WdB WOFL uJ b WLz UU UUN c V b
Ub U Ub e iF nK b WU w WOd
q Ub `D vK qb s WLL qH QAM bI
c hOA wOUMGL wMOd `L b Ub W
WOKb _ U U Od WOD _ ZUF _
UN sJL
wBF UN' vK dOUIF iF dOQ
UNM UNb w dOQK U F nMB wBF UN vK dR w uL s dOJ UM

edL wBF UN jAM w UA uNI w uuL sOO UJ U q UNML
VKI iM rJ w wBF UNK WOBF quM vK dR c dzU w sOuJOM

tNM wJUA bF UAG w ILU jd YO b jG{
UN w WOBF UO TD aL w Wd ed vK dR c uJ q UDL
Wd UdD{ uLU uFA nuL l WOD UFH v U R w dD wBF
WOUL qUAL s dOJ V U dB UOI v U l b UL dOJH u{ b
p V b qODL UM w WOB ed dQ b w uJ eOd UH U w
U u v R b UL fHM nu
vK WK_ s sd_ sO uL UMJL vK WK_ s b
L uL UMJ L
qI vK UdOQ q wBF UN qL w dR w sOdON sOUuJ bL uL
lOMB w dR b wN WOBF quM qL w WIKF b dOQ s WOBF UO
quM l jd b Ud lML Ube bI quM d bF w WOzUOLOJ quM
YO d w bL UB_ U w U u UL UNLOD lML wJUA oA w
vK IL bL uL UMJL iF lML UL ed sOu qO re qL j
qJA dE sOd w U u UL quM UI s wJUA bF UAG
b* WMJ* dOUIF iF dOQ wQ ULO

UNUM s U r_ nH w uU_ sd_ q Analgesics WHOH
UMJ L
UOU vL U c UNM UMG b UNOK uF v R b
qL vK dR dF VB hGL wI UOG V Ub vK dR sOdON
uL v R b b fHM UN
wUb nK UNF U UNU uFA WuKN V Ub vK dR sOUuJ
uL
b dOUIF UM VM V pc U LOK wBF UN vK UH WOL o UL `C
WOuJ UdAL s UM UNML d s U b VOD UA UMJL UM
UC uL s UdO
vUF U
bzUL
rKF q
w U O b WOzUOLO U sOd
r UC nzU qL nu U??
U??G? d??F? ? U??N?M? b?? q??u?? W???O??
d w bL UB_
Clostridium ubduKJ UdOJ
cGK w??zc??G? rL V U ?L? d??H?
qO wBF qUM d?? lML VK FL
v U R wJUA q UAG s sOu
U u V b WOKOJON CF qK
q WU VUMF u iF Wb ULMO
fUF dOQ UNb u WK_ uJM
v WR sOu qO d U V
CF w WHOM UMA b
rKF q
l??O? M? B? s?? ? n?? H? ?? ? U?? M? ?J? ?? ?L? ?
uFAU W UN w UMbUd
r_U
q uL iF lMB U r
bG tM w??? enkeflines U??
lML w UNL X WIDM WOUM
UFL WOFOD UdK r_U uFA
r_U dFA UU r UN uI w
c b vK dRL b U?? U w
WOKb UMJL
d{ U c rdJ tu b
d{
quM d tOM
quM d lM
wJUA q UA
quM l U ?
UNLOD lM
IL lM ?
bF UAG vK
UI s wJUA
quM
wJUA bF UA
quM qL UU
WOBF quM qL w dOUIF iF dOQ qJA
r vK Ud bL dU s Y
lLL U
YK WOC
qBH WK
s qJ b WHO d
dDMI ?
qODL UM
aOL
WOIb U ?
wuA q
rdU pU U {u WO s qJ uBIL U

UDI UJF
UDI
qK
WOMOKO WHOK s wBF UO qI w d WOMOKOL WHOK

UHK Uu dNE wuA qK w{dF lDIL w
wMD c w UNK bu wuA VBFK dNE c w bI bu ?
wBF UO U bb w rN WOJUA
U d v WOB WOK s wBF UO qIM nO d
WO V fJFML qFH V ub s b bF U Ud pS ub pF e bM
qK V
WOB WOK edL wBF UN w UuKFL WUF ub e WKu WOB WOK UI uC
Wd WOB WOK WU uC bO V WO
WHOu YO s Wu t WKL Wu WKL sO d WF b w V

WO s q s R Ub e
r d W rOEM
CF Wd oOM
c lL dB
dc ?
u
fHM ?
bb WO JAL wBF UN dF

t r nO uMU d d U
WOUb WJ U U
Muscular System wKCF U???N'
qBH
d_ Wd w wBF UN l P U Wd WUb wKCF wKJON UN du
u s uJ tzUC r U rEF w dAM CF bu WOKJ U Wd wUU
WHOu VOd w nK w WOKCF U W_ s WHK
WOB JAL U UN{UI dH w WO U dNL UNOd U WOKCF W_ u UL
wKCF UN UN dF w

U r WHKL CF WOL `{u
VOd YO s WOKCF W_ u sO UI
WHOu
jDL wKCF nOK dNL VOd dF
uO uL V wKCF nOK UI WId dH
WIeML
jDL wKCF nOK UI WO dA
UNU WIKFL WOB JAL iF dF
UNF qUF WOHO wKCF
Muscular System
rKF q
w WOKOJON CF U b
WDA_ U U U vI mU U
VOU_ UI_ qL WO{Ud
UM w W bL WHKL
U b s be UNS CF
U r dJ wLM UL WOKCF
UO_ WOL U od s uuL
R sOuOL sO_ WOMOd
UNUH WKCF r U v c
wKCF UN'
uc bM r WK s wu WOKCF W_ qJA

r w W W vK qL wN wUU U b q WM
Wd v R w r d pd vK CF qLF
w UFD pd l vK qLF UL d UJ s tUI r
uKC sO U C WOHM UdU UOI WOLCN UMI
WO b UN w tKI b l eU U WKC
Wub WO_ VKI C UI
Types of Muscular Tissues
WOKCF W_ u
w U r w WOKCF W_ s u W UM
qJA dE WOKI UKL WOKJON CF
Skeletal Striated Muscles WDD* WOKJON CF

w d C rC UND wDG wKJON UN UEF jd UNLEF _ WOKJONU XOL
eU U WOU dA WKC uH C q r
uO vK u UO_ _ dNL X U O{d U DOD WDD dNE UN_ qJA dE WDD XOL
qJA dE WU oUM UU WM oUM qJ vK nOK u vK WLEM WIdD Wd WOMOd
Wu
WOKJON CF
uD
WOuD UNUO
WOd Wu b u nOK
U O{d U DOD WDD
W
nO
wKJO
wKC nO
fK
UK* CF
WOeG UNUO
Wed b u u nOK
WDD dO
W
Wu
WOMO d
WMM
Wu
WOKI CF ?
WdH WOuD UNUO
Wed b u u nOK
U O{d U DOD jD
W
wKI ?
fK_
WOK UO
jOD
wKJON
UNBzUB WOKCF W_ qJA
WKC
s UI d vIK UN_ W CFU dF

lC w UC_ qL rEM c wL wBF UN
qJA sFL WOKJON CFK oO b VOd dF
UO We
WOKC
U UO s Wu e s WOKJON WKCF uJ

Wu
wKC nO
WOK dH
u WHO q U{ ZO UNHKG qJA WOuD WOKC
uK UA
UHOO vL Wu WIO b s nQ Wu_ s bbF

Z j
WOMOd uO s sOu WHOOK rC myofibrils WOKC
Ù jd s jd
pOL wU Actin sO vL lO

ULb (myofilaments)
wKC nOO
WOKC WFD
TEM
I jd
0.5m
A jd
I jd
WJOL uO
sOuO
WFO uO
sO
Z j
H WIDM
WOKC WFD
Z j
Wb dOJ WOKJO WKC qJA
(myosin) sOuO vL

WOKC WFD UNM q vL WOHO b s nOOK uJ
Z line Z j ULNM q vL seU b (Sarcomere)
sO_ uO s UuL jd s j dNE wMOd nO u
vL w WOKCF WFDI j UU bL Z wD WFOd
bLL WJOL sOuOL uO sO qb (H Zone) H WIDM
A jd (I Band) I jd qJA vK bWOKCF WFDI j
sb uK wDF ULN ÙH uK wDF ULN (A Band)
Smooth Muscles
UK* CF
sOuOL sO_ uO YO dNL X U O{d U DOD WDD dNE UN_ UKLU XOL
u UO_ UL nOK q weK qJA Vd wKCF nOK u vK rEM qJA Vd
UO s UKL CF nQ WOKJON UO_ w uuL pK s q sOuOL uO s WOL
Vd qJA dE W{ dO WOb WJ u uM bO qJA WOeG U
uMI Wub WO_ WOLCN UMI b q rK Uu UC_U jO UI qJ vK
WOKUM WOu WOHM
Cardiac Muscles
WOKI CF ?
oUM uu eOL uM bO WdH WOuD UN

UO jI
VKI w
bu W WDD
w UAG qb s ZM (Intercalated disks) WOMO d_ vL UL UO_ sO WU
s qFH bN qI w U LN WOMO d _ VFK ? qJA dE UL UO_ sO w{dF
UNNOM bM b bu qLF VKI WKC qF UL WuN Wd U d v wK wKC nO
UNNOM bM VO w WOKJON CF UOQ WUI rEM UIS UO_ lOL VO U OB
WdH uB
WDD* CF UI
The Sliding Filament Model
WIeM* uO) u/
(Huxely & Hanson) uU wKJ UOUDd ULUF U WDDL WOKCF UO_ UI WOHO WdFL
qJA dE wdJ dNL bU p U UI wU w jD nOK Wb

WOKCF WFDI u dBI ULMO U UI wU w
U U vI A jd u qJA s sO
c WIeML uO uL ULUF l{ Wb c vK UM UI UM Z wD d WO
W ULNCF s Z wD WdI WJOL sOuOL uO vK oeM WFO
d sO_ uO vK hM
UNKLQ WKCF dB wUU I jd WOKCF WFDI dB
sO
sOuO
nOO
WU w
U
Z j
Z j
H WIDM
I jd
A jd
nOO
WU w
UI
u
WO{d
H WIDM
WOKC WFD
U WU w nOO
UI WU w nOO
wdJ dNL bU u
wDOD r WIeML uO uL qJA
WKCFK wBF tOM

WMA U s WuA UNu w r U dzU WOBF WOK tA nOK WOKCF WOK
UI U OzUdN wKCF nOK tM vL UDI U UM WU WMA qb s Wu
p r nO
Wb WOKC U l U WOB WOK l U pUA WOBF WOK X
wJUA e v qB v qF bN UNO d wKC nO l WJUA WOd WOB WOK tOM bM
WKdL c w uOUJ Uu WOL U (ACh) sOu qO wBF q UM dS uI c
p wK w uD l qJA dE
d uBF wuD u
wJUA
WKBu
WOJUA
ACh
qF bN
v tUI WOJUA Bu s ACh D

wJUA oA d w WKCF UA w I
wJUA o
dF VOO
wKCF nOK w UA
UAG u vK qFH bN d
UOO_ q v r s w
Ca2+ U qB v W{dFL
wJUA bF UA
Ca
uOUJ Uu E
qFH bN dOQ UNU s
2+
Ca2+
WOb WJ
UK
wKC nOK wBF tOM qJA
wJUA bF UA wKCF nOK UA vK tI qB v wJUA oA d sOu qO qIM
ULG w TUOO W{dFL UOO_ qB v wKCF nOK u vK qF bN d

WJA w uOUJ U s WdI v qB WOKCF UHOOK sO bL w UAG s
UKL WOb
uO sO UUA uOUJ Uu v R uOUJ U v qFH bN u
qJ wKCF nOK UI W WOMOd

uUI lC wKCF nOK UIU qJ WKCF UI wKCF nOK UI sO eOOL V
sOF b s q tML b XU iIM wKCF nOK wMF c (All or None) bF qJ
WF bN U tML b XU U (Threshold potential) WF bN vL XuHOKK
tML b vK bLF U Ob uJO WKCF UI U UI vB Q U OK iIM nOK S d
WCIML WKCF UO b e wUU tNML
] WOd UuBF b e tML b ULKJ
UNUO lLO iIM UbM UN UI vB WKCF qB
wKCF nOK UI WO

w jDL nOOK VOd w qb WOMOd uO s sOu UM Ud
t U UNM q vL UUHU UNd wNM bz UNM jO q wU vK d sOuOL uO

JA sO_ uO w WU l uL UB vK bI
(Crossbridge) w{dF dU dF U
sOuOud
U WIDM
sOud
Ca2+
sO
sO_ sOd Ue Vd sO_ uO
dE ULNCF u sOHK sOKK w
sO e q vK bu qJA
l U WIDM qJA U l u
Ca2+
u nK sOuOL uO bze
sOd s d WKK sO_ wKK
WO{dF u U WIDM
qLF (Tropomyosin) sOuOud vL

l u vK U nOOK W UM
wKK l sOuOL bz U
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bI t Myoglobin sOuKuO
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Endocrine System ULB bG U???N
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UN WOzUOLOJ WFOD V u b v ULBbG UdH w Uu dN nMB
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U U jOAM WOKJ dH c erythropoietin sOuOd u d q WdJ WOMOd
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Pituitary Gland WOUM bG

WUu t jd Ub w UNL X qH lI d nB UNK mK qJA WuCO dOG b
w rJ Wd UuB UdH WD eH Uu d qIM uI Wu WO u dOG oM
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Uu d b d US uI w WbG U s bbF u Anterior lobe WOU_ WIKH
vL p vK UM r w ULB bG rEF qL w rJ WU bF nzU
qJA dE Master Gland bO bG
UNL X WIDM w ULNU r sOu d se UJ qJA Posterior lobe WOHK WIKH
Uu d dF WOHK WIKH w bu w Wd UuBFK WOBF UUNM w e
qJA dE WO UM bG
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Oxytocin
WOMK bG
rd C
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bJ
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Growth hormone uLM ud
WI dJL uLM WKd w CF rEF U WU U UI w U OU VFK
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w qJA w dNE UL (Gigantism) WIKLFU nu uLM w WuK U v uLM WKd w
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qJA dE d_ tu
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56
UI WOKL vK uLM u d dOQ

s q dU qJA r U
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Prolactin 5 d ud ?
VOK U eOH u bF UN _ b U qJA j AM
WU{d
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Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) u lU* udN
w `d s UL rEF UB U jAM YO tL b jG{ UH WU dH

u WOL qKI tDG{ wUU b r U U WuKJ WOu_ bu
Oxytocin 5uO _ ud

qLF UL WU{d UM VOK WOb bG uMI WDOL UKL CF UI jAM
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Insulin 5u ud

vL W
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b w uuKG dJ eOd UH bM eUdG e w uuL UH U s d r
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90mg100mL
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(Thyroid Gland)
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qJA WOUF q _ sOdO (T4) sOdO u wU u d UFH u dN bF c (T3) sOdO
WUu WO b bG s sOdO u d d eOH r b w sOdO u w U U Fd bB
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WO WO b bG rC p s ZM WO b Uu d d qI cG w uO WOL hI bM
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UEF XOH WDAML Uu dN qL w rJ s b w uOUJ
dM
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WOzuN WBI
du WO b bG rC
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WO b U bG
(Parathyroid Gland) WO b U bG

wHK UND vK Wu dOG b l WOb bG u lI
uuU wU udN dS uI qJA dE
w uOUJ Uu u UH WU Parathormone
WO b U bG qJA
wFOD l{u s q b uOU u UH WU wH b

od s eOd U vK w U u dN qLF
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WuKJ WOu_ bu vKJ w uOUJ UB U jOAM

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10mg100mL
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WO
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sOOz sOIDM v rI qJA dE dU WOKJ u lI w d qJ
Cortex dAI
c rC dOOuJ s UNU r w WbdO Uu dN s WuL d US uI
Uu dN
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WdE b
dA
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bG w wu lDI
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U w WU sOUM_ ud d US uI
bF vK dU qJA dR c b wHM jGC
dOQ v WU{ UI jU{ jOAM s VKI i
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(-) jO
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L tO v_ qdL jO
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WdEJ
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eOuJ d WDL WFd WcG WO qJA
WO UM bG vK dUL
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Diabetes dJ
WU b w dJ eOd UH v UdJM w UO U nK s rUM sOu U hI R
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v WU{ vLF v R b UNOJ sOF Wb
WO eNU U UBO d bb WOK dOQ
cN rJ r CF w UMOd s dOJ tbI
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WIDM w r w UNK r WU WOdJ UC
sOu WOdJ WC qJA
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qJA dE r
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W eI eOd hI V
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dDMI
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UbMuUL U uud q UOC vK uO u
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wL wBF UN
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sOuO
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A jd
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dOb
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1- Beaker, Kleinsmith, Harden (2003). The world of the cell, 5th Ed.
Benjamin Cummings.
2- Bruce, Alberts etal (2002). Molecular Biology of the cell. 4th Ed.
Garland Science. New York. USA.
3- Compbell, N.A & Reece J.B (2009). Biology. 8 th Edition. Pearson
Education, 1nc.San. Francico, C A, USA.
4- David L. Nelson & Michael M. cox (2000). lehninger principles of
Biochemistry. 3rd Ed. Worth Puplishers, New York. USA.
5- Davis, Solmon, Berg (1992). The World of Biology, 4th Ed. U.S.A.
Saunders College publishing.
6- Mader, S. Sylvia (1993). Biology. 4th Ed. Wrn. C. Brown. Communications. IA, USA.
7- Martini, Frederic (2004). Funalamentals of Anatomy and physiology. 4th Ed. prentice Hall, Inc. USA.
8- McFadden. Carol & Keeton. William (1995). Biology and Exploration & life. 1st Ed. Norton & Company. Inc. Newyork. USA.
9- Nelson, David & Cox. Michael (2005). Lehninger Principles of
Biochemistry. 4th Ed. Freemam and company. New York. USA.
WOdJ l u*
1- http:// catalog. nucleusinc. com.
2- www. netterimages. com/ image. list. htm? page = 11 & sel = S737
& S = autonomic % 20 nervous 20 % system.
3- cmrm. med. jhmi. edu/ cmrm _ servic/ human _ atlas. htm.
4- http://science.nhmccd.edu/biol/ap1int.htm
5- http://science.nhmccd.edu/biol/ap2int.htm
6- http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/ap/vdghumananatomy/student/olc2/
ap_animation-quizzes.html
7- http://www.cdmedia-studio.com/anatomy_anim.html
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