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s u cU uCK VO
UMOKuO Wd vK
WOc WcG wzuC UMU UOI q

u b qL c Chara UJ VK
Wd gzUA VU

qu u


WOMOF

rKF q
u gOF w WOMOKuO VUD iF

WG bIH bO UNO


dLC E w

wUU wzuC UM WOKLF uI


qO
uKJ
iF UB U p WuCF WcG v QK
WOK UA `D s WO s uL
vK u UMOKuO w
dC bO
bO u ULMO WuK WOA W
jI
sUA vK WOUM U

WFI

dOB u
uKO U UO
e U
u
Wu
bO
UMOKuO qJA

UuK b UMOKuO pK9 q R


uD w WU
 w q UMOKuO pK9 Uu r

Chrysophyta (Diatoms

rKF q

WOc VUD ?

dC WOc WOM VUD WKOI c qLA

U ChrysolaminarinsUMO ed U
WOc VUD UNe WObOud u s
uUL uuKG s dLK s uJ
WOc VUDK WOzd u_ s U uUb
UOL w
sO fOzd bBL qJA w
b U LN U Ozc bB WUL WcF
qJ vK Vd w UJOKOU WFAL UU
OL
J b wDF oM wbM
rd
qJA UDOL U w
UNu bF UNOD
WO uUb _

UNCF WcF UOL w


UNLEF gOF U uUb dHB
WUL UOL w

dHB sOU wG vK qO


uK vK u
qO
uKJWGvKuU bMw (Fucoxanthine)sOuuO

VcL wM uK cQ VUD c S


dC
Uud UJOKO uuOK s WuK b U
U qJA uLM WOK bO d
_ rEF uOUJ

Chrys- sUMO ed U qJ vK WOzcG uL se uI dLF qJ vK bu UNCF

qJA dE u olaminarin
dF u
fK u

WO b WJ

dC bO
WCIM u

dFA u WOK bO w wM VK
Ochromonas Uu d

U uUb w
UJOKO s uK b

Dinobryonw VK

WHK U uU ?

WOc VUD qJA

uD w WKUL w q WOK) bO wc VKD pK1 Uu r R


w
dNE w???  u?? ?_ b?? v??K? u??u??L?  d??O?F?A? b??zU??
s?? Y???

YK WOC

qJA

Phaeophyta (Brown Algae)

WOM VUD

UNzu s ZM c wM UNuK eOL U UO w


gOF r dO U dO Ud
lOL
UNO
WOzcG uL e UN UL sOUJ qO
uKJ UG v W
U{ WOM sOuuOH WG vK
Laminarin sUMO vL dJ bb qJ vK
bFLU UNu qB b u d_ Ud
iF bF UNM u
wu WFOD w
bu
LF VKJ  VK Sargassum UUU VK q uM WOIOI UMzUJ WuL s d
qJA dE Giant Kelp

dH

oM

Giant Kelp LF VKJ d VA VK


q U
VKD

wM VK
Sargassum UUU wM VKD ?
WOM VU qJA

rKF q
dL_ VKD s hK U_ U
u dLK s uJ ubOKO
dJ U u Ud XdJ vK
uUG uuKG
bU U e dL UGB
U UL w
gOF vK VUD c
w uC Uu UB vK UNbI
UOL d

(Rhodaphyta(Red Algae)

dL( VUD ?

s dO UNzu dLU XOL U bb UNLEF


qO
uKJ WG Phycoerythrin d??L?? UGB
UNM qOKI Filamentous WODO U bF UNOU
UbuKH UA qJ vK cG se uI WOK bO
Uud Vd VOd vK UNbI VUD c WOU eOL

WUL W
b UOL w
gOF WOUdL e UM w
bU b c UU b w
uOUJ
qJA dE (Corallina) UMOuJ VK UNK dN s

dL VU

dL_ sOuJ VK

dL VU qJA

d???J
r cN dL_ d WOL V U

rKF q
Pyrophyta (Dinoagellates)

Lumines-

WUM VUD

UuH
u{ lA u s Ub be w UNu iF _ r cN XOL

WOK bO UMzU w qOK UM UDOL w


u{u t sJL cence Phosphorescence
vK bI UN WcG WO dO uK WLb UNu iF wzuC UMU UOI vK bI t UNLEF
l VUD c qJA WcF UOL w
UNCF gOF U w
UNLEF gOF d U
eOL WOzcG q s dOJ bU w
U nMB UNS
c WOzUL ouF s WKzU b U uUb
vK UU u WOb UNd w
UbU u_ s U WKOI c d
s dOJ
wM v dHBL dC_ uKU U uK UNS
pc qO
ue sOUJ qO
uKJ UG
(Corals) UdL (Jelly Fish d qbM q UF l WOK
UJ WAOF UNu iF gOF

qJA k (Mollusks) Uud l Sea anemones ULFM ozUI l

rKF q
Saxi toxin vL U L
dH WUM VUD
cG w UL_ u iF U w
rd
U sJ UNO
dR VUD c vK
w
qKA UB UL_ c vK cG c
wBF UO n u WO WOKJON CF

u
w{d

wu u

WUM VUD u iF

VUDK W UF hzUB iF hK w b


VUD hzUB iF b
uK  b

UGB

WAOFL UJ

VOd

WKOI

bu

UMOU qO
uK

WU Wc UO

WOK bO

WOMOKuO

uuOK

U???M? ?O? ?U??? q???O? ?


u???K? ?

Wd WU Wc UO

WOK bO

WOc

UJOKO

sOuuO

WU UO

U bb

WOM

Wd tc WU UO

U bb

dL

Wd WU Wc UO W??O?K?? b?? O? ?

dC

U???M? ?O? ?U??? q???O? ?


u???K? ?
uuOK
sOuuO

d??L? U??G?? q??O?


u??K?
uuOK
U
UMOU qO
uK
uuOK

U bb

UdN V UD W UA
_ u*
UMO WOzu{ dU dOdO Uu bO  UMOKu q VUDK eU `zd
d
u WOM dL dC VUD WHK
qLF WId
bUA U r wzuC dNL bU eU `zdA bUAL r
WO s WKC d WOzUL UFL w
dJ w dC VUD s UMO lL r
UNBH WOKL
UN bF pz l UMOF U r

VUDK WOO WUB WOL_


UNM dO WOO WUB bzu VUDK
wzuC UM WOKLF UOI vK UNbI V sO_ U U U LN bB bF
UNM U uUbK dO WOL UM
UL_ s bbFK c bF w Phytoplanktons WOzUL ouF s b d qJA
U c b w Wd UuO
U U uu eOL d rd WOJOK UuJ d U w
UNd UNu bM ZM
Deter-

rKF q
U vK u b d UO s d
U uU s VK uOK UI

UHEML WUM w
UN b sJLdOG

W w
UUb iF w
UM_ sOUF gents
UNU U s dA UO WOHB Ud u_
vL dL WOKJ UNKUO w
uuL WdNL
WO uUb UdL

wuL sbK U
UNULF sJL d dA W
UJ w
UNUM iF qb ?
WdK UL b
UNM WU WUB WOL WOM VUDK
VK VK s (Fucus) fuO
VK s uO d
Wd UuO UL c b (Laminaria) d Vd vLL wM VKD
UF UMO UO
WOMO uL vK UNzu U d_
WUM w
b w Algin sO_ U UU b w
WOM VUD iF u ?
Ub qOL oOU Wu
b c UOL U U dLU UNUF Wd VUD UB s p W UD U
UML WUMB w
u
wzcG ju qu UC w U U (Gelidium ubOKOU dL VUD iF ZM
sOUJ U VK t v qzU u s UdDH UdOJ WOLM bL
NL UM_ sOUF WUM w
qb w

(Carageen

(Fungus Protista)

WOIOI( dO UdDH WdDH UOFzD UU

d UNUO qd iF w
UO_ tA hzUB UN YO WOIOI UdDH s nK
UdDH qLA UNUO w
uK UNOd w
UNM nK d qd w
UdDH tA
Oomycetes WOzUL UdDH Slime MoldsWdG
uL vK _ UB_ U_ c vK Wd sU _ w
WdG UdDH gOF
iO u W We Wd WK uJ
pc w Wc u ud eOL WuCF
dL dH UU UUO
WLFKU Uc lK WOO WKd uu UNUO eOL WuK bK UdDH c dIH
qJA dE U u WdL U U uJ YO UdDHK U WKd p l tKOK uI r s

u_ WdL U_ suJ WU WKdL

WOO _ WKdL

d dD
qJA

w
UNCF gOF WOL U UM s WOzUL U_ w
fOz qJA bu
WOzUL UdDH U
HD Wd
tA d _ UN V UL_ u iF vK UUD q UUM iF vK
WOK bO uJ b jI
UdNE w
WOIOI UdDH
U U wM dUJ vK bI UN qJA WODO
WOuO u_ vL u_U d WOM WdUJ
VOd
WdUJ

w
WOIOI UdDH s nK Zoospores UO UG
w
UU b w
ChitinsOUJ U vK UNzu b
qJA kuuOKU WOM WuK b UNS
qUIL

wzUL dDH qJA

qBH WK
UUM UuO s q UOFzD sO WdAL UHB U
pK b w WO_ UMzUJ vK WK UD l UO_ w
Wd qzU d
qzUu
WO d _ s q w
bFL uD U
UL
wO _ Ue
uu  UO l
rOK U v UBL U s UOULAOK q d WU qIM
WU UJ V UOULAOK u U
UOULAOKU WU d U
sODK
w
bu UOULAOK u ?
VUD nOMB w
WFL f_ r U
YO s dL dC VUD sO U
VOd
WAOFL UJ
UGB ?
uK b VOd
VUDK WOO WUB bzu
d
YO s WOzUL UdDH WdG UdDH sO U
Ubu UJ

VOd

pU d
U uO UMOKuO szU q
U j
s qJ
dL VK

dC VK ?

w VK

wM VK

UOO _ ?

UOu

UOu

UOb ?

Kingdom Fungi

UdDH WJK2

qBH

WcF WUL UOL w


gOF UNM b b UM WUO vK fOz qJA UdDH gOF
v dOL q WOK bO UMzU s UNL sU UdDH s u wu n r b
b vK U UNCF UL dO WO WUB WOL UNM dOJ dAL q U bF UMzU
U UuO UUMK dL

UU r U dUJ nO UN UF VOd U UNHOMB f U UdDHK W UF hzUB UL

UN w d _ U WUB
vK U uJ qBH c p bF UNM WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c
UF UNOd sO UdDHK W UF hzUB dc
UdDH w
WcG d dA
WOzd UN U sO UI UdDH nMB
UdUJ d nB
UdDHK WUB WOL_ `{u
d_ WO UMzUJK UdDH UN w d _ dF
VUD q d WO UMzUJ UN UL sO
WUM WOzc UO w
UdDH iF wLM

UdDHK WUF hzUB)


uL rCN WcG WO dO wN
wUU qO
uKJ WGB dIH uM WOIOI UMzU UdDH
dUJ UNLEF Uu uJ
WuK b WU UU UNUB U uI r U U WOzcG
UM uO U dL b vK b t UNCF c b U UNM UOM UOM
(Structure of Fungi)

UdDH VO d

Hyphae UHO vL WdH WKu WdF WOu uO s U bb UdDH rEF uJ
jO qJ jO Mycelium dDH eG vL WJ uJ
d_ bM b w WUDU uLM
ChitinsOUJ U s uJ u b dD

7UJK wzUOLOJ VO d U R
u UNM b q w
bb U uJ
SeptaWO{d b WUu WdDH uO iF e
UdU uOK `L UL qUH b w
bb uI VI WUu UNCF l qB d

rKF q

d UNCF U sOuJ qJ vK uHL cGU U be


U uK U b U qJA e WO{d eu u

qJA kCoenocytic

v UdDHK uM G
UL nBML UI UM
sOu v uM rIM dB

Wu
WdL U
uK b

UHO

ZM VOd
u_

eU

uO
Penicillium uOKOM dD
w
UL eu u UHO
Wu
uK b
uO

u
u

UHO jO
dD
e
WdC UHO

WdD
dLF ?

Rhizopus e sH dD
w
UL eu b UHO

WdDH uOK dNL VOd qJA

vL dO VOB U uL bM dDH eG uJ

rKF q
vK UL WHK u uJ sHF
buL UbOuJ WdL U_ u
u u uJ b w dDH w

u_ iF UdO d dC
w uL qUH s ZM wM dC_U
ju l dDH UdH

WdL U_ uLM dUJ u u WdL U_


s u_ sJL wJ d_ uD Wd u
UU
uJ dLFL w
uO UM uN WUu UA
w d_ uL uO UM `D X dzU
UdDH U qJA dE WdC UHO vL UNKK

uK b

k bO u uu eOL
dOL q WOK bO

u
uO

rd

qJA
rd

uu d
w UA

ubMuU

YO s dOL) UdOJ 5 U R
r(
uK) VO d

wu UN
w UA
dOL WOK VOd qJA

dOL) w rd WE UA
_ u*
b U WOU Q WIFK Wd UD WOU Wd Vd wzu{ dN
d eO sM VN U dJ dOL sOKOL WG q
qLF WId
UL W dU
UL `B v WOUe QJ w
UL s q s
UNd UL v dOL s dOG WIFK n{
WU nB b W
dG d W vK UNd uKL v dJ s WIFK nB n{
UG U lO UIH c uJ V U uKL `D vK lO UI
u uN bUA v
ZUM
WOU Wd vK dOL uK s dD l{
UL We WdA UDG UND r WdA v sOKOL WG s dD n{
_ U vK rd uJ k WHK dOJ ULFU dNL X WMOF h

uK UI u U _ WOK r U UNL q rd c uJ nO
rd vK e_ UL V bUA U r

UdDH WcG
WuCF uL d
u ULO gOF Wd oUML w
E w
qC
qJA UdDH uLM
U WOzcG uL qK WL{U ULe dH UNS
UdDH cG wJ UNHM UNzc WUM lOD
qJ vK cG se uI UU b s WKKL uL UB U uI r s UNL
WOK UJ WKHD WO
v UNcG d V UdDH nMB u sOuJ
(Saprophytes)

WOd UdDH

q WuCF uL WOL U_ qK s UNzc vK qB

rKF q
bI UN WO d UdDH iF
dzUD u Ue w
uLM vK
tHK v R u u qK YO

c vK WK _ dN s Rhizopus e  sH bF uuOK UAM


Mushroom dAL dG g dD
pc UdDH s uM
WD UL UUM e qK s WUM WuCF uL vK uLM c
UuO
(Parasitic fungus)

WKHD* UdDH

U
uA dOFA `LI vK qHD c Puccinia bB dD q WO UUM vK WKHD gOF
c Powdery mildew wIO b UO dD
Wd UA_ s dOJ (Barberry) dU U
qzUF s Uc hL
U UuO vK qHD aOD UI q UOzUI vK qHD
d _ t V tOK qHD c
(mutualistic)

WOCUI UdDH ?

gOF w Mycorrhizae c UdD q d UMzU l WU U UdDH iF vM


_ UL UB vK c WOKU w
dO U v R UUM iF c s dIU
WuCF Wc_ l UNU Wd s WObFL _ UB U UdDH uI pc UMK WdC
dC VUD q d UMzU l WOCUI UdDH iF lOD UC UM UNFMB w
UI p `O{u rO Lichens s _ rU dF U uJ W eL dC UdOJ
dF ULb UUM c l q
UJ w UdDH WcG d s Uu UM

YK WOC

EndotrophicWOKb WcGU d dF EctotrophicWOU WcGU


s u qJ WK _ iF d l UIdD UU UN r w WO s Y
UdDH

UdDH nOMB

Ub u_ UJ dUJ WFO UF qJA qLA b dOUF V UdDH nMB


WB UM WO Ub WO e WOd qzUI v dUFL c vK UL UNHOMB r b UNu
(Zygomycetes)

WOd UdDH

UNCF WOL U_ vK gOF WcG w


UNLEF
eOL U UuO dA UUM vK qHD
rIL dO uK Z bL uOU UdDH c U
uO iF qH w
Wu b vK u WuK b
w
uLM Rhizoides c U UNOK oKD UdH UM
tuH e sU WuCF Wc_ vK Wd sU _
WuDL WeL dC

fe dD
u b

UNOL U UdDH w c' U uJ 3 R


dN s c UdD we UO dD
Rhizopus stolonifer u_ e  sH dD
bF
U bM U u_ suJ U OM U u_ e sH dD
dUJ UdDH s uM c vK WK _
bU UOM dUJ tS
WUM dO WOO dE `B
cN XOL pc ZygosporesWOd u

qJ k UH UI WMA WJOL b u_ r


uG

U UOeG UDO t
UI v ULNCF u
we UI

UB

ULNCF vK UHM
wu fO

U bM sOOK Uu b

wM dUJ

uGe UuJ
u

b tH uGe jO
W

pOL

UO U
W

WLz dE X
wu fO

UHO tM d b oAM
u

dHM wu fO w

wM dUJ

W

uLM w u_ tM d
bb U MH wDF

W

jI 
wM wM suD e sH dD
UO qJA

(Ascomycetes)

WOeUdDH

UOM dUJ AscosporesWOOJ u_ vL fOJ tA WEH w


WOM u_ qL
WbOuJ u_ vL UHON UUN vK UO_ U u suJ

rKF q
WR WO e UdDH s bbF
UM s ZM c wzcG rL s
dOL U _ q WuK u
V wN
Candida albicans
qNL UN uLH I d
dOL

WO UNLEF UdDH s WuL d w

(Conidiospores

dO s R UNCF WLF_ nK UNu iF V WcG


c Powdery mildew wIO b UO q WOUM d _ s
bM UOzUIU UUM s bbFK U {d V
uJ w UdDH YeastsdzUL  WuLL c rC
k WOQJ UdDH cG b w uLs _
qJA q Q UOM UOM UdDH c dUJ qJA

uL

e dI QJ dD

uK U c vK gOF ULJ ?

WO e UdDH qJA

Wu_ U b
uG

fO
UHO nBM UI

UHO

dD
e

Wu
uO s d

uL
wM dUJ u
uO U b

UbOu

U UI

WOO u
uL

dD
e

jI


WO e UdDH UO qJA

(Basidiomycets)

rKF q
Ub qB U u oKD W
UM dJ dD

UOKL UOK v VUG w

Ud V W Ub dHM U bM p


UD _ UO
WLbI U_ vK uLM wHOJ dDH
WUu uuOK rOD bF WdL
UdDH c gOF UdH w ULe
WI W
U{ WM q w
r uM b
dL rK bb

wHOJ dDH

WOUb UdDH ?

dAL UdD
rC WOUMH UdDH rU dNA
qHD UNu VK q WUB W U Mushroom
Rust Fungi `LI b dD
q UNHK V UUM vK
dD
q d u UM Smut

Fungiu rH dD

wHOJ dDH UHM dDHW UM dJ dD


dzUD g
qJA k Bracket Fungi

dAL

c rH dD

UHM dDH W
UM dJ dD
?
WO U UdD
qJA

Basidia dCLU tOA UNO


WBBL dUJ U v W WO UbU UdDH c XOL b
`D vK rOUO w
uuL BasidiosporesWbU WO Ub u_ vL Uu uJ

qK w
ULN WO Ub UdDH VFK Stalk oM vK WuLL WKEL dAL uMKI wKH
UuO UA_ CH
u_ s WL{ b ZM UNLEF UbOuJ u UAU UOM dUJ WO Ub UdDH s qOK
qJA k WUM WO w
XF Wd XM w WOM dD WO Ub
uMK

rOUO
oM
w U u

u
UHO U

u
w U

wzUM dD e
UHO

jI
 dAL dD
UO qJA

v WbU u_ dAM nO R

dAL WOLM w
W bL dD qC
w
Y

YK WOC
rKF q

tUO w
u UOK wu U lOD b U dA
tM b WLC V b b W U dAL u s dO UM
w UNO
uuL W U uL d WuKN V UNCF U
u
Aflatoxins UMOu
Amanita toxins sOU uL
uO U w
mRNA UM WOKL n v UNUM R w

b W U dA u

Deuteromycetes WBUM UdDH


WIU UdDH u lOL XE
WKOI c d
U UOM UOM dUJ
UM s wM dUJ vK bI UNBIM

WbOu u od s dUJ WOL U


Fragmenta-

WzeU Conidiospores

WO U uJ Wd UNu rEF tion


UNOK WK _ dN s d UMzU vK WKHD
V c Trichophyton uU uJd dD

dO_ dD

uOKOM dD

w{Ud bI d vL U UbK U{d


Penicillium uOKOM Athelets

WB U UdD
qJ

Foot

w
b c (Aspergillus) dO_ dD
pc PenicillinsOKM uO UCL ZM c
qJA dE eOL WNJ UNODF U_ iF WUM
dO_ uOKOM dD
UC w
Y

YK WOC

UdDH hzUB r w b sO
wM dUJ

wM dUJ

UHON

WKOI

UOu

WOd u

eu UN bu

WOd

WbOu u

WOO u

uI l UU eu UNO

WO eWOOJ

rd UDA WbOu u

WO U u

eu UNO

WO Ub

WbOu u

bu

uI l eu UNO

WB UM

e) sH WOLM UA
dU `zd WOD `zd U e WFD _ u*
qLF uD
ULU UNOd r e s WFD dC
u bL td W uJ YO uNK dF rKE V UJ w
WFDI l{
WKK Wd tM dC UNOK uJL sHF jA e s UMO c
u_ e sH bU dNL X dCL WdA h

WJA c r U sDI tA WJ uJ iF l UNCF pUA w WdDH uO uJ k

WOKb UM* b b vK sHF bUA b


wLM WKO v sHF c r U

dNE WM uB
s qB
w

uL lML nO

sHF c cG nO

YK WOC

UdDHK WUB U_
UNM dc UdDHK dO WUB bzu
UM
sOdK bO bB dAL bF YO U c UdDH iF b
Decomposers UFL WuCF uLU Wd UM wUU UuO UUM UUI qOK uI
WOK p WOL U
wN
WUB WOL dOLK
iL U uJ WUM UMFL WUM q UUMB s dO w
b
UOdL WUG UdAL WUM w
b c Citric acidpdO
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae dOL UuB WOLKF u U w
b

WUF dOL tFMB c B sO UO


q UMO UOHK bB b ?
nA b UUM uL WHUC v R c d u d q Uu d UdDH iF ZM
UF{ b _ U U uL v YO UUO w

eOuJ q W_ s dO WUM w


u_ iF qb
(Cephalosporine) suuUHO Penicillin sOKM q WuO UCL s dO U w
rN
. (Grysofulavin) sO
u
udG

bL Cyclosporine suuKJU q WUML UN WDL UF s dO UNM d
UC_ W UOKL rN d sc v{dL b
eOL W WU WNJ Vzd sK be s s Uu UdDH iF VJ
WOUM U b UN w eb eOKO _ q ULe_ s WU dO UOL ZM
(Lichens)

s_

d??C? U??d??O??J? d??C? V??K? ? w?? U?? U??U??O? w?? ? U??? U?? d??D?
s??O? W??O?C?U??I? W?? ??
eOL WOC W UOU J UN Q W F c eOL qJA dE CyanobacteriaW e
uB vK WUO vK qE w
Wd WOO suL nK w
s _ dAM

rKF q
tUM r wMOB UuB U
c WB UM UdDH bQ WUFU
U WOKGL UuB c j dL
s WOMO uL UFD e
UuB
c v W
U{U dDH UuB c
UFD
dC UL vK qB s _
UL UdDH bUL uN s UN
d uB vK gOFU UN `L
U_ c WKUI Wd

VK WOK
WdD
UHO

s _ VOd qJA

v UNHOMB sJL
Wd WI qJ vK uJ Crustose WdAI s _
UNOK uLM w U_ vK UJS WIBK
wU UdNE w
_ tA Foliose WO u s _
UFA dO UM FruticoseWdOA s _ ?

bOud qJ vK cVKDs dDHcQYOWOUdDHVKDsOWOCUIW FuJ


qJA k UH s tOL WObFL _ ULU VKD dDH e qUIL w

WdOA ?

WO u

WdAI

s _ qJA


fLA U nU WUM w
UN b q b bzu
s

rKF q
s _ S
pc buI uL s nAJ w
qLF c
wDG w pK WFOD w
s _ u r
qJA WO{_ dJ UL w
UGU oUM
Wd eG WB wd
b Hypogymnia u s s _
WFAL uLU u UuK s nAJK

W U UuKL iF u uK WOuuO dFA b


s p ZM SO2 XdJ bO wU O3 _ q
UD _ w
WcL UuKL c UB vK WOUF s _ b
U v UuKL c dD lOD s _ _ bM

u uK vK dR p uJ UNu UNO
qO
uKJ UG rOD v R p S

(Fungal Diseases Mycoses)

WdDH d_

qJA dE UM uO U d _ s bbFU UdDH V

Tineaungvium UH_ WHF ? Dermatomycosis jDI bM bK UN

(Apple scab UH d

WdDH d _ qJA

U
VOB w WdDH d_
sOL wu vK dF r t WFOD w
WHKL UdDH u s U u s rd vK
OK bS
pcUd _s dOw
VUNM Uu
UUMUuOU _UlODd
WUN WbK X WbK WOD w u WL v U VOB w WdDH d _ nMB
qJA dE WUN

rKF q
UdDH WU WO jI c dFA
F bF b uLM uF d d

OB vK dR dDH _ UHA
VOB UdDH s d u UM dFA
v R UL d d
w
dFA OB
UHA bM tUF b dFA uL b

SuperficialWOD
dFAK wU `D vK UdDH cN WU b
Black Piedra u Wb q WK Ub eOL bK
qJA dE dFA VOB w
Cutaneous WbK'

WOK WHF UNK s UIK qJ vK uJ bK VOB UuO WdDH UU d w


qJA dE UH_ WHF w{Ud bI d qd WHF bK WHF d WHF

Subcutaneous WbK' X%
bK X uLM WuKL d s bK X qb WMHFL UUM Wd UbB
qJA dE U uJ
Systemic WUN'
WOe U_ vK sH qJ vK U r q WKHD dOL qJ vK uLM UNQ eOL
UC v b s dAM UNS
WM e `B U bM sOzd v u_ u bF b WO w

qJA dE Histoplasma U uN UNK s d


Opportunistic WUN
U_ iF bM WUML nFC U bM dL V UNMJ U{ dO wFOD l{u w
uJ
UNK s bU dJU WU uJ wUF UdU WU WcG u WO
?qJA dE Aspergillus fumigatus dO_ dD
Candida bbUJ
dFA U

u W

WbK

WUN ?

WOD

WUN

WbK X ?

U VOB WdD
d qJA

UUM VOB w WdDH d_


q UUM VOB w WdDH d _ iF w
Y UUM d rK V b v l
bM UU UOzUI VOB c Powdery mildewwIO b UO d
UdOqHUUDmVBIuVOBc DownymildewweUOd

dU U dOFA _ `LI VOB c Rust bB d


UUDK dQL WHK d
UH d d
aOD u d

`LI b wIOb UO d* W* UdDH W UA


_ u*
wzu{ dN `zd WOD WOU `zd UdDHU WUB UU
qLF WId
UO dL WUB UuJ aOD ULA UOU WOzUI WKzUF UU s UMO dC
dL u `LI bB WUB `L UU dC pc _ vK UCO lI wIO b
_ UIO vK
l WuK Wd tM dC wIO b UO lI s U CF WOdA d WUu jA
`LI bB WMU UNH uD
dNL X dCL `zdA h

UNOK pUE q wIO b UO d w
UbUA w WbOuJ u_ UJ r
`LI b d w
UbUA w u_ u r
pz l ZzUM U r
(Antifungal Drugs)

UdDH UC

WdDH U _ dE WdOJ d _U Xu U WdDH d _ WUF w


WuF bu
W
UJ w
b w UCL rEF WdOJ U s U r U UN d uM WIOI
b pKL UdDH rEF S
pc W
U{ U WOL uJ UdDH qI j UdDH
v (OH)qObON WuL W
U{ UH od s WuO UCL s bbFK WOL W vK
tOL s hK r tOz be
Hydroxylation UCL

WdDH d_ UA
W dF WbK d wUB VO UOF pMJ WIDM s Vd vHAL U V
UN nO UNM WU u d r U sODK
w
WdDH d _ UA

qBH WK

UdDH nOMB w
WFL f_ r b
dDHK UF VOd n
WK _ UD l UdDH bM WcG d d
dNL X dNE UL WdDH uO wu r
r cN WB UM UdDH vL UL
U UB U O WKOI c WOL U
WOUMB oUML bL w
s _ WK dH nO
UM WUB WOL_ d
uO UM U dO U {d UdDH V
u qJ U l U VOB w WL UM_ d
u qJ U d l UUM VOB WdD
d W UL d
WHKL UNKzU v WO UdDH nM
dOL

uOKM ?

u_ e sH

dAL

uU
uJd dD

UHM dDH

`LI b dD
?

bu WK
qJ vK WOzcG uL UMOKuO e
sOd UA
uKO U u
UA uKO U
sOd uKO U
W??O? W??d?? d???? w???  V??U???D? vL
u_ s U UN
dC
dL
WOM
WUM
w
WOIOI UdDH s WOzUL UdDH UL
U vK UU b u b
uuOK
sOUJ
UAM
sOuJG
WKO v u_ e sH dD
wLM
UdDH
WO Ub
WOOJ
WB UM
WOd
s _ w
VKD dDH sO W F
WO

WOAUF
WOCUI
WOKHD
UUM VOB w WdDH d _ s
we UO
u Wb
wIO b UO
dQL WHK

WOB WU e u dz l{
WIdD WdDH UOFzD cG
UB

wzuC UM
wzUOLOJ UM
WUu wzUL u UO_ rEM
WCIML uH
WOzcG uH
uK UAG
WUBF uH
UOULAOK d qIM w dA vL
U
q d WU
w w WU
fKO
u_ W{uF v
eML W{uF
u_U d WO UO_ b
U uuUd
Uu uJd
uOO d
UOULAOK
d UJOOu UO U_ qOH V
UL
UH_ WHF
U W
UUDeb
VUD WKO v ubOKO VK wLM
WOM
dC
dL
WOc

wU uLF w VUM* UJ* v _ uLF U qI suLF 5 o


U

VUD

UUU

dC 

fJHu

WOMOKuO

UMOuJ

WOc

UMOKuO

WOM

U uUb

dL

d f
VKJ
UO_ nOMB w WF* f_ r U
WO WK_ s V U* qJA

qJA c qL U
UL rdU UNO UAL e_ r
oO b szUJ cN WUB bzUH U ?
oO b szUJ c wLM WKO v
YO s WOM dC) VUD 5 U

WeL WOzcG uL

UGB
WAOFL UJ
suD tUO UM UUO' qOH d1
U bF suD
qOHD cN WU s WU u d U
p d
pOL uK b eOL ULNM ?
qK

d dAL q bF `BM

U w
dOL b

UUM WUD w
UdDH iF bU

UNM
s d
bF WOL U_ qK ?

b????u

UUI

sLd

vUF U

Invertebrates

UUI

UuO gOF WKO wu w nMB UuO s u uOK s d


WOuO WJKLL rC
b dD dUJ WO dO WcG cG WIK UO w
wLEF qJON s UNL uK UuO s WuL w UUI bu c UM
U dI uL pKL wUU wdCG
UNO dUJ WcG d U UNL VO
d U

vK U uJ qBH c p bF UNM WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c


UUI W UF UHB d
c
UUI wL  nu qUL u dF
UF UOMH W UF UHB d
c
dUJ WcG d VO
d YO s UF UOMH sO UI

dA
d r
w oK

WOuD

d qbM
UU

ZMH

UUI WUF hzUB)


dNEL w dO
U  iF s UNCF nK w UuO s dO
U u UUI rC
bb UF UOMH w qzU wUL UUI rC wKb VO
d wU 
nB UOKBHL UO
ubK Uud WOIK bb WOuD_ bb WDKHL
WO hzUB U UUI
q W UO vK gOF UNCF Uud UF UOMHU
UL w UNLEF gOF
bb u iF dA
dI uL UN fO wUU wdCG wLEF qJON s UNL uK
iF w UL
qUL rb UNCF d rM
U OUF dA w UL
U OU uJ b qUL
dD wU qULU bBI UUI w qUL sO c qJA dE UOMH u
bBI r K wuD j U d U uL U Ou tFD bM sOKUI sONUA sOHB v uO
w e
dL uL w lu s d
w tFD bM WNUA e v uO dD wUFA qULU
e
dL uL u rEM qJA u uO r YO U
e
dL uL

u
qUL
r  W bI
U

sOL

r  dR
qUL rb

wUF qUL

wU qUL

UUI w qUL rb wUFA wU qUL qJA

bbU
U OL U Hu pKL UN_ (Acoelomate) wL nu WLb WDO  UUI bF
vD WID U U uJ Coelom r q nu UNK bOIF d
_ UUI U WDKHL
UNHu uJ UUI iF WOIK bb w UL
Coelom wIOI r  nu vL
Pseudocoelomate wL nu WU vL vD WID tKL
Q U dO wL 
qJA dE WOuD_ bbU

WOuD wL  nu WU

WOIK wL  nu WOIOI

eO
WOK UC
WOLC UM
b
eO
U
wL nu

b
wIOI wL nu

WOLC UM

WDKH wL  nu WLb

eO
WOLC UM
b

UUI w r  UI nU qJA

vL UF UOMH b U WuK UI WOMOM' WKd* w UUI w qJA


WID dA UNM QAM ectoderm WOU) W_ WID w germ layers WOud' UID
WOKCF eN_ UNM QAM mesoderm vDu WID wLCN nu sD endoderm WOKb
. qJA dE WOKUM WOb WOKJON

UF UOMH

qBH

sOuLL sOUN W UF hzUB  UL UF UOMH wKO vK eO


d rO qBH c w
UdUJ UNcG d U UNL VO
d U

Phylum-Porifera UOU* UOMH WKO


u B vK W uJ wu WcF UOL w gOF qOKI WUL UOL w UNLEF gOF
UuO X O UU UNQ U IU bI c U w WKC UOL U w UL w

U fO uO ZMH vK U U R

rKF q
UNOL X
UOMH
u V Porifera UO U LU
w uI U U L s dO
b
nQ Porifera WLK
UNL
Porous UL sOOMO sc s
qL wMF Ferro VI wMF

UOMH WOzd hzUB)


qUL rb d UNCF U OUF UNCF w qUL uJ
uJ wN c WNUAL U  sO oO M bu
WBB eN UN fO wUU WOIOI W
UA od s r  U WUu fHM r

rCN r UO_ U uUb UdOJU


WIOb UMzUJ vK WO dO WcG ZMH cG
Intracellular U  q
UNU b uJ U  WDA sO P S c WBB WO WOB U dIH
U OD U OF{u uJ dRLK

ZMH VO
d
qJA dE WOMOO WIDM UNMO qBH sOuK sOI s ZMH V
d

WdO W

UFD Ue

juL N
uI U
UL u
UFD Ue WLFK
u
UJu

WOK
WuD

WOK
WOO

e
dL nu
WuD WOK
WOO WOK

WOU  WID
ZMH r b w lDI
ZMH w wu lDI qJA

porocytes uI U UNKK Wd WOz WD U s uJ WOU  WID


dD w ZMH qJ w rJ s UNMJL c UI vK bI UN WD L U 
cG vK uB vK uO bU UL ZMH d UL ob w rJ wUU uI
UG U CH s hK 
WU
b UN U UNO ` WOU  WID wK WOMOO WIDM mesohyl juL N
Amoebocytes WOO _ U  vL

cG nO
`{ WL U nzU ZMH VO
d p bF

UIMK WOC

tC s hK nO
uO

ZMH UJ
rKF q
U uI u c w U L fOJ UNUJ j w UOMH
`Od uI ZMH uO
WOL
vK uBK d U s rG

bIL tK
Ue wHJ cG s
r

osculum WdOe WH vL dO


W U bu tb w
bF UJ ZMH wHK w U `D uOK bu
dz wd wUM w u U UNML

qJO
ZMH

ZMH s WHK UJ qJA

rd

ZMH w dUJ
U O M U O M UOMH dUJ

Asexual reproduction wM dUJ


w w M dUJK d b UM
ZMH w rd qJA

budding rd
rd vI b bud rd vL U d
u qJ vK dNE

qJA dE bb ZMH v uLM qBHM b dLF uJ _ ZMHU WDd


Gemmules ULFd dzb suJ
dF WOK q
suJ WcF UOL w gOF w WU UOMH uI WLzL dO dE w
fOJ U WOO _ U  s WuL s UNM q
uJ dzbU
ZMH u bF UJuAU rb
lL jOL G w oO VI s WOO _ U  d dE s U bM d dzb S
qJA dE bb U MH uJ uLM U Ud dOG WuK WK
WuJ UNCF l

rKF q
lOL U vK bI ZMH
L U
ZMH ddL bM
dF r U  qBHM dd s WJ
bOF UNCF vK WKBHML U 
WuJ dOB d w UNUFL VO
d
bb UuO
v ZMH uO s WFD qI bM t
S uM fH s d ZMH nu
dOB d bF uLM sOuO U
u s XU
WFDI ZMH id
ZMH s d

UJu
fO

dzb qJA

regeneration b
bIH w e_ iuF b vK dO
b UOMH

U uO uJ uLM WuBHL e_ lOD YO WHOMF WOzUL UO u _ qFH UNM qBHM


U

Sexual reproduction w M' dUJ


BHM ZMH u iF w fM uJ
vM uJ UOMH u rEF dioecious
WHK U w sJ UCu WuM UuO UNM bu dH uJ YO monoecious
N w UCu vI WuML UuO d UNCF uJ UCu WOO _ U  iF uJ
WuDL U U oKF YO d ZMH w qb UL UO l d d
 WuML UuO U juL
uLM r UB WOKL r YO UCu v UNKIM UNKL r N w u w WOO _ U 
w UN H X _ ZMH s bOF WU  vK UbU uQ e Wd uJ WB L WCu
mU uO v uLM bb UJ

r nO
wFO d wUM ULb ZMH s Uu u_ w

YK WOC

u q
eOL U wU d _ uM lOMB

Cnidaria UF WKO


UuO qzU s UdO s UeOL UNL `D vK WF U UN
UFU vL
d_
gastrovascular cavity U OzU U bF U Hu UN
coelenterate UuFLuU U IU XOL
bON UdL Wd ULFM ozUI q UuO iF qLA u s d
WKOI c rC

UF WOzd hzUB)


u B vK W uJ b WcF UOL w WKOK W gOF WUL UOL w UNLEF gOF
UL w Wd `
U OUF UNO qUL uJ
rOEM Uu w W _ Wd v XK bI UOMH s bOIF d
r  VO
d
jd UOKeOL WO N WID wU vK dAM WO WOB U s uJ WOB WJ pKL
d WN s WOKC WU U WN s WO U l
bON uO tA polyp wOu dD UL sd VUF UF rEF UO eOL
medusa wbOL dD r K uKF `D  vK uu rH u B vK U uJ
qJA dE r K wKH  `D  vK uu tO rH uJ d ` c

bFL nu UM


f u
du

r
UOKeO

db
b
r
wOu dD

wbOL dD

wbOL wOu dD qJA

UF nOMB
w W Oz uH W w UF nMB

Class Hydrozoa UOzU*UbON n


U uO wMF Zoa U wMF hydra UL sOOMO sc s hydrozoa `KDBL nQ
Obelia UOKO_ (Hydra) bONU UUMU WNOA UuO s dO
vK UbON qLA
qJA dE Jelly fish d qUM
jI wOu dD dNE bON U UNLEF w wbOL wOu dD dNE

UOKO_ uO

rd dNE bON uO

UbON s u qJA

rKF q
sO eO L w WOMO U 
WOzcG WOKCFWOzD U 
s u suJ vK U WOKCF
UM uO UNU w U  u
WuML UuO suJ pc
uL
UCu
cnidoblasts WF U 
e uN Ub w b
WOK  u f uK w Ub
wDO  fOJ vb fO
vK WF
u l K jO tL bM qB
hypnotoxin vL W U U vK
UNKI W dH W
d qA w

bON VO
d
U  s sOI s f uK r  s q
b V
d
WO WI ULNMO bu b WOKb u WOU  vL
dE Mesoglea juL N vL WuK WOMOO U s
qJA

WOMO U

r

f u

ju
b WOK WI
bF nu
WOB WOK
u

WOB
WF WOK

jO

WOz WOK
WOKC

iO

rd
WOzc WOK
WOKC

nu
bFL wzUu

WOKC UO
u
b

WF WOK
jO
q jO 
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jO  D
WOK  U

bON w wu lDI qJA


bON w w{d lDI

WcG
W dH UOD UN u b UdO dA Ud dOGB UdAI vK bON cG
lb f uK uI r UN
d qA UNL d  W dH U WU WODO  UO
_ uO oKDM YO
U  p w bU U  U wze rC r YO uFL nu v tM rH u W dH
r s WUJ b_ W b cG WLFK WOzcG U  uI r WL{UN UNULe dH w WbG

UA od s UL U  v uCNL cG qIM U  q rC qB

dUJ
U OM U OM bON dUJ

b rdU UOM dUJ wM dUJ


wM' dUJ
r K uKF YK vK wB  dNE vM d UNCF fM WKBHM bON u iF
wB  uJ
iUL q wB  U dNE qJA dE bI bU s dIU iUL dNE
d vK uuL UCu UB UNKIM c UL v UN wIK WuML UuO s dO
b

w bON s qBHM c sOM u U O U O


u
dH r sOM uJ UB bF d
dOG bO v u WLzL dE

Class Scyphozoa UOUMH n


qJA dE d qUM s u Aurelia UOK_ uO UNO wLM UOQJ U C vL
b bzU u UNO wbOL uD uJ ouF sO Wb U w gOF U OUF UNO qUL uJ
r sO UdD d WUH WO WKEL
UOK_

rKF q
sd mK b d qUM d
dD
d W mK b UN u u
U Tu w dJ d qUM
U U V UdUJ d w WU
V UN sOuG sOU K
dO UN u YO U  _
WF U  qFH WOU 

d qUM qJA

Class Anthozoa Ude n


qJA dE Corals UOUd* Sea Anemones Wd ULFM ozUI s q
nB cN wLM

UOUdL

Wd ULFM ozUI


Ude n qJA

W gOF r dO
dHM UOu WO vK bu ueU WNO UuO Wd ULFM ozUI
wuD VOu r dO qJO UN fO U Tu s dIU Wd UA_ u B vK
f uK s b qL d dD bM db wL d u B vK t oBK bU d t

uuL WF U  uI dOGB UL_ UdAI Uud vK Wd ULFM ozUI cG


wKb nu v UNU q W dH W
d qA f uK vK

Wd ULFM ozUI w rCN u U

UIMK WOC

t U oUML U w de dLF w gOF Stony Coral Wd UOUdL U


dLF L V
d dHM gOF UNM qOK WOUdL UFA UNM uJ WL { WdO qUO dH U
be UL uO UO d u qJON uLM Wd ULFM ozUIA WNOA WOOu d_ s dO
b s
dUJ UdL s u UM qJON `D u dI UOu vI Xu l eu UH s
wI_ uLM s be UL UNCF u WOdI q
UON uJ pc UNCF VU rd jI rdU
Wd UMzUJ s dO
bF UdL qJA ZO M s WIO WID UNMO ULO qB

wK WUM w UdL b


WOO WUB WOL_ w Y UdO
UdLK

YK WOC

qBH WK
WO UKDB*U uBI* `{
wL  nu wIOI wL  nu  WO ud UID wU qUL
UJ
WcF UO* w gOF tCF W(U* UO* w ZMH uO gOF
UO U LU UOMH XOL UL
ZMH w qUL u U
WOO _ U  WHO U ?
ZMH UNuJ w u VO
d U
ZMH w wM' dUJ WOKL d
wQ UL V UF p s
r cN vL UL
UuFLu UNOK oK UL
wbOL wOu dD sO dH d
?
bON w u
_ VO
d n
bON w wM' dUJ WOKL `{

YO s Wd ULFM ozUI d qbM wuO 5 U


qUL

WcG WId

bzU  dD

UNL e nO
WOUd* UFA VO
d U

WOIK( WOuD_ WDKH* bb

qBH

WOuD_ WDKHL bb w qzU w bb nMB


sU wL  nu u r  VO
d w UNMO ULO sU WOIK
d WcG d UN WKOI d w v qzUI sO ULO bb
UM s UuO U  d _ V WOKOH bb rEF dUJ
WOHO
UN WU d vK dF UNM WUuK UN WOL sLJ
UN U VO
d U  bb qzU UL UNM hK  UNOK UCI
U UN w d _ U dUJ nO
WKO q
d cG nO

d _ c d
c p bF UNM WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c
vK U uJ qBH
 bb qzU hzUB dF
UN U VO
d nB
UNMO d fHM WcG d sO UI
bb iF UO l
UNM WUu d UN w d _ iF nB
_

w oK

WOIK b
q d
uULd uOU
WOu

u O WODd

UJ_

UOdO UU
WDKH b

WOuD b

Phylum-Platyhelminthes

WD* WDKH* bb WKO

WO UuO j s WKOI c d bF `D `DKH r  qJ _ WDKHLU XOL


gOF UNCFeOL WuC eN UC UN dNE w UuO nu WLb w UID
HD d UNCF d
w uH W WKOI c rC qzUF wzUM qzUF bO U

Class Turbellaria UdO n


qJA dE UU UNU WUL WcF UOL w gOF WIOK d U b qLA

U
uO
UFI
UOMO

WOzU WbF UM

UF

uFK

uFK

wB q
r

UU qJA

`DKH dOG r UUK

rKF q
tUN rK wu UNM mU u
qJ uJ tS e WF W v WOd WIDML s dD UU
WF W UN UU vK qB wUU uOF s e
v_ WFDI S W{dF uB lD fL l v XFD
U uO `B WOK WIDM uJ
U

uJ vDu lDI
WO U _ WN s WO WIDM
WOHK  WN s WOK WIDM
polar- WODIU vL U c
U uJ WOKc WIDML ity
U
U uO `B wUU

dNE Wb WOHK  WCd WO U _


dNE `D  vK r  W bI w
X O rH W UdOG UMO
WOMD WOUM vK bu UNMJ WOd
rH wK r K wHK  nBM w

tO
d s Y U DO U OB UN UU pKL

W
dA WOKUM W

YK WOC

Class Trematoda uU1d UOu n


UNOK WK _ s wLC UN UN lD v rI dO UNL WOKOH b

rKF q
w UOUNK b sOUBL b
wu v q WOdF dB WuNL
d UA VFK U UB uOK
WOKL w U U dBL nd w
bUA

UM_ VOB qJFasciola uOUH WbJ bb


dO
WUB U V U VOB U UO WOUL
UNLO s qKI UuO nFC YO wuL UM_ w
R b qLF vK UNb s qKI sK uK bBL

UNu v

UOb uOD UUIH iF w gOF Schistosoma UOUNK UuuOA b b


VOB UOUNK u iF UM sO VOB c UOUNK d W U VOB UL

qJA dE WuFL UOUNK d V d UNCF WOu UL

WO_ w gOF W{UM bb


U UF _ Wu b
d

bK WdO d
Wu b WO_
U 

w W{UM bb dUJ


uO d U r
d l WB 

td

w uO c uD
WbN Ud v UL
qzUF r d
wzU eK qUM

WM UO M UdO dUJ
W
d d Wd

wzUL eK

UOUNK UO

uOUH qJA

Class Cestoda u UODdA n


UN fO lD e v rI UNL UUIH s dO
WuL vK qHD WOKOH U b qLA
Tapeworms WODdA bb UNOK WK _ s r wLC UN

Taenia saginata UUMOUUOMO WODdA b


qJA dE w WO Oz e W v UNL r I dI jOu UNKzU U VOB
UBL
u W sOM

WOU

WOU

b

wB q iO

WB WCu

wB

WOd UM
qN

WuM UM

dH r w UCu
WODdA dI UO qJA

UF b UN H XO w UN b UBL WFQ e r  W bI w lI scolex d


U wU_ qzUF
b r e WOI uJ w uLM WIDM qL d wK neck oMF
Proglottids WOU  WFD s nQ strobila Wd L r
mK W{UMU r  WUN w lDI vL oMF v d_ u UdG uJ oMF UNuJ

d v UNCF u q b U s b r u bF

UO(
qJA dE YOQ dO
c UC u UNM WFD q
vM WODdA b
u_ wKUM UN e U d
c wKUM UN e U
W{UM _ w UB WOKL b WO s Y

YK WOC

UNUN bM qBHM UuL qLJ U bM WIOb U UF w WODdA b gOF


VB L iO oKDM WCu wu vK WK q
u U d l d U O u WOHK 
iOU U uK c UNUM bM dI v iO qIM UNeL UNUH bF WK_ s
d qzUF UF d u_ WOb WM tM d jOu qzUF UF w iO fIH
bladder worm WOUL bU czbM vL UN H u fOJ WOKCF W _ qB v b l
qzU WKL WU q dOG w

qK YO bO tON r r WOUL b u dI r q
bM U v WU qIM
v dUN r UN d YO dA wM v dL b oKDM U bF w WOUL b b
p r nO
dN WK U
`B v UF _ b UN X UF _ s j_ e

rKF q
uO u UOMO WOD dA b
vK qHD Taenia solium
deM  jOu UNKzU U
sO Ub d UUD UN
WIDM w U UD
v WU{U d
b UBLL
wu mK UN
WK

WODdA bU WU s WUu d U

UIMK WOC

Phylum Nematoda WOuD_ bb WKO


wL nu w wU UNO qUL UID WO rI dO UNL qJA WOuD
d gOF UNCF UN UN fO d W WOLC UM r s uJ wLC UN UN U
Ascaris UJ_ WOKOHD bb vK WK _ s U UuO vK qHD UNCF
Ankylostoma UuuKOJ_

UJ_
s u v_ qBHM UNO fM rUF U rEF w dAM U VOB w UOKOHD d
s
wHK  td UMU d
c eOL r wu d
c u r wu v_ u mK d
c
r  WUN w lLL WOKUM WH s d sOK UL w
u qL qbK

UO(
uG WB L UCu v_ lC qJA dE UJ_ UO l
Wd v uGe u WLzL dE w d l d UBL U UF w U O u
d dL Wu b WO_ qB UF  WOU L WID d UNS UdOU U uK U UF U UM
cM lOU sO d d w WGU b v u YO UF _ v uF r r  w UC b
UdO b

WCO n ZM UF _ w WGU b
d l d U O u
U u wu bF VB L iO uD
Wud WUML WOO dE vK UL
d W
uKL cG l qb w WCO fIH
Wd wDF UF _ w
b d qL UF _ WdO d
WBI r sOzd u WUN Wu b
WOzuN
UF _U dLU uFK v WdO qB
v sdN WGU b `B YO
WCO lK s dN W

rH v
d
bFL uD
sOzd v

WIO UF

sOM

v UCu
U 

Wd
dO WCu
WB
UJ_ UO qJA
WB WCu
uG

F WUu d UJ_ b WU d w Y

YK WOC

Pin worm WOub b


rKF q
b WU W U VOB WKHDL bb s
WOUD  b vL U uuKOJ
w gOF U vK qHD Hook worm
dA wM wU L UAG w oKF YO tzUF
vK dD wN wUU b UB U uI
UJ s U

mK YO r dOG uK UCO sOGU s d


UH_
rK v_ rK d
c u
O WB L U dUN
d v WEOKG UF _ s
dA u WIDM w iO lC wJ qzUF d W s

dF WU b vK b t `B WU uC w _ wdO uD vK iO u


qJA dE bFL uDU WU c w

WOub bb qJA

lUQ rH v wc qIM od s U p WB L uO bFL uD U bF b


rH v uN od s qzUF v qB b iO Autoinfection WuKL b_

d_
WIDML c v bb d V dA WIDM bM bb WJ b dL eOL

Phylum Annelida WOIK( bb WKO


WUL UOL w d UNK gOF qI s uJ UNL _ WKIFL bb UOIK vL
nu U OU WKUL UID WO WOU UOKOHD
gOF qOKI Wd Wd WcF
rb qIM wHOu uI qzU u wIOI wL
Medical Leech wD oKF Neries qd Earth Worm _ UNOK WK _ s
qJA dE

rH

q d ?

wD oKF

d 

dA

_ WOIK b qJA

Medical Leech wD oKF


HD bF pc UHC UL_U
UUIH vK cG WcF UO* w gOF
U OU
wHK  td qL rH W tD w qJA wQ
u w U _ dD w _ UBL t
uI dO d
U BL

dUJ

rKF q
sO UNu d w wD oKF
b s WOL
hL lOD r
UNL nUCO UNK
UF{ U
b WAOFL wHJ b s WOLJ c
cG UM v WU dN WF b
U U IU X b pc WOU d
UNOL U UM s b jG{ dL
b vK uB dF bM wD oKFU
dOG WUI UuO lK UNS

e b VO
d bIF wKUM UN UN vM b
d od w WB L UCu l{u r sOuO sO U
qJA sOM uJ UL U wzUL ju Vu vK
sOu_ tA dOG oK s fIH dU

WId UNOL r  VO
d U MO _ s ddI V

Medical Leech wD oKF l p U UdUJ

YK WOC

bbK WuM
`zd bUA
UA
b WODdA bK W{U WK q eU `zd bUAL wzuC dNL b
UU b wu lDI UJ r v d
c WO{d lUI WODdA

uC WudK _ WU UA
_ u*
UB ud
WFD WO U `dA U V se U w b
WOUD UH UD VJ
qLF uD
r  VO
d u pbUA _ hH se U `
UH d
c UDI WUu UNOK UL s dD WU{S W b UI vK d
UNu V _
d WFD qJA w sO u UL
`dA U nB vK WU WOu UL s WFD l{
d nBM vK Wd UL s
udJ WFDI Uu WODG r r sOu sO sB e
d w w l{
pUE sOb lu k ozU fL bF udJ UD WS r
se  U v _ b US r
U?? W??O? { q??
v??K? W??? U??? l??{
Uu e
d w bb l{ r `dA
wDG YO Uu vK udJ WFD l{
e u?? UBL X U??u?? nB
Uu s uHL
pUE ozU fL bF bb lu k

WIU Wd w pUE s R


bO vK UNzUI w WU c bU nO
U Vd luL s b dI q
UO
w b WUL w WU c bU nO
tM bF uC s b dI q
WFOD

qBH WK
uH W WDKH* bb WKO rC
uHB c d

U j
n qJ
s q
UN w d_ d{_ U
WbJ uOUH
UOUNK
rd vK e_ l{ WODdA bK W{U WK r
U VOB UUMOUUOMO WODdA b
dI U  wLCN UN s e w
wLCN UN q UN H X nO

UN wLC UN u b s rdU UNzc vK b qB nO

UJ_ b UO( d

YO s wD oKF UJ_ WODdA b 5 U


qUL
wL  nu
r  qJ
r  u
cG vK uB WId

UOubK' Uud

qBH

dO b rC U F U MU wU qJA w Ud sU UOubK Uud UKO


uM
W U hzUB w dA UN u_ s
r cN ULNM q wL UL UuO c gOF s sOKOI sOUN W UF hzUB UL
ULNOL U ULd dUJ nO ULNeO U ULNM q uH U ULNMO eOOL sJL nO

vK U
uJ qBH c p bF UNM WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c
UOubK UudK W UF hzUB dF 
Uud uH sO eOL 
UOubK uH sO eOL 
UN WMUD WuA WKJ UF q Uud w WOKb VOd iF nB 
wzUL wb
UOubK UudK WUB
WOL_ sO 

UO d UO
bI UO U

q d

sOdBL UL

UcHMI

d cHM

bI WOMD d e

d r
UOLM

d o
UOIe

b _ bF uUJ
UOubK

Uud

Phylum

Mollusca

Uud WKOI WUF hzUB)

WO Wd UUI UNLEF u v qB u_ s dO b Uud rC


e q WUO vK WcF UOL w UNCF gOF wL nu WOIOI UID
WOL U UM s Wd Soft wMF WOMOU Mollis WLKJ Wd UNU eK
U I UNOK dF w WuA WKJ v dOA
sOFD
b?? WFD
s uJ b
uOUJ Uud s WOU WK W b UNLEF wL
W bF WOK WbB uJ b
lD
wUL d sOdB
UL eK e rC YO WKOI c d_ wU dNEL w lu uM s rd vK
qJA dE WOz VOd W w dA UuO c lOL U
uD_

WuA WKJ
wL nu
WOKUM bG
d UC
VKI
UF _
UF
bFL
WbB
UF nu
WMUD
dA W

WMUD
rH

rOUO
rH
bI

WOB U

uFK

Uud U_ UF VOd qJA

UC wLCN UN q WOKb UC_ rEF u Visceral Mass WuA WKJ


VKI WOKUM UC_ d
uOUJ Uud dH b u UNOL WuA WKJU jO oO
ZO Mantle UF
bL Uzd rOUO uD w rN b
Uu U w WbB WuJ
VKB w
nu vL qzU WOK Wd WuJ WuA WKJ U Uud s bbF w UF
dA W u Uzd rOUOU jO UF
UFD UI UB Wd w bU dO WOMD WOKC b
Foot bI
w WOB UIK WOB bI u UC u w d WIDM Uud rEF b
U
u WKJA UM_ s b U uH wLH nu u uD_ w UL uD U UNCF
Radula WMUD vL uB `D_ s UFD jA w bU U

WOLC bG e rHU b WK UWOLCN UMI


vL uH UJ v Wu b WO_ U b VKI aC YO uH UNLEF w b UN
VKI v uF WO_ w WOU lL r dU W_ v qB Sinuses uO
BHM UNLEF w fM uJ UO_ VK w U OM Uud dUJ
eK q UNCF
vM uJ

rKF q
qL w Uud WKO
w b WG
UNzu _ uK VJ sO_
s??O?U??O?u??L?O? v??L? ? U??? M? d??B? M?
b Hemocyanin
c sOuKuLON s
dL_ uK tJ bb dBM u

w pK U* w gOF w Uud fHM nO R


WUO vK gOF

UA
l p U
bUA U n UN wU qJA dF
eK e s UMO lL r

U IU UN w W UF hzUB

Uud uH
jI UNM WF UMM uH WOUL v Uud nMB

Polyplacophora b _ bF n
dE UCO UNKJ Wd UuO rC
wUL s uO Wb uJ qJA
u _ s d s tOL WdN `zUH
t bDB w
WOMD WN s r W bI w rH lI
U b
pKL dRL w lI dA W U
uB vK uI tO w bU WCd WOKC
jA w WMUD b Wd vK bU
vK cG UL UN uB s VUD
UFA d
uO t fO U uUb

uUJ qJA

Gastropoda bI WOMD n


WcF UOL w UNCF gOF Wd UNLEF w u , s d UMN Uud uH d
nu dA W uu nB c eOL Slugs e Snails eK q WUO vK UNCF
qJA dE d u UF
bO uJ WbB WeK r u ed qJA Uu U w WbB WuA WKJ lI
U
e dIH ULMO qJA dE TuA vK dJ bUA WOd qJA WOeK WKOI
? qJA dE WbBK WUO U
e Wd

WbB WOL U R

rKF q
U wD ULNH bM Ud e eK
w WOUL UL s U w WF W
d
WI w WOUL U WO bI bG UdH
uO Wd qN UJ s qKI dA
UNOK dO w uD vK n U Ud w

f uK vK w sO_ eOL d WIDM uJ


jAM pc XU uCK WU w WKuD WOHK
O
tHOu dOBI f uK U ? qJA dE
ULJ hKIK WKU
f uK c WOL

jAJ WMUD b WOU UuO c rEF


d_ dC f q UUM

W_ oeL d Uu Wb VI WMUD b b


uK WK s UNCF VUD
UL_U d_ UuOK WKB

bFL
UF nu

UF _

W
dA
rH

bBK weK qJA

UF nu dA W l
u

d e ?
bI WOMD n qJA

U d uN d u bM fHMK Uzd qLF w UF s WUO s fHM


uuL rOUO bU fHM WOzUL d_ ULMO fHM

rKF q
Eolis fu vL d e s U u UM
U UO pKL w ULFM ozUI vK cG
UO_ c WF U WODO
tLOUO w UNe uI q tO dR dHM
b d UNUN bM U v lI w
UNU U bM tzb b{ WF U c
WODO UO_U tH s lb cJ e
ULFM ozUI s UNOK qB w
dH uA UO v QK WUO s
q UNL V Wd w U F{u UNHM
WOUL d WUu UNu b
r UNb
Ud bF VKB w

UF nu w

eKK wU  VOd d F UA
d v sU U w UNF{ eK s UMO lL
bI d f uK eK wMO k WbB s
qJA l UNU

Bivalvia 5dB* n
UL oysters UL q u_ s dO b rC
mus- d `K clams uMOKD scallop wdL

sOHB v W uI Wb pKL UNS r dOA UL sels


WbB wHB vK UN{UI bM qLF Wu
CF e ju s dNE VU w sOKB
qJA dE uO WUL
`Od vK cG YO qJA dE UFD lL UG U rOUO UF nu u
r rOUOK nK GL UL w oKF w UL w uu dOG UuO UU s UFD Ue
f u eOL U pKL WKOI c d rH u UFD lb p bF b_ uI

dJ
rKF q

UL WMU nB c d pKL q

Wd U u WO UL r q uJ RRK
UF sO UOKOHD iF s WO
d qd q d U
w UFK WOzD WID uI WbBK wKb b
te VdG r cN WUU WbG U UNKK
tu RRK s edL b UI d r

wd U qJA

qI w uKLF sc d WUDU WOUMD T u_ w

YK WOC

WOUMD wx WLO


UNLO
uH w WOFOD wx eOOL Tx
WOUMD Tx U WOHO w Y

Cephalopoda bI WO n
c ed w lI w d w rH WH jO u
U b
bF w _ s b Ud qL

WFd WdK nB c d r nOJ


b
head foot bI WO WOL U UM s _
Squid U
Octopuse uD_ UdN s WOd rNcG 

vL u w UL WOU uD_ w UL WbF U w UL WOK We  W bB uJ
qJA dE Nautilus uKOu

uKOu ?

U

uD_

bI WO n s d qJA

UN U IKG U O UN UUIHK p w U NUA Uud uH w


U U  Ud pKL
uN u???D?_ W?? U?? bIF U ?U?? uD U OB

rKF q
sOHMe bUL U  Wd WU d U
wKCF lLI WzUN Wd UN du cK sOOU
WOzUH WFd Wd UF bUL UNODF c
WOKC W d UH qJA UL s UO oKDM YO
s d siphon uHO lLI vL WO U
UNM dO oMFK WOMD WIDML w UF nu
qFH b vK UL d rOUOU jOL UL
c tOu s tUU uO rJ qFH
WFd Wd c b WHK UUU WH
dI UL q tzb s dNK
UM sJ r s q
UNu U u rEF
v _ UNO UL UNu qB b
W
L U
s UNK
uK
W UN rOUO We bI WO d

v s bF
w?? qJA dB rKF vK U??

UC q uD WO UC pKL UL UUI


uO `D vK dAM WOzUOLO I WOL

UUIH uO tA w uOF
U??d??A? I? U?? U??u??O? ?  v??K? U??? ?  c??G? ?
td U??D? B? d??O?G?B? U?? L? ?_ U??u??d??
UNd qA r UNOK dH t bU
UNFDI
U w U U U d ULMO sOJH bU
t UF s?? U d U U??
w?? u???D?_ b
UdAI s dO Ud u qCHL

u WOG U w d b d tO lL d vK u U O UJKL ULNS WULK


UL rUNL pd d s WLO fOJ s UIKDO sOOL WG s WOU W u WOM WU
UNO gOF w WO u V UNu dOOG lOD
w UAMU r
U
uD_ sO dH dF

U( uD wU) VOd WUI UA


WO WK_ s V qJAU WUFU

nU
u
eK
d b
WOK
lL

sO
UBL
U
l
uL WOK d b
lL

sO

uD_

UBL

UNOL U WOU nU pKL ULN qJA YO s uD_ U sO U



uD_ U s q w lI s sOdOJ sOMOF k
UBLL uJ ULN w ULNM q w UBLL uH b k ULNM q w _ b r
dOB
UM vK WuL UBLL uJ ULN w WU
uD w WU U lOL qWOKCF _ s WL pKL U
k
uD_ l p U
WHOu qJA w WNUA
U FL
pKL ULN

UudK WUB U

WOK d WOU WUB


U UudK

Uud bzu
uD_ UL eK u iF q uFA iF c Uud iF b
l
uI U
UUO bMN wdF ZOK WIDM UNO dNA sOL RRK UL u iF s d
bB bF Ub w UL c `B WOzcG WKK sL{ Uud iF U
d qb
U U OU U Ozc
iO dA
WB WdC WOKJ ULU Ube sbK cG l bI UNb sD
WMeK b _ WUM w b _ b

Uud d{_
WOzcG qO UL vK cG w UC UuO s U
e s s dOJ bF
WOUe uO UML w uuL WMe UU nK UL dCU
zU UNCF qJA
WK j UC UOKOHD iF U DO
UNI UdM U w WOA PAML WOA sH du Uud u iF nK
UdO b v WR

Phylum Echinodermata UOubK' WKO

WUF hzUB)
lDIL YO WOMO WGK s oA UNLU UbK vK u uu r cN WKOI c XOL
Wd UNFOL bK wMF derma: skin wU lDIL U u wMF echin: spiny _
WGU qdL w wUF UNKUL Wd WOD WAOFL
UL dOB
U u `zUHB qL uOUJ Uud s `zUH qJ vK U OK U OKJO UN pKL
`zUHB uJ d cHM
w UL WKu d r w

rKF q
s U wzUL b UN wzUL qzU
iF uOUu Uu tO U UC d U
UMOd

oO
bK UDG
dBI c U OzU U O UN UN U WKOI c d eOL
t qJA dE d_ UUI sO s UNOK
cGK lu qI fHM WcG s WuO nzUu w

UM s UN c uJ Wd CH s hK  wKb r nu d sO_


dI od s U v `H wzU qzU TKL _ w WOUF uM v dH b
Wed
WOUFA uMI dH edL dI w uuL madreporite WOK ML WOHB wK ML
bU UK bL w tube-feet WOu U b vL Wu b U qB WOd uM
v
edL dI

WuKF bFL
WOu
u
rOUO

dA W
wKML dI
WOLC b

WOKH bFL
WRH

Wed UM

WOUF UM

WOKUM b
WOu_ bI WK u
wUF VB
WOu b

d rM wLCN wzUL wb UN qJA

`D vK uuL rOUO VFK UL UG U w tcG tO uO Wd w


WOKL w UOu bK iF bM uO
fHM
rKF q
uO w qB b
WOu_ b
_ b
VKD b
s d v bu
WOu_ b
_ Wd w U IUM uO Wd
UI WUu b
q d UNFOL
bI wU b vK CF
`D qLF WOu_ b
 oO
d b
`D U C qLF UN sJL wHM
IL UA WUu wd
u_ iF w UFD lOL WOzUOLO

u WOB WIK s U wBF UN nQ


v dIH WOUFA UB_ s b WOL

WOzd dOJWOBF bIF U b


uJ U OM dUJ qBHM UNLEF w fM
iF w U OM dUJ b
U OU UB
UNze bb uI UNM e lD
bM UO_
e_ c s WK U d uJ
nu u VKI v dIH U pKL
UN q WOKb UC_ s bbF r
wLCN

UOubK' nOMB
rO uH W v nMB WAOFL Wd u wu qB w WKOI c d lOL
w UNM uH WF UM

Asteroidea - sea star UOLM n


ed d
s VFA Sun star wLA rM w UL d U UO WL dH pKL
qJA dE UN wKH `D vK WOu_ b
_ s U uH u ULG q w bu
Wd d_ Uud UL b ` w uO WcG w b
_ c b
qJA dE WOKb UNUu vK cG WOD

WIDML
WdNE

WIDML
WOMD

WOu_ b
_ s U uH u ULG
WOMD WdNE sOOUM s d uM WHK UJ qJA

w dA WH wNM WOKH WOUM s dI ed w lI c rHU b q U wLCN UN


UN u UL WuKF WN s dI ed w lI

rKF q
sJL w dOGB UMzUJ lK d r
bFL v qB WuN rH W s dL
WdHK WMU d _ nK sO w UNLC r
ULU dOJ
UL vK cG d rM
s WRH WOKH tbF dO tb ` bF
Uu bFL o WIOC WH tL
q rCNU b ULe dH WdD WbB
v U Oze uCNL UFD V r r WbB
tL q rCN dL YO d r r
uuL UF _ w WOu WuKF bFL w
WL{U ULe bU _ w
uMOKD uO Wb `H d r qJA

WOLCN bG w qLJ bFL w rCN b YO qJA dE WIK WOLC b wLCN


wL nu qzu v uCNL cG dL
WuDIL e_ suJ U s sJL YO uIHL e_ bb vK WIzU b
d rM
rM WL _ XFD
u edL dI s e b s q U uO v uLM sJL q
bb s UNMuJ edL dI U_ d
UL RR UOB _ bF d r bF

UIMK WOC

d w tzUI e v tFODI UOB U


d r s hKK
d
uO s hK w UOB `M q

Echinoidea - sea urchins UcHMI n


WOD uO Wd vK qLF w WOu_ b _ s uH WL pKL UNMJ  dIH
Wd vK UbU c b UUU u_ tOK b u qLF C UcHMI pKL
b u_ cN WKB b s uL d s fHM s Ub w UN b wN WUL
r s d v r sO UNu d Ud U w uF
u_ c

w dJ pc WuCF uLU cG s UdO Wd UA_ VUD vK UcHMIcG


qd ULMO qJA dE W HM qJA Wdz d c UM uJ WuCF uLU WuKL oUML
WOL U UM s WObFL WKLF qJ tA U D U dz

Crinoidea - sea lilies UOIe n

d cHM

dN dEM

wMD dEM

q d

q d d cHM
qJA

UNUu UNH Xstalk U oM W Ub WKBL WdHL WKuD UN V ue tA


UOLM Sea lilies UL oU UNOK WK _ s d U v _ b qB jOL U
w
qJA dE Feather stars WOAd
b
_ bUL _ c b WdL WKuD UN bU j ne UOIe d
dOGB UMzUJ UL w WIUF UFD Ue vK WcG w  uKF `D vK uuL WOu_
uKF `D vK uuL dA rHU jO _ Filter feeder WOOd WcG s
b U UO Wu d UNF
u w WU UNzUI uKF rH l
uL UOu bK w
U s nKuOK

d r$ UOIe s q w dA rH lu 5 U R

Holothuroidea UO) n

UL oU

WOAd UOLM
UOIe qJA

`zUH tzu u UI U UOu bK s dO s Sea Cucumber d UO nK


s UO tA qJA wuD u
pOL wKC G U U uO r uJ bU WOK
qJA dE WOL U UM
w
U s nK pc WOHK WUNM w lI dA W U WO U _ WUNM w rH W lI

wMD dEM

dN dEM
d UO qJA

 UUI w UcHMI l tUA UOubK

rKF q
dE dO dD dF U bM d UO
UBI d W UH q WLz dO WOO
tzUC s hK tS UL w sO_ WOL
uN b vK dO b
d UO WOKb
dE u bM UC_ s bIH U U lOD
sOHB v lD
U d UO UL WLzL WO
U U uO uJ
 S W{dF uB

ULNM

UNM nK UL
UBL WOu_ b
_ s uH WL pKL
UI WOu_ b
_ bU jOL U
vK ne
f uK rH u WOu_ b
_ iF uD CF
d UO tOA sJL rH u UFD c WcGK
rCN tu v cG q d qb WOzUdN WMJL
UN d UK tdS q d s hK WuCF uL
WK U WOLCN UMI YO wLCN

UOu bK' Uud hzUB UA


UOu bK Uud uHB u lL Xd U uKFLK WOb WJA bU
UNM q b hzUB r d l WHKL UNuH o u w UNLE

UOubKK WUB WOL_


Ud{ Ubzu vK UL WUB UNOL d

bzuH
U Ozc bB dF d r uO d cHMI WOKUM bG d UO c b
Ub bF w UNOK UL_U d UuO cG UL sOB w U u UL dO bK w
U U LN U Ozc bB
s WFHd W vK WuL WOU WOKb qUON o YO We w UL b
uOUJ
UNOK cG wN WOL UuO s U nEM
L WOLKF U_ w b
rK WM_ rKF WOLKF U w d r uO b
WOK

d{_
bF U O u U dA vK wCI b d rM sJLO UL vK d u cG
RRK uJ
UL s U u UM UL dO UD
w U c s U LN e UL
dO WdA U
U WKzU mU d r vK UCI WOKL nK J
qKA V w uL iF UNzu d cUM
u iF q b dD UNu iF bF
CFK

qBH WK
UMzUJ s UdO s UudK eOLL hzUB U
UNM q vK U d l Uud uH s W b
b WuO nzUu Uud uI
Uud w WcG u U
Uud fHM nO
Uud tJKL c wb UN u U ?
Uud dUJ nO
wb UN ULMO uD_U Wd WFd Uud w oKG w UN u VKD UL
eKU Wd WOD Uud w uH
WO UOubK s q cG U vK
d UO

d oU ?

d d cHM

d r

d r Wd w wzUL wb UN `{


UOubK fHM nO
YO s d UO d r s q  sO U

rH l
u ?

Wd

r qJ

hzUB oKF ULO w b w hBL UJL w U l{u WOB WU d


eK
WKOI

UN d _ szUJ

qUL

UOubK

uD_

qUL WLb

Uud

wUF

UOKBHL

oKF

wU

d fHM

W_ UI

r nu

sOzd r `D

WOIOI W bu

nu bu

rOUO

UI

U nu

r `D rOUO Uzd

UI

wIOI nu

Phylum Arthropoda

b_ UOKBH

qBH

UNKLA w u_ s wu rC YO WOuO WJKLL qzU


d s b
_ UOKBH WKO
bF
UNM u uOK n r UNM d uOK uOK wu UM Q uO ULK bI WJKLL c
WcF UOL Wd w gOF wN _ vK UO lOL w Ud gOF dA UNK v
uN WUL
UNCF UUM UuO w dR U UO w U LN U UB
UOKBHL rEF VFK
d _ s dOJK q
UM qLF YO U{ UNCF qR w UdAI eI b qF qM lU
UL sOF l dIF uJMFU U U tu YO s Uc qLI uF q
dUJ nO UN U
eOL U b
_ UOKBHL W UF hzUB
vK U
uJ qBH c p bF UNM WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c
UOKBHLK W UF hzUB dc 
WHKL UNuH v UOKBHL nMB 
UOKBHL uH s n qJ eOLL hzUB sO 
dA w dUL dO u dUL u sO UI 
dA UFL dA w wuK nOJ UL iF dF 
WOU UNBzUB b WO UMO lL 
UOKBHLK WUB
WOL_ `{u 

dA Wd

vu UB
bF
q_

dI

uJM

q WL

UOJM

UdA

du

WUF hzUB)
JO pKL lD v WLI UNU
BHL U K U OU
W OKBH bz
nzUu uI XHOJ
b
_ c Jointed Feet WOKBHL b _ wMF Arthropoda UOKBH WLKJ
b
_ nzU hH qJA dE fHM s Ub U WcG wAL q b
duK w

rKF q
UMOd tzuU UL UIF iF r
w WOUd U UMOd u uI cM
Ue l r
UMOd jK pc U b
c qLF F w W bL WFAL
u WFAL Ue qL qI WdF UMOd
uJ WFAL Ue c WOUd U
WOUd UK WKU
UNMJ WKOK
UOLJ
ULCL c w dL u XU

tb WIDM

sD

b
UFA d

U

WUK bz

wALK q
fHM s UbK U

WOL e
WcGK

duK UOKBHLK wU VOd qJ

L WHK oUM uJ


UL sD bB d uJ
b

lD
v rI UOKBHL r
Cephalothorax WbB WOd WIDML uJ
WOU v_ UIDML ZbM b
dA w
b _ bb w UL U c U uJ
b
duK w UL
ULK cHM dO VK wU qJON vDG UNL

rKF q
WFL WdK WK U b s uJ WdL sOF
ommatidium ubOU vL b q U F
dNE uCK WU WO WOK Wb s uJ
uJ WO UHOH tA UL dA b uB
WHK U s UB b vK uB

c sUJ uJ r sUJ sOd u


U IO
r l
u iF w U JOL uJ qJON
qJON c du q UHL q d l
u w U d
l UNCF CF UB oUM uOK WUL
WOKBHL bze d w iF

Wb

pKL UID WO U OU WKUL UOKBHL


WOK
WO

Wd uJ b
w uOF q uD WO UC
fLK UFA d
WOL I WDO

ubOU
u
WOzUHO

b
_ dOF vK WO I rA
b VKI aC YO uH wb UUN

bOU

r nu v cGU qLL


WOUM w WOB bI sOOB sOK d W bI w U b s uJ uD U OB UN pKL
qJA dE WOMD

rKF q
VUMFU UOKBHL s dOJ d_
`U u?? u??J? U??d??? dOJ
Haemocyanin sOUOuLON WG uu
w t u b uJ ULMO sO WK U
sO_ qL WG u bF dA
dU qB UL bU qL sO_ _
d bL W U uG U d U v
U v qB WOzu UOB
vL uM

VK
dN Ud wLC UN U

dA W

WOB bI
WOB U
uJH
iO
UOB

wOK VOU
WOzu
bM UOKBHLK wKb VOd qJA

rOUO pKL WOzUL UOKBHLU UOKBHL w fHMK WBB L UC_ s b u UM


book lungs WO Uz uM
dAU WOzu UOB
WUO UOKBH pKL dLU
VUMF w UL wU qJON w W U U d U v `H
L b dD WOMOdOM CH s hK  r
UNC s WOzUL UOKBHL hK
s UNC s hK WUO UOKBH U fOz qJA rOUO d UOu _ U WOMOdOM
qJA dE wOK VOU vL W U VOU od
`B q
iO UNM fIH WO
d u uLM sLC b
wK UB qBHM UNO fM
WGU

UOKBH* nOMB

UOJH Chelicerata UJ qzU X uL l b U uH UOKBHL WKO rC


Mandibulata

rKF q
bb lOD Astacus fU vL dL u b
sOMOFUM U lOD uN tL s UbIH w e_ iF
vK uO b
qI wAL q s YU wU sOe
iF s hK d vK bI t dLF w t bI l b
qd wM YO wAL q iF wc d vL UL tze
nK UN{dF u d w Vb d l
u bM Ud dL
uL dD s dH
uI UNJ bM U

UN uO wCO
lML VBF b UNM dL w UMI WODG r d r bF
R w b WOKL b U b bF WOL qzu bI
d r c e suJ v

UOJH WKO X%
Class Crustacea UdAI n
UuO w u wu rC
s WK uAI UDG UN U U U WOzU
d d UNK s WOL U UM
dL lobster duK Crayfish
VA o crab Ud shrimp
UL ud prawn bdI sow bugs

bdI

Ud

VA o

UL ud
UdAI u iF qJA

qJA dE Daphnia
vK UFA d s sO vK d uU UOKBHL uH w
U s nB c eOL
ULO dO qJA nK Ubz sJ WuKF uJH s d WOKH uJH s WdL uOF s
qJA dE q_ s WL pKL UNLEF UNAOF WId UNUO l  WHKL u_ sO
sD bB WIDML qB w Ub bze UJ w k
hzUB w w r rOI s W UL_ bu YO UN U rOI w sU pc
UOL w gOF UNCF sJ Wd UNLEF sD b v U LI UNL uJ UNLEF W UF
VA o q WUO vK gOF UNM qOK
WcF
cHM c uOUJ Uud vK tzuU UOKBHL uH w
U s UNb wU qJON nK
UdAI dL WB tODF tKJO vK Vd rOUO d t v d U s U c tL v
U I UNdF w  WOKLF

Class Insecta dA( n


UO w dAM u uOK s d UNM bu YO UA U uM UuO d s dA bF

dAM UL b qOK


b `UL v cF UL WUO vK UO q w gOF wN WHKL
u w dzUD dA
sD bB d oUM v U LI tuJ eOL dA r qJA s k
UFA d s WdL uOF s q U UC s dO vK d u
L dA WcG WId VUM u rH e??
WuKF uJH s s bM r uJ
UM rC
l VUM UL maxillae WOKH uJH s mandibles

WM_ s sO WbB WFDI qL b


dA iF w q_ s W bB qL
WM_ q_ s sD uK
sD

UFA
Wd sO

dB d

bM

bM dA r wU VOd qJA


dB d WIO
d WOHK WM_ U WOUI WO U _ WM_ U

UIMK WOC

dOD vK UNb
dOD vK UI bOu UUI w dA
UF c g
U _ vK UNU `OUH b

dA( w u 
tUI bM tM hK uO vK uL l uLM tMJ t WUL wU uO qJO du
UH uNK U {dF uO uJ molting  vL WOKL s d v WKd s
JO r dH WOKLF c q
WOKLF c
bF U d uJ rbI X bb U OU
qJON VKB U Ud rD v rbI qJON nFC Vc ULe uO dH r Wb w
Uu dN dOQ lC WOKLF c bb
u v u s uO UI wMF metamorphosis u vL WOKLF dA s dO dL
u s Uu UM mU uD v qB v d
su_ tA dA s WCO fIH YO Incomplete metamorphosis qUJ dO u
p bF uO dL WM_ WLb U OM W{U dO r dOG uJ Wu vL
UM UNU uK r qB v tuQ U N d
U L d UNO `B b UU
dOdB d
UNb s U UL nK W d s WCO fIH YO Complete metamorphosis qUJ u
d b aKM uLM rNM W
dO c qQ b tA uK qJA VOd w

dA v u r pupa cFU dF uJ uD dL r UNd s WIdA UNH jO r


qJA dE dH Uc qM w UL WIdA s d WGU

WGU dA

WCO

W W
d

dH W
d uL qd q UJ u qJA

dA( s WHK UMO kH UA


tuH s lD
sdu s lD
lL
WMOM
Ud dA bOB WJ _ u*
d dOG U lD

qLF uD
tuH s WFD
UNKb WMOM
W w lL
l{ WJA bU dA s b lL r

dU WKK WFD
u rJ Ud w UNF{u dA q

t
rJ

lL

sdOu s WFD
vK WbB WIDML w dG u bUdA X
WdHU tO dA r l{u sdOu w o qLF
`H r

tu WFD

l{u cN dA d WOU Wd ULNM q u l{u UNO WM_


WOU WN oKG bM w UNEH r U UL n v U WFC
odL qJA o bS uI U Ud w WMOF kH sJL UL
o
WFD

sdu

dO U
UD
WFD

VA
u

u
Ud
s bU

sdu

sOUH

UJ WKO X%
Class Arachnida UOJMF n
w UL U W U uJ b
UL w UNCF bu WUO vK nB c d rEF dAM
w UL bK UN UB s t d _ qIM b
Spiders VUMF iF Scorpion dIF
UMzUJ U vK WKHD Mite rK YF q UNCF gOF ne vK qHD w Ticks dI
qJA dE UNO WO

UG Y

uJMF

dI

UOJMF u iF qJA

rKF q
w WdH vK WL{U UB nOC VUMF
zU UFD `BO UNKQ
YO UNbF v tBL
UM rCN qLJ
s dH WOMOd U?? s uJ uJMF uO
qJ vK VKB YK qzU qJA WOMD b
uJMF UDB uO
UNe ?? s?? U??N???d??
qJ wuJMF ZOMK
jL tM c??  ZOM
cN UNM eOL u
d U b uO
v??K? _ s?? w??b???  q???
nOKG W??d??? d??N??
d s?? WbN tLbI bM U??F?D? nOKG i??O??
v_ v uJMF

l Wb WIDM sOL s Ud U uJ


W b d WIDM qL sD bB
UM_ iF w wALK jI UNM WF bze s
v u _ e??? wALK WL b
WULJ tA Chelicerae U vL WOL e
U w b w WOL U UM s UM
d wU e uJ b
WdH oeL WcG w
UL UI b PedipalpsU?? ?? J? ? s??
WOL bG e?? uJMF U uJ dIF w
UJ WUu UNFODI uI w WdH WLUNL
UOKBHL s UdO s Ud eOL WDO sO_
qJA dE UFA d s UuK
U??C?  d??A? ?  s?? dOJ WdH V??U??M?F?
qJA wN p??c?? W??O? e?? U??U???M?U?? U???U??
dAK WuO WUJ

VUMF w WDO sO_ qJA

Diplopoda b_ We Chilopoda b_ WODO UH


UN lD v WLI UNU b Ud U tA WOzU UNCF WUO vK gOF UNLEF
sOF l UNU Centipedes bI WL d b _ WODO n rC q_ s dOJ
U r WKI lD
v rI UNO c qJA dE c wIDM v rI UNL
WDO U uO d?? u UL UFA d
s d?? qL U ? r WFD
q u q??_ s
UN b r Ub ULN WOL VU v WO U _ WFDI w bze u b
uJ l WOL e

UNH s UbK UNd bM WOC qA


v rI UNL vu UB UNU Milipedes b n_ rCO b _ We n U
pKL q UFA d
s U WDO U uO d qL qJA dE c WIDM
iF Z bM b?? lD
s uJO c U VU

rKF q
bb dA qQ WdH bMuuJ
UNM dOJ u_ lOD eK VUMF
w dH wN bI n_ U dH d
vK cG UNO WuCF uL s U Wd
UUM WKKL dA

vu UB

q w b?? _ s sO pKL UNQ b pc lDI


b U fO WFD

r s q VOd 5 b w U R
vu UB bMuuJ

sOF l

q WL s d
b
_ We b
_ WODO wH s d qJA

UOKBH* uH UA
UN
UNA
UM r w l_ UOKBHL uH o UNHM WOJO WO
UMO lOL r

sdOu s u vK UFd l w
dH qLM q UOKBHL iF WO UMO lL r
UOKBHL iF hzUB W
u YO s UNBH U _ W  VU Ud l UdO VUMF vu UB
b r U
dJ WbF WUF pMJL uOF u Ub UFA d

t U l p U
qB r l UNUB UJ bze

dA( uK
dD e bM jI U uc wIK WKI UO WdH WAOF dA rEF gOF
u iF b d WOUL UO UdO WOzuC U u _ q b UB
u Ud sO qLF lu r UUL w gOF w qM qLM w U OK c dNE dA
UO_ d u ed uK
uu UL U
uKL c lL lb UNLOEM w oU WLE b UFLL cN UMK Q bM
wUH dNE q dOBI v{u WLEM UuK uI UN r b jO wB UN
c q v Ub sL UNdL WJKLL W b qO w WOC qLF w
t

vUF U

d bN nOJ u bQ tO bu c juK UNUU dA b tuL dNE


dA eOOL U qJA dE b_ s WUL

dA bM tuL qJA

L WHK dD dA u iF b wUb uK dNE UL


b fUM iF pKL
X U W U rK WON WNd Wz uJ d c UNOLUN vK UNd d
qJA dE q_ sOF n_ rH q WU e

dA bM wUb uK qJA


qM lL ? dJH
d
s Ud WJKL vL iOK WM v qLA d wu s qM WJKL nQ
dF dO w WJKL `OIK r iO l{ U vK sUI dO uM UF uc
`IKL iO l{u WJKL dL UNOIK UN u
_ d_ uc oK U OU WJKL lHd YO
b w uM qB WKu dH sO b WuML UuO e  wN `IKL dO
uD W
d s fIH c `IKL iO s U lC WJKL UO iO l{
U U ZM wN WOK WU o UN V d v uD `IK dO U CO ZM v v sOu
iO UN fIHO d U UM s WOK ULQ uI wN WOK w UF sN_ UF u
U v u r WOK Wd lLA d WOK nOEM UNU U
dO UFU uI r
U NUA WK UFK wu VOd uJ UIK u oOd lL lOU bL uI w
U wJKL cG vK UNcG bF iO U vK U
dO UNMJ uu d WJKL VOd
u UJ vK UNO b WMOF WB
d M uI UL jI uu d tbK dc
L U WUL YO s U_U cG UB
WOU w d WKM XH
b UNJ WU UI l UNU WHK WId WOK s wu bF Vd
c UMN
wU qJA dE cG v u uK UU Vu We vK

M WB

l
uL U bF lL q d
bb WOK qOJA bb

U bMF bb U suJ bM pc h


d qM b
WOK UF s b l WJKL UG dO WOK `B
U r vK d qJ vK dO uA jN WUJ
U b dA vK vI UL qJA dE d s dH
WUAJ M q
s rz bb l
u s Y r v
l UNO q u WMOF WB
d l
uLK UNUAJ bF ld w
s b tHA c bb l
uL v rbd d
u UM S UB
d s d_ sO q u
U OzUOLO
L d_ sO ULO
bb UJK WOd lML U WJKL dH
dH Uu d vL b WOzUOLO Wz d r WOK w
WJKLL w dL WU u WNM u qJA W U b s
pULL s UdO s

rKF q

UFD
qJA UUd w sL
dA s u WOd uI YO eL qL b uI qLM u iF UM
vK UNM uB bN UNOd wN WLUNL dA s UNd uI qQ vd v b l
u v
vK sL Y
WLEM d vK qLM uI qLM q vL WdJ u s nR uK qzU u sL qzU
qF s dD
dA c ZM UFA d
WUu rEM qJA rNd s sL
qzU d
dI r dA r U U
dI tM UL nF{ WzU vK be U c U O u
qLM uO eG uI YO UNM s nK qLM s d u UFU uI qLM s U u UM
`B WGU dA v uD U bM UNJKL v UcQ U dQ uI WHKL UM_ s d_
nK dOG qLM UF d db s dOGL qLM WJKL w qLF d _ cOHM uI YO WK U
L bF qLMU U tO_ U UF s
d fM s UL fM fH s
d d U v uF v UNMe q
c rCI qLM

WUB WOL_
d{ d UNCF V sO w U bOH UNM dO b UMN dO WOL b
_ WOKBHL
WUB

bzuH
UdO Uc qM q WHKL dA WUu d v d s UIK u qI
UdO U UNO UL WO UMzUJ s bbFK U Oz U Ozc bB UdAI qJA
We w bL ULK UNU{ UNMD UdAI s UH
qF lLA ddU WLN WUB
u dA ZM
CH WOL U_ vK cG WuCF UHKL s U WO nOEM vK qLF
WuCF
UC dA s dOJ WuO W UI VUMFU UNCF qJA
L WOLKF U w b
Wu rK w b Oub q WU

d{_
L d _ s dOJ dA qIM
VL uu  qOH fKOu_ uF v qIM
dA UNKIM d U {d d uUD d V YOd qIM ULK
L Wzc vK U dA fUM
s wu vK UOId iF w dA XC

qO UL
UuO vK U vK dI qLIU UOKBHL iF qHD
UNHK VA uK dH WOuB fL vK WeL u vK cG UNCF

qBH WK
WOB dO UF `OB l `O dO UN WO WO UF
U IKG U O UN pKL UOKBHL
uOUJ Uud tzuU dAK wU qJON eOL
wOK VOU WUu fHM VUMF rEF
UJ d s Ud
WcG WOU b
n_ d
UOKBHLK WOzd hzUB `{ UOKBHLK qLL duK bU
UOKBHL r w wU qJON nzU b
WO WK_ s V UIF VUMFK p s
UNO wLM w WKOI X W UF hzUB U
UNcG d U
WdHU pLK UOJMF n d bU w UuK VOd U ?
UN WKBL bze WOzd dA r e n
WcG r VOd YO s b
n_ b
WL sO dH U
UB d U dA sO q u UB b U
qdL `{ tUO w q U dO u WOKLF uFO dL q U u WOKLF fUM dL
tUO w ULNM q UN dL w

bu WK
WOB WU e u dz l{
wIOI wL UNHu WO bb b
WOub

UJ_ ?

wD oKF

WODdA

U u ZMH r
WOO

WOB ??

rK uKF `D vK rH bu


bON uO tA

WOz

W
uD

UF w wbOL dD


uB vK U uJ
UL w d ` ?
uOUH WbJ b

WOu UL VOB


U U UO WOUL VOB

U UF VOB
UOb uOD w gOF ?
UUMOU UOMO WODdA b

deM jOu UNKzU

uD wLCN UUN

vM

d WIDM w UUD UBL UN ?

UOJMFU oKF ULO WO dO WO UF b


sD b v rI UNL

UFA d
pKL

U v u WO U _ bze

UIF VUMF dI Ud s ?

WUO vK dA UA w d_ b UN WO hzUB b


UFA d
u

lD
v rI UNL

dOD

u WO U ?

u w uD_ UL WUO eK dA


_

UF ?

dO WKu tu


_ dO

WMUD

WbB

d UO uO
WOu U b
pKL
WK U dO WOLCN UMI ?

_ eK sO WdA WO hzUB b

sO wLC UN

qOIF

oKG w UN

W_ s sOI u ?

wU uLF w hBL UJL v _ uLF U


qIM suLF sO o
hzUB 

qzUI

nu WLb w UID WO UuO j s bF

UOMH

b
U WuA WK s UNL uJ
UF
 WOKLF wU UNKJO s hK
WDKHL bb
dCG s wKb UNKJO uJ
UOKeOL wU vK dAM WOB WJ pKL

WOuD_ bb

U wL UNHu
U OzU U O UN pKL

WOIK bb
Uud

qUL WLb wUF UNKUL


UOubK
qI s UNL uJ
oKG wb UUN

UOKBHL
w b qL

WKOI

nB

uO r
Wd ULFM ozUI
d qbM

uD_
d r
UdL
UU
UL
dL

wU ju l UG U WOKL w UA WO U vK bLF w WOuO qzUI d


p vK UbU c U
WOU dRLK bON VO nO `{
b_ s tH U uO wL nO `{

qzUI s UNI UL WUI bOIF u UH v dOA Uud UNJKL w u U


WO UF qK
wLC UN v WODdA b U
UbK n _ uL
UOL WOIM vK Uud bU ?
tU bM tH uJ uUJ uO lOD
UudK U LN uOUJ Uud d bF ?
YO s b
_ bF UdAI UOJMF dA sO b w U

UNM q w r U

b Ub UFA dI UN
sO_ u ?
WIO
WMO uA
d U UO tM b sJ WK uA
pKL U U _ Ud
WMOK uAI UUd c q b UL uO r l WuN UM UNKQ
WK j WHKL Uud uH w Wd WUL wHO vK Uud qUO dR
n qJ
YO s dA UOubK Uud s q sO U

WOL_ ?

uu UJ

VOd

b????u

UOK( WKO

vUF U
uM

Phylum Chordata

UOK( WKO

WKO qBH c w UMM UNBzUB XdF


WUI UuO WIU  bu w X

sO W
dAL UHB UL u wu rC WUI WUI UuO UN wLM w UOK
u_ U dUJ nO
W UF UNBzUB U UN wLM w uHB U UN U  U UOK lOL
sOD K w UNM uuL

vK U uJ qBH c p bF UNM WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c


UOK UH iF dF
UOK qzU X sO eOL

UOK qzU X vK WK d
c

UOK( hzUB
l rON  eULA q tUA UNMO b UuO qLA UA U HOJ UuO d
s bF
b hzUB w dA wN p
dNE nBML j vK U Ou bL r wdC uB q Notochord dNE q
pKL WKOI c d lOL WKOI c r tM o uOK
WOMOM WKdL w U dN
L d v uO s dOB nK
UUIH WKO X w dI uL v q c u
WOMOM qdL w
tM w U _ e rC dNE q vK lI u q Nerve chordwBF q
iF w wH qK wB q
tM wIL e bL ULMO WOMOM WKdL w U b U uJ
uK bM WOzb UOK
w bu WOMOM WKdL w QAM WO HM U Pharyngeal slits WOuAO uIA
v_ UNKd w WO uAO U uI pKL WKOI c d lOL uFKK sOOU sb
WO( UMzUJK Yb( nOMB 5 wLN jD
W

n X

n

WKO X
u

WKO
fM

WJKL
WKzU

UL
uO UO WKO vI U S
w UL
wH UL_ w
uOD ne UOzU d
sOzd UNUJ dNE UOb

UOK( nOMB
w W Oz SubphylaqzU X v UOK r I
WdOK qc WIDM w dNE q uu r cN XOL Urochordata qc UOK
bu Wd UuO w UL Tunicata UOeU U C vL WGU d_ w wH c
qJA dE UOL `Od cG dO
dLF w WFL dHM U
dNE `D  u vK UuO c w dNE q bL Cephalochordatad UOK
dE rON  UNOK WK _ s TuA s dIU WKC UOL w gOF uO UO WKO vI
qJA

r UL qb

UL d
uFK
dA W
wF

d
bF
UOe
UOeK wu lDI
wBF q
dNE q
WOIK C

rH
uQ uFK
WOLCN UMI
WO uAO
rON K wu lDI

dA W
rON

UOK s UJ qJA

bL w
u q uu UN U eOL Vertebrata UUIH
UL UOU Ud UN bM U b Wb v U 
rH cQ c uJ UN fO UuO qLA UOJ
J
WKHD gOF We nU UN bu db
qJA dE wJK UNK s UL_ vK U OU
W L rC We UNd Uu UJ UN UOJH
uOD ne UOzU d UL_ uH
UOb

wJK uO qJA

ne UOzUd UL_

qBH

U dN U UI uL pKL w WOJH UUIH s ne UOzU d UL_ U IU X


ne UOzU d UL_ hzUB UL U b Wb v U  bL tKb w
uA q u
bF UNM WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c sOD K w UNM uuL u_ U dUJ nO

vK U uJ qBH c p
ne UOzU d UL W UF hzUB d
c
wKb wU ULNO
d dF U bH{ WOLE WJL dA

ne UOzU d UL_ w dUJ d `{u
sOD K w ne UOzU d UL_ iF uO uM dF
Class Pisces

UL_ n

sOd s uJ UNK uA UbK wDG nU UN rOUO WUu fHM WOzU WUI UuO
WOLEF UL_ WOdCG UL_ rC

Cartilaginous Fishes WO dCG UL_


UL jA dH UNLEF UuO vK cG d U w j ` Wd UuO
WO hzUBU
wdC wKb UNKJO
nK WN qOL Wu
WOLE U UM pKL
UM_ tA dOG uAI vDG UNL
dK wMD `D  vK n_ U pc rH W lI
wK UB
dI UL UOMOMHA WOdCG UL_ vK WK _ s

Sharks dI UL

rKF q
s U uH pKL dI UL
s Ub qB b UM_
d U M S tUM b bIH U bM
tK qO U _ u d
dLM dI iO_ dI
_ sOuG vK dD JA
td U WLUN ULNUJ S

U M e v UNCF u qB WLC UL_ s bF


dI iO_ dI U C UNOK WK _ s u dI w UL

dOGB WOb uAI s uHB vDG uK U UbK dLM


lOL qbK WuIF UNUM dK wMD `D  vK lI UNL
ouF vK cG c u dI UMU WdH dI UL
qJA dEWOUM

Rays and Skates UOMOMHA


u  tA UNK `DKH qJA wd UNL UN
uK wU UdNEL dI UL s nK
d bU UL q dOD UNQ
` UDOL U U w UOK XHOJ UbK b
qJA dE rH q cG tOu UN b rH wU vK bz UNWMQ
WIOdUNL

dI WJL

UOMOMHA
WOdC UL qJA

Bony Fishes WOLEF UL_


s UNu d ULNOK
w WUL WcF UOL w UL_ c s WHKL u_ gOF
WO hzUBU dAU W v r

rKF q
fJ rOUO w b Ud U
s be UL UNO qb UL U
UG U UH

U U bB qJA WLOEF UL_


qJA w UMOdK
UMO UOH bB UNM
U uOK

nUC UE s wLEF qJON uJ


UD UNODG qJA WO WOuAO U u
rOUO rb
wuAO
qc c d oUM v r I r 
WIDM w uuL WuI UNC wUO UNL bU
Wd WU  vK c
bK w W U uO s uLM qJA WO d
uAI vDG UNL

WULcquNWOLdOOGpWHKULvKULwuHDsUNMJLWOzuuWUpKL
UdDH uL UI UL l UJ qOKI WOU U dH bK w b pKL
UL Wd bb s WJL  sJL U UC vK Uu UOU UD UN
jI rAK Ub sOMOF U UFI UdOG UOH U UN uH UN fO UdO UUMO
wDK UNOK WK_ s fHM WOKL w ULN W

YK WOC

u XdU uKFLK WOb WJA WOLKF ldL w Y


UN UNOL UL_ iF w UdNJK buL UC_

WOLEF UL_ w WOzuN uF WU WuG qL b 5 U R

WOLE WJL `dA UA


UH `dA `dA u WOLE UL _ u*
qLF uD
WO U _ WdNE WHMe
WOHK WdNE WHMe
U
WOH
wU j

WJL K WOU e_ dF UL qJAU sF


WIDML uJ YO d WIDM s WJL  p

w hIL wd b q r p WNu WOMD

rH WIDM v c CF h sD qH


WOKb UC_ oeL U M

uA
WHMe
UD
WOKc
w uAO WO{u WHM
WOdA WHMe
Wb WHM

bU `dA u w UNU vK WJL  l{


WU v dA W s r  b lD hIL

wU VO
d qJA
WOLEF WJL K

U o hI lU rOUO UDG WOHK


UNB r w WFDI e r rd w bL

ULN WOzuN uF WU bJ vK dF


bF WOKb WJL  e dF U qJAU U MOF
UOKJ
w
uA q

uF WU

dIH uLF

WLL
CF

U b

rH

VKI
WOKUM bG

WUL
bJ

bFL
dA W
uFK

UF _
WOLEF WJL K wKb VO
d

UL_ w dUJ
rKF q
s dL dI UL w qL d
iO WUC dG dN
dN WF v dN s W{uO u_ w
w UL
WOLEF UL_ iF w d
c
wM sticklebackgF wU pL 
r b_ UUM e s U UA
UG UbF iO lC gF v v_ uI
iO VB d
c qbO gF v_

wU uO _ UL_ w dUJ UL W UM


bK UNQ
b v_ r q iO fIH u uO
v_ r q sOM qL u YU
b U w gOF w WOLEF UL_ WOU cI
iF w sOL qB b wzUL ju w iO s dO

WuML UuO cI iO `OIK d


c uI u_
bF UL w UJ w VBL iO fIH UL w
d u w lOU b u_ iF w WKOK UU

iO s dO b WOLEF UL_ lC U* R

5D K w UL_
v r I pL  s U u u WOUL sOD K w
VBL UNCO wDK UL u
kH
fIH bF UGB vI fIH v UNLH
v UNO s Wd vI tU rH w
dDK UN{dF WU w uF s sJL
U fO
w iOU d dd
kH
WOMD WIDML w
WUL UOL w gOF uLK  pL
WcF UOL v dUJ ru w dUN
d
c uI iO v_ lC
bF iO fIH u_ uL r UNUBS
UM vI d v UGB uF U u sO
WcF UOL v UbF ld ZCM v
UM uL dUJ

WcF UO* UL
UOL w sOD K UL s U u uF W gOF
d WIDM lOUM Ud WFd  b w WcF
dN s WOKU  UN_ Ud dO XOL
d u s Y qOK wDK wDKUNu

W(U* UO* UL
UNM WIF ZOK w juL d w gOF
d u s Y sd  u

Class Amphibia

UOzUd n

UO wMF bios e wMF Amphi _ WeL UO WOUuO WGKU Amphibia WLK wMF
WUu fHM UL w gOF UdO
UNUO b nB c d rEF v WOL  c q ld
WO hzUB w UOzU d dA W UO vK gOF UuO v Xu l u r rOUO
b bK sOzd od s fHM
rOUO s
b U d pKL
nUe s
gd nd uAI s uK U uJ U U U oO
fK UbK
uK  s WGU d_ bF ULMO UUM vK W
dO cG
d s WGU d_ w VKI uJ
W UO vK b Wd oUML UL w UNCO lC wU UNO UB

UOzUd nOMB
w V v UOzUd nMB
bIH bb UuO c tA Apoda d_ WLb
qJA dE WOzu oUML w gOF d_
UNUO WKO UNKc kH UOzU d qLA Urodela WcL
d_ WLb UOzU d qJA

s UNu d UuO w UbMLK  UNOK WK _ s


UNK WFO UN U nB d v dOLM WFC
UbK UH_ s uK UNFU dOB UNK qu
UUG w Wd oUML w gOF V rU
qJA dE uK bF v UL w vI UNCF
w qc bIH UA UOzU d d
Anura qc WLb

bMLK  qJA

rF frogsUHC UNOK WK _ s uK WKd


vK bF UO w UHC rF gOF toads

rKF q
qzU pKL UbMLK  s qOKI
b pKL UNCF b_ s WULK
UL
WNd
Wz U dH bK w
UO w UNu dOOG wK b UNCF
WHKL

rFUHCs q
wtO
dr qJtUAs rd
fK V UbK UL s dIU gOF UHC
u UbK vK dAM W UO vK rF gOF ULMO
d tUA t s Y

bHCK wKb wU) VOd W UA


UH `dA dA u UH{ _ u*
qLF uD
tu t LK k bK hH
r  oUM dF bHCK UF qJA dE
WOHK d_ WO U _ d_ sO U
w lU_ sO WOA_ WOL U u ULN
b_ lU sO WOA UM q b_
XO hI WId

UH sOMOF lu k d hH


rH WUD
dL
uFK

sOOMOF U WOH_
WIDM w d US p bHC db r

bJ
d
WIOb UF _
kOKG wFL
cL

w
uA q l U b UB
UdJM
UD
bFL

t `dA u w dN vK bHC l{
`dA fOU U b WF_ td s
WOMD WIDML qH bM jIKLU bK p
c bK X hIL q
UC_ oeL U M rH UU h r
WOKb

WOKb n_ U
sOMOF nU
U b

UU bM w UNM b w WDIM s h


uKF rd k U O UU r sOLO
WO U _ d_ u L WOKLF d

w
uA q

WUFU bHCK wKb VO


d dF
WO
uA UB_
cH rE
dNE b
cLK

UL qJAU
u k W{U v bHC U
WuK
sOHM sO O
qJ vK dNE sOCO
u iO iO sOKL iO ULNu
e_ wU vK dFK ULN r

UHC w dUJ

u
vK uB c b vL U U u
bS lOd Wb w UHC u
b
UdH Albumin sOuO_ UL U U UL w iO v_ lC dUJK XFL UNU UHC
ULUL iO W dL sO uO_ aHM UNO iO d UM iOL UM b w WU b
fIH uGe WBL WCO uJ U OU UB_ b iF l ULNCF iO oBK
dE UUM vK cG WO u vL uO WCO q
s d lOU W v u iO
qJA

dOG bH{
mU bH{

U bH{

sOzdU rOUO b

iO s WK

WO u
pKL

WOU_ d_ uN
qc UH b

bHC UO qJA

5D K w UOzUd
UOd w{UI q bH WKDL UNM bF oUM w UOzU d s U u sOD K w
rU d bI w Uu q w Wu  WbHC e gOd dd WUL Wd
d u s Y UdO qOK UHO

Class Reptilia

ne n

U uIL q
pKL _ vK j ne UuO wN W
d WId v nB c r dOA
`OUL n sOUF wU  rC UOzU dK U  W UO vK UOK

WUF hzUB)
bI s nd UNOL UG U w t fO c WOd
nd vDG U UbK
WOdI nd V
d r b_ s UL
WOzUL n  w nUL qJ cQ d_ c lU _ WOUL d_ s U UN
d _ wU  u iF sOUF lOL w U UL wH wU  u iF w e
WOzUL n  iF w cL od s fHM b b sOzdU fHM r
sOD r I w `OUL UMU sOd v U Oze u I sOD sOM d s VKI uJ
VKI q sO
_U lAL dO b l sO
_U lAL b s qKI UL U OK
UNO
jOL ju d W V dOG UNL d Wb U b s ne
UNL d W vK kU ne UN uI w U
uK  U dJ
wL UH s UNOL dAI UDG `L s dO
vK u dO
WCO wK UB
UNM qOKI ULMO oviparous W{uO ne rEF qJA dE UNKb uLM c sOM
viviparous u UNCF oviviviparousu uO

iO s fIH n UGqJA

ne nOMB
UOHd n  `OUL V l v XHM u wu ne n rC
W{dIML uUMb

Crocodiles `OUL W
v UNCF u qB b WL{ UuO
WOKC UNu dOB q w U
`OUL uO WU  vK UbU WKu
UbU UL
UN U WOI s lHd UNu U
iI U UM UN Wu UN
uJ fHM vK
`OUL cG qJA dE UN d vK UN
uOD UL_U
dOGB UuO vK
UL
WK U
UNFK UN p L w n 
gOF U dOJ UuO U UO rUN
qCH rUF w WOzu bK w `OUL
b
d UN_ WKC UOL s WFu UU L
tA U CO `OUL lC WuHL UFIM L
q tdA qJA YO s Ub iO
v_ wH _ iO r tL U UFL
v td uI u_ iF q d w iO
U L qJA

UL v UNu w UUG qL r s fIH


w{UL dI Wb sOD K w `OUL X{dI b

Chelonia n  W
UNM terrapin WcF UOL w gOF U UNML UNAOF UJ w nK n Wd c rC
cG qJA dE tortoises W UO vK gOF UNCF sea turtle WUL UOL w gOF U
l b uLM wMD d dN ULb sOb UNL vDG uK UUM vK n 
VUL lU_ wNMtMD teL UFD lDI Wu UNMJ uJH vK UM UN fO r  uL
n  w eMJ dOB W UO n w b_ iO l{u dH ne w b WOd
nUL tA WOzUL

Wd UHK ?

WcF UOL UHK

W UO UHK

n  qJA

rKF q
vL wU  s U u UM
t U_ u gOF u

r  vK UbK Ubz
j UL
ULND lOD
vK tbU O tOUM dzUD
eHI U bM uN w tu kH
d_ d s

UL 5 X% Wd c rC Squamata UOHd( W


Lizards wU 
w UNd UNUAM UdO s UL w ne s dO
b u
c ju u u_ c tUA U dO
WO U u UN Q W
d
UNCF sJ _ vK UNLEF gOF UN p WOL U tO gOF
wU  rEF cG WOzU WKOK u UM U_ u gOF
dO
UNCF dOGB UMzUJ s UdO bb dA vK

UUM vK cG d UNCF UHC uOD dHU


UuO iF d lOD r
UA_
wNM w lU_ ULNM q
qL d_ s U wU  rEFL

rKF q
UNu qB wU UM
wu UNK
U W wu
rG

rEF w wU K vK d t fO U UNM VULU


wU s WuN wU  w qc qBHM W
d uH U
dUJ hd u w U u UL
bb q UN uJ r 
oviviviparousu UO UNM qOKI iOU wU  rEF
qJA dEd Ud VC UNOK WK _ s

WOK

Ud
WuM wU qJA

Snakes UO(

rKF q
s d
UuO lK UO lOD
p w V  wFOD UN r
sOKB dO wKH  uKF sOJH
UDd wKH pHKd _sL_nBM
`L d ZO
s U WUu U F

dO
WU iF s ULNCF ULUFU
c
WIdD UN d U UO wHI
vK UNM b d U iF
dU f UN UN d Wz
od s _ e V UNM uO
WOMD WIDML w dAM WO I
r  d U lOD UL
UN
UuO iF s oM w

ne vK UbU UL WFO WKu UN U q_ WLb


d YO WHOJ UUM U_ sO uIA w WuN
WOMD nd uI UNU CF UI WUu
nKK UNe lM _ vK UNO WHKL UJ_ U_
u UO
sO s UOb UHC uOD vK cG
dD qLF W U U
d b r  u W U dO d W U
W _ d b WL{U ULe vK u UO uL  WHK
bIF bO bb uL  s dO
u sI UJ s WdI
fO WHOF{ UO bM lL  WU WOBF UO  UI lML
WU U C WHOF{ UN dB WUWOU WO U UN

qJA dEuN s `zd UI vK bI t uIAL UNU K Wu


rA
WOH W
sOF
d

r  UM
UO_
UM_

WOL  bG
Wd

U eL U 
U K

nd

jI 
W U  UO w d e VO
d qJA

iO sOUF rEF WM  w d X c b b WF bKK WOU WID aK M


qB UNOK WK _ s qJA dE UNu UNUJQ UO nK u W{UO UNM qOKI sJ
duJ WU  WOMOD KH vF_
uUMb W u U uKFLK WOb WJA WOLKF ldL w Y

YK WOC

W{dIML

UO s WHK u qJA

ne w dUJ
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ne s qOK UM su_ tA UG s iO fIH WUM t
d UNCO ne rEF
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sOMU WDOL WOA_ U


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wzuN dH

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Aves

uOD

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vK U uJ qBH c p bF UNM WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c


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d UJ s UNd uK WO l nOJK UNb `{u
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c s UNMO W
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dQ UNL d S c U b s uOD bF
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tb  qJA dEq_ WOHK d_ s UN
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rKF q
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lL lOD qOK w WdH s
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WHOH Wu UNKF UL Honey

Comb

qF d qJ cQ w UNUE w nU d


qJA dE u

rEF VO
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UM

UM VO
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w b iO u q UC_ iF UH

rKF q
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Uric pOu iL qJ vK WOKJ WUu UNOHB
jd e v sOOKJ s u l qIM c Acid
UB U r YO Cloaca cL vL ULN
s pOu iL uK d r s UL rEF
dA W od
gOF w uOD u iF
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dzUD WK
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dL wUO qJ WM_ cN dODK uOD b nOJ qu r s bF w WM_ u


Wu C WM_U jd qJA dE UH s dzUD sOJL UNKH s UN u s uN
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uI Ue W UN d u WH
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rKF q
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b U dOD vK uOD b d


pF d c wud b v bM WM_

UIMK WOC

dUF nB w U IU

UM u vK uN d WO qJ

cG vK uBK uOD U nOJ


UJ sU w U { d_ c dNE cG vK uB s sJL WHK  UHOJ uOD pKL
cG vK uB s UNMJL UL UNK UdO UM

rKF q
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nUe
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qJA dE UNO gOF w WHK L UO w


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UdO UML UNFODI uI r UNK w U VU  WUu
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UNUB U_ u s UNUI s dA
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dA d U_ c dH Woodpecker
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UNOK cG WOuO WOUM

WUL `dA UA
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uB v WbB WOMD WIDML j w d u U N cL s WUL bK hI r


W d WbI v
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bO hI l r uKCU tUB bM hI wU lDI
l ULNOKBH s dIH uLFU hI B sOK bB e s sOOU_ sOLEF e
WIDML c w dOJ Wub WO_U b VM l hI
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tz

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tUB UFD rC WOHO WULK wLCN UN' w WHK


* UC_ nzU s Y R

WKOK UOL
uUM sc U _ n w b  w WO UF qQ
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UIMK WOC

rKF q
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ULMO UG U UNO tM e vI YO sOzd v uN dL oONA WU wH odL qJA w
tId w sOzd v WOzuN uO w uN uF dOe bM WOzuN uO v wIL e dL
uNU UNz bM WOzuN uO S pc WU{ UG U sOzd s tb rO U K
qN qJA dOD vK dzUD bU

uOD w wUL uK 
Swans _U
tUO WKO e U UNML wUL uK e s WAb UL uOD b
e d w uOD sO UF dNE qBHM r eK WDO dH uOD s d u lL ULMO
L WOO quF iF rN{dF bM UF k

rKF q
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UL
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UNd w wdG wuM U pK w WOUL_ dGL
s WUM dOGB uOD p s Z b UOId v
UN dL od u U d sO U D U Id XJK e
WDd  Q
q s U tJK r du V U d
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duKOJ U UNdO dL dUNL uOD rEF
dzU q UM_ iF bu WKOK bu uO w
Pacific golden plaver wc wJOHOU e e
u duKOJ mK w WKU
UNKd uI
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v d_
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d v UNN dOG b UNCF uO UD
wFOD UU j{ bOF UNd rEM U UO lOD
U UO b b d U uK v UdDC b UL
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UA WO
dUI WOO q
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UF
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s sJL U qOK UA w U F uOD lL


d qL pc UNL d vK WEUL
c UdHL XU
u ULO UNKI b w bbA
u UM vK b lL
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u UNMO ULO
U OL U dB U OFL
dE w d_ sO WMOF WU vK uOD kU
dNE U Ob `B UUD tu s vK
UL
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uI YO UNUA s Ub w uOD We k
c d s sd lML WMOF WU WUL
WU UA_ UM e ru w U { dNE
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WAbK dO d d Social Hirarchy WOUL
UL
UN U U U WuL w u _ dOD uJ YO
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WuLL d s
UNOK w WUb uI d_ d_ tM
dI UNMJ u UNM q s vK dDOU uIU
V Wd WKK qJA cJu _ WUb s

UeM UdB s WuLL WUL UEM dI v R uK c u _


qI q WOL WK
d_ VJ WuLLK bb d WU{ d_ dOOG r UbM t ku b

rKF q
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UNd rEM UO_ iF w lOD b
Ud UNN U wFOD UU j{ bOF
wDMK_ s UNK uOD iF lDI WOUF
Ud UNKUI WOJd_ WO dA qu vK
U wuM U v UcQ w WOdG WOULA
WOULA Ud qUI UM dONA ud YKL
UJd uM v UNUJ v UcQ w WO dA
UL s b b q
UAL iF UM
dOD u b UL wULA VDIK wOUMGL
VKG uOD UNOG s f
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v jCU WdF dO WIdD

w uOD qJA UNMO ULO UdB be iO l{ bF


UJ UNdO
q V d qJ vK UNdO UNM dN WFb
UNCF WHK  UO vK dOD b udG d j
u qFH UL
dHM qJA dOD U LOI U D qJA
sO UL
WHK  UJQ UA_ UM w Ue UF
OK b U lC qJA

uI iO s
tUd su_

uOD bM UA_ u iF qJA

uODK WOO WUB WOL_


WO UNM d
c WUB WOO sOOUM s dO
WOL uODK
UL uOD wHC
s dO
UNOMI WKOL UNu WOe UNu WOU s WFOD vK U U
UN UL UM
UUM w U u UL
d UJ s UUM s dOJK UIK u qI w uOD bU
WOzu
WO w Ub s b UNS pc dA s dO
UOL
vK uOD cG
sOe bzUu lM w pc
b  WuA fL w WU uUUU UNA s UH r
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d lD

rKF q
w{UL w uOD u iF b r t
qIM q??e?? UL q U??? q s
d UJ s qzUd

bOB w uIB q uOD u iF U b 


U U LN U Ozc bB uOD u s dO
bF

5D K w uu* uOD u iF
dL bF sODK UL
WHK L WuML UO w WMuL uOD s bF u sODK w
U Mu sODK s c w uOD s UI sO juL UNF uL dE dUNL uOD s bbFK U OFO
uM UIF UM e WIDM q Wd t oUML w gOF w uM d d uO
w_ uU
uO bu WOK oUML w U d `D X uG WIDM w bu w WdBL
bbN u UIF sODK w WOe oUML w dAM UL
UMA bF u iO_ oKIK
w nO Wd w bb uI dA vKcG w dL_ dM uuM
U qJA
UeL WUL WO vK UH w U LN
sODK w dUNL WMuL uOD iF sO c qJA qQ

sODK w uOD u iF qJA

qBH WK
uODK eOLL hzUB  r d

WOuuOH WOO
d WOUM s dODK uOD U nOJ b `{
WO qK
d l s uOD VK uJ
n u WKu UU dOD s uOD sJL
dN UM UU bb vK WIzU b uODK ?
E w W b WdH UM u lOD
uODK WUB WOL_ sO
uOD bM wUL qUJ UL s W `{
WOMODKH WO w bu w uOD u iF d

Mammals

UOb

qBH

u s d
_ vK U OU uuL UOb rC
UNO UNAOF d UNKJ UNL w dO
qJA UH
 QHU
dOG UuO rC wN UUGB UNU WOHO

U u
U UNML WHK  UO w UOb bu WKOHU
WL { d
gOF U UNM V_ u_ Uzc UU
WUO vK gOF
UH U
dOD lOD UNu iF UO sObU
UL w
UN UOb UO UO UL w dOJ UH s rd vK
U uK L s UdO s UeOL w hzUB  s dOJ w dA
U WOzd UNu UNU U UObK WUF hzUB  UL
w rK Q cG vK uB s UNMJL UN eOL w UHOJ
WHK L UNUO
cN p bF UNM WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c
vK U uJ qBH
UObK WUF hzUB  d
c
WOzd UNU v UOb nMB
WHK L UO w gOFK UOb b UHOJ u nB
cG vK uB
UOb bM e wUL uK UL dF
sODK w UOb u iF dF

UObK WUF hzUB)

hzUB  c r s UNu d
s rdU UNMO lL w hzUB  s dO
w UOb dA
WOU  c UUGB U Oz c qJA c VOK d US uI WOM b UOb pKL
WOL U UM s UMzUJ s UdO s UOb eOL
uLM qLJ bu r _ r q sOM uLM YO uU UOb rEF dUJ
s dO
UOb pKL WHK  UO w gOF s UNMJ UL U b s UOb bF
X sb s WI u dH dFA u q WU d W vK WEULK qzUu
UM UNL s d bI lML bK
nOH vK UbU d U
uK qzU
bG u q UNL w bze d
wIK uO  UU
UNCF bM WO dF
qu w dL dNM dH
UL w UNCF
UNU wb l U uH UNL qF deM U

J w UL

W vK WEULK UOb UNb  d U


uK qzU s Y

YK WOC

UNL d
tUM c cG u l WHK  b U UJQ U UM pKL
U K sLC uD U O UN WOzu WB sOz s nQ uD U OHM UN UOb pKL
WOU UHJ i_ UOKLF UOI s UOb UMJL UN c d l s

rKF q
w tL v WMU U U WK

lOL sO vK_ bF wu mK
WO UMzUJ
lL vK UNbI w sU WO UMzUJ
L
w u_ UL U lOD
lOD ULMO edOuKO
edO Ud
u UL Wd WO UMzUJ iF
U lOD uBK b q q Ud
b bF w UNUL
U U L V uB

5Hu 5 qBH w eU( U( WKC bF R


UNOL U UOb b eO wMD bB
s r hOK vK LF UuD UOK
UObK
tO qzu e vK WEUL Wzc CH
WBB  e v U LI uD U U UOb pKL
fLK rA lL dBK uD WO I
c wU  jOL s UuKFL WUJ UOb e
tO bu

UOb nOMB
UOb nOMB UM dFM WHK  UH vK UL u_ s dO
v UOb nOMB sJL
WO uHB X v UdUJ d YO s

Monotremes WO_ UOb


uO w
uA qLM q
rC u W U OU UNM bu U w uD UOb u q
UUG U{S uI iO fIH UbM UNL U iO l{ od s dUJ qJA dE

uO

w
uA qLM q

uO w
uA qLM q
qJA

Marsupials WO OJ UOb


UMI q WB L WCO uLM YO u UuO
`L vK WKdL c w sOM cG v WOKUM
U
uL sOM uLM wHJ c WCO w uuL

UbF qIM YO dJ sOM l{u U uI pc


UBU uI _ r w wU wO
nu v
uI YO rJ qJA fOJ q WOMK bG UH
s qIO fOJ UbF UG uL UL
v cGU
UL
dN UOOJ u d
dGMJ uO bF t
qJA w dNE

w dOG qL dGMJ uO qJA


WOMD WIDML w uuL fOJ

Placentals WOLOA* UOb

rKF q
UH WOLOAL UOb w qL d
sO U d YO WHK L u_ sO dO

sOM WKOH w mK ULMO dH w lOU WFC


sOKU

UUG WU WUC vu WOLOAL UOb


b uM mK WKu dH u bF
YO U dI q u_ s dOJ
WAM WUL cG dOu u_ qHJ
WO w rK Q vK rOKF

v_ r q sOM uLM UuO c UL


w WLOAL WUu rdU sOM qB qU
qJA
be r YO _ sOM s W
dA W s uJ
du UuD UuLM  sO
_ cGU sOM
sOMK WKU
WUL U C rd
U uM uD UOb d
WOLOAL UOb bF
w b w sO u UL
WOz V v nMB YO
b dE

U

UNBzUB

Wd r

cUMI bK U
dOG UNU

dA

UIK dL qJA WcGK U

Insectivora

UO bO vK

vK UI bOu UOb


dOD

UOUH
Chiroptera

dA t
uH vK cG
d UOb U

p d uOD l fO UOb l UOUH nMB R

dOG U UM pKL UM UN fO


J qLM q
bLU

UM_ WLb
Xenarthra

U

UNBzUB

Wd r

UM hOMU
WOU WKu UM UN
d QH

uI
Rodentia

WOzcG UBL s dO
vK cG
U d_ U s bbF qIM

V_U
WOU WKu UM UN

UO_

WOU_ s u Wu WOHK  UNd Lagomorpha


WFd UN
d eIHU d wN

Uzc u_U
U U UM pKL
UOA

ruK
Carnivora

w UuO s dO
vK cG
wUL dHM qJA UUDB

sOb UO rC
UOUO
UN U UL w uG lOD
fHMK UL `D v uF

Cetacea

UL q UUG qL e
bG UNu iF UL_ vK cG
UO w ouF Wd UA_ vK
d
kI U
WKOH tA WOz U UO b
warlus

UOO
Sirenia

d nUe tA WOU_ UNd


j
WOzUL UA_ vK cG

U

UNBzUB

Wd r

lU_ s w bF du pKL lU


_ UO
eG rMG eUL rC

Artiodactyla

Ue
UUM vK cG

QH We s q W dI b r R


lU_ s d bF du pKL lU
_ Ud
gu UL uO  qLA Perissodactyla
UUM vK cG

JAO UD n_ UOKF WHA


qJA luI XUD ud 

UOud
Proboscidea

UO_
wId qOH UL jI sOu rC
uO_ qOH
tu WbI w U MO U UN pKL
UOb w U
sOU vK fO
U dI uLOK rC
UuO UUM vK cG

UOzd
Primates

rKF q
s d
tK
mK d v U UO tu qB YO UNu _ vK gOF w UuO r { bF _ u
s wu tU WK
s
d d_ UO fHM bF mK ULMO WIO v qB b WKu bL fHM s n u uG lOD UO u iF
? bI UNC w sO
_ s dO
UOL
se vK UO c b UNM U b v p uF WIO v q

 U w mK c d_ UOb l WUILU
b Ud bF iH vK bI UOK b UL
wu
Ub VKI w XU bFL b Ud vK kU ULMO CF w
v_ tUA uK u d_ UOb vK tcG UM b d lML WOzUOLO
u vK u Ub UB UH  UF
UUIH U vK cG w uKOu_ W{uF
UNM WOKOK WU bO qJA u_ d UOb rEF S U eUMLA dI UMU t

UObK WOO WUB WOL_


UNM WOO WUB sOOUM s WLN dOQ UObK

WOU dOQ
UObK U Ozc bB qJA Ub w UUM sb dO
UOL
UM WK
UOb pKN
WOzcG q w U LN dBM bF c WL

R
WKUJ WOzc WK K vK d U j
VFK pc dA s dO
UOL
vK cGU qLM q
q UOb s dOJ uI
Ub s b w U OU

R
dAK WK UOb d WK j
e YO U U LN U Ozc bB UI_ UM_ eULU
tQL UOb qJA
WbK UUMB u nK  w UOb s dOJ d uK b  VOK uKU
UdO VzUI Wc_ nUFL q
L WOUO UL s bbF w U uF UOb s dO
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http://www.denniskunkel.com
www. olmares.com/ Birds%20Photo%20Gallery.Htm.
www.Caf.wvu.edu/Kearneysville/wvufavm9. html.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/centipede
http://www.sidewell.edu/us/science/v1b5/Lab5/labs/classification-lab/Eukarya/fungi/
http://lamington.nrsm.u9.edu.au/Documents/plant/fungi.htm
http://aquat1.ifas.Ufl.edu/guide/2algae.html.
http://www.infektionsnetz.at/view.php?name=Infektionen Darmparasitosen
http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/vertebrates/tetrapods/tetrruintro.html

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