Table of Contents

1.0. Introduction to Apparel Industry ....................................................................................... 8

1.1. Performance of Indian Apparel Industry .......................................................................................... 8
1.2. Some Interesting Facts ..................................................................................................................... 9
1.3. Quotas, Tariffs and the End of the Multi-Fibre Arrangement .......................................................... 9

2.0. Apparel Industry Departments ........................................................................................... 9

2.1. MERCHANDISING............................................................................................................................ 10
2.1.1. A Merchandisers key responsibility......................................................................................... 10
2.2. Sampling Department .................................................................................................................... 11
2.2.1. Types of Samples in Sampling Dept......................................................................................... 11
2.3. FABRIC SOURCING .......................................................................................................................... 11
2.4. PURCHASING DEPARTMENT ........................................................................................................... 11
2.5. FABRIC AUDIT DEPARTMENT.......................................................................................................... 11
2.6. ACCESSORY STORES DEPARTMENT ................................................................................................ 12
2.7. PLANNING DEPARTMENT ............................................................................................................... 12
2.8. LABORATORY DEPARTMENT .......................................................................................................... 12
2.9. MACHINE MAINTENANCE .............................................................................................................. 12
2.9.1. The function of PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE .......................................................................... 13
2.10. CUTTING ROOM............................................................................................................................ 13
2.11. Production Department ............................................................................................................... 13
2.12. IED DEPARTMENT ......................................................................................................................... 14
2.13. EMBROIDERY DEPARTMENT ........................................................................................................ 14
2.14. WASHING DEPARTMENT .............................................................................................................. 14
2.15. QUALITY ASSURANCE DEPARTMENT ............................................................................................ 14
2.16. FINISHING DEPARTMENT ............................................................................................................. 15

3.0. What is Quality? ................................................................................................................. 16

3.1. Answers for Quality from Different Peoples .................................................................................. 16
3.2. Meaning of Quality ......................................................................................................................... 16
3.2.1. Expectations of Quality............................................................................................................ 16
3.3. Definitions of Quality...................................................................................................................... 16

3.3.1. Holistic Perspective ................................................................................................................. 16

3.3.2. Product Perspective................................................................................................................. 17
3.3.3. Producer Perspective (Manufacturer Perspective) ................................................................. 17
3.3.4. Customer Perspective ............................................................................................................. 17
3.3.5. Value based perspective.......................................................................................................... 19

4.0. Dimensions of Quality......................................................................................................... 20

4.1. Performance ................................................................................................................................... 20
4.2. Features .......................................................................................................................................... 20
4.3. Reliability ........................................................................................................................................ 20
4.4. Conformance .................................................................................................................................. 21
4.5. Durability & Serviceability .............................................................................................................. 21
4.6. Aesthetics & Perceived Quality ...................................................................................................... 21

5.0. Quality Related Terms and Definitions ............................................................................ 22

5.1. Quality related terminology ........................................................................................................... 22
5.2. Introduction to Quality Assurance ................................................................................................. 23
5.2.1. The Textile Industry Complex .................................................................................................. 23
5.2.2. Textile quality Assurance ......................................................................................................... 24
5.2.3. Quality Control ........................................................................................................................ 26

6.0. Quality Standards and Quality Grade .............................................................................. 29

6.1. Standards Introduction ................................................................................................................ 29
6.1.1. Standards Definition by ISO .................................................................................................. 29
6.1.2. Standardization ....................................................................................................................... 29
6.1.3. Developing Standards .............................................................................................................. 30
6.1.4. Benefits of Standards .............................................................................................................. 30
6.1.5. Levels of Standards .................................................................................................................. 30
6.2. Types of Standards ......................................................................................................................... 31
6.3. Other types of Standards in the Industry ....................................................................................... 31
6.3.1. Company Standards................................................................................................................. 31
6.3.2. Industry Standards .................................................................................................................. 32
6.3.3. Voluntary Standards ................................................................................................................ 32
6.4. International Standards .................................................................................................................. 32

6.5. APPLICATION OF STANDARDS TO TEXTILE INDUSTRY .................................................................... 33

6.5.1. Purpose of standards & specification ...................................................................................... 33
6.5.2. Focus of Company towards Quality Standard ......................................................................... 33
6.5.3. Construction Standards ........................................................................................................... 35
6.5.4. Special Consumer needs.......................................................................................................... 36
6.5.5. Appearance of the finished product........................................................................................ 36
6.5.6. Packaging ................................................................................................................................. 36

7.0. Different Textile and Apparel Standards ......................................................................... 37

7.1. Sources of Standards ...................................................................................................................... 37
7.2. American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC).................................................. 37
7.2.1. About AATCC ........................................................................................................................... 37
7.3. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) ...................................................................... 38
7.3.1. ASTM Committees ................................................................................................................... 38
7.3.2. ASTM Standards ...................................................................................................................... 38
7.4. American Society for Quality (ASQ)................................................................................................ 39
7.4.1. The ASQ code of Ethics ............................................................................................................ 39
7.5. American Apparel and Footwear Association (AAFA) .................................................................... 40
7.5.1. AAFA Committees and Divisions ............................................................................................. 40
7.6. TC2 Textile / Clothing Technology Corp .......................................................................................... 41
7.7. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) ............................................................................... 41
7.8. ISO International Organization for Standardization .................................................................... 41
7.8.1. Need for ISO ............................................................................................................................ 41
7.8.2. ISO 9000 Series Standards ....................................................................................................... 41
7.8.3. How does the series work? ..................................................................................................... 42
7.8.4. Elements of ISO 9000 Standards ............................................................................................. 43
7.8.5. Who is using ISO 9000? ........................................................................................................... 43
7.8.6. What does being registered to ISO 9001, 9002 or 9003 mean? ............................................. 43
7.8.7. Advantages of Implementing or registering to these standards ............................................. 43

8.0. Quality Specification ........................................................................................................... 45

8.1. Two important elements in Specifications ..................................................................................... 45
8.1.1. Minimums................................................................................................................................ 45
8.1.2. Tolerances ............................................................................................................................... 45
3

8.2. Key element in Specification .......................................................................................................... 45

8.3. Types of Specification ..................................................................................................................... 46
8.3.1. Open Specification................................................................................................................... 46
8.3.2. Closed specification ................................................................................................................. 46
8.4. Types of specifications used by various industries......................................................................... 46
8.4.1. Target Specification: ................................................................................................................ 46
8.4.2. Functional specifications ......................................................................................................... 47
8.4.3. Product specification ............................................................................................................... 47
8.4.4. Materials Specification ............................................................................................................ 47
8.4.5. Process specification ............................................................................................................... 47
8.4.6. Inspection specifications ......................................................................................................... 47
8.4.7. Test specifications ................................................................................................................... 47
8.4.8. Acceptance Specifications ....................................................................................................... 48
8.4.9. Installation Specifications ........................................................................................................ 48
8.4.10. Use Specifications .................................................................................................................. 48
8.4.11. Maintenance Specifications .................................................................................................. 48
8.4.12. Disposal Specifications .......................................................................................................... 48
8.4.13. Procurement Specifications................................................................................................... 48
8.5. Tolerances ...................................................................................................................................... 49

9.0. Fabric Inspection Systems .................................................................................................. 50

9.1. Inspection Loop: ............................................................................................................................. 50
9.2. Fabric Inspection Machine ............................................................................................................. 51
9.3. General Inspection Procedures ...................................................................................................... 51
9.4. 4 Point System ............................................................................................................................. 52
9.5. 10-Point System.............................................................................................................................. 55
9.6. Correlation between Fabric Quality and Apparel Quality .............................................................. 55

10.0. Sewing Threads: ................................................................................................................ 57

10.1. Properties of Sewing Thread ........................................................................................................ 57

11.0. Zippers ............................................................................................................................... 59

11.1. Avoiding Zipper Problems ............................................................................................................ 59

12.0. BUTTONS, BUCKLES AND SNAP FASTENERS....................................................... 64

12.1. Buttons ......................................................................................................................................... 64

12.2. Buckles .......................................................................................................................................... 64
12.3. Snap Fasteners ............................................................................................................................. 64

13.0. TRIMS TESTING............................................................................................................. 65

13.1. Testing of Fusible Interlining ........................................................................................................ 65
13.2. Testing of Zippers ......................................................................................................................... 65
13.2.1. Zipper Strength Tests ............................................................................................................ 66
13.3. Elastic Waistband Testing ............................................................................................................. 67
13.3.1. Fit for the labeled Size ........................................................................................................... 68
13.3.2. Resistance to Degradation, Accelerated Aging Method ....................................................... 68
13.4. Sewing Thread Testing ................................................................................................................. 68
13.5. Buttons Testing............................................................................................................................. 70

14.0. Procedures practiced for Quality Control and Assurance (Cutting) ........................... 71
14.1. Introduction In-Process Inspection ........................................................................................... 71
14.2. In-Process inspection - Spreading defects.................................................................................... 72
14.3. Pattern Defects Marker making Defects ................................................................................... 72
14.4. Cutting Defects ............................................................................................................................. 73
14.5. Glossary of Cutting room defects ................................................................................................. 74

15.0. Inspection procedures in Sewing Room .......................................................................... 77

15.1. What to Inspect during Sewing? .................................................................................................. 77
15.2. Sewing Defects ............................................................................................................................. 79
15.4. Seaming Defects ........................................................................................................................... 80
15.5. Assembly Defects ......................................................................................................................... 81
15.6. Glossary of sewing room defects ................................................................................................. 82

16.0. Procedures practiced for Quality Control and Assurance in Fusing Operation ........ 85
16.1. Interlinings .................................................................................................................................... 85
16.1.1. Functions of interlinings ........................................................................................................ 86
16.2. Fusing Technology ........................................................................................................................ 86
16.2.1. Base cloths ............................................................................................................................. 86
16.2.2. Resins ..................................................................................................................................... 87
16.2.3. Coating Systems .................................................................................................................... 87

16.2.4. Machinery and Equipment .................................................................................................... 88

16.3. The Control of Quality .................................................................................................................. 89
16.3.1. Temperature.......................................................................................................................... 89
16.3.2. Time ....................................................................................................................................... 89
16.3.3. Pressure ................................................................................................................................. 90
16.3.4. Peel- Strength test ................................................................................................................. 90
16.3.5. Dry clean and /or wash.......................................................................................................... 90
16.4. Problems associated with the use of the fusible interlinings....................................................... 90
16.4.1. Boardiness ............................................................................................................................. 90
16.4.2. Bubbling ................................................................................................................................. 91
16.4.3. Color Change ......................................................................................................................... 91
16.4.4. Delamination ......................................................................................................................... 91
16.4.5. Shrinkage ............................................................................................................................... 91
16.4.6. Strike back ............................................................................................................................. 91
16.4.7. Strike Through ....................................................................................................................... 91

17.0. Final Inspection ................................................................................................................. 92

17.1. Measurements for mens L/S dress shirts. ................................................................................... 93
17.3. Some possible defects in garments with diagrams ...................................................................... 93
17.4. Not readily apparent defects........................................................................................................ 97

18.0. How much to Inspect? ...................................................................................................... 98

18.1. No Inspection ............................................................................................................................... 98
18.2.100 % Inspection ........................................................................................................................... 98
18.3. Spot Checking ............................................................................................................................... 98
18.4. Arbitrary Sampling ........................................................................................................................ 99
18.5. Statistical Sampling....................................................................................................................... 99
18.6. Acceptable Quality Level (AQL) .................................................................................................. 100
18.6.1. What is AQL? ....................................................................................................................... 101
18.6.2. Brief History of AQL and Acceptance sampling ................................................................... 101
18.6.3. How do the Acceptance Sampling Plans Work? .................................................................. 102
18.6.4. How to ensure success at AQL based inspections? ............................................................. 103
18.6.5. What AQL is not? ................................................................................................................. 103
18.7. Sampling Plan Production System: .......................................................................................... 104
6

18.7.1. Continuous Sampling Plan CSP 1 ................................................................................... 104

18.8. Average Outgoing Quality Level (AOQL) .................................................................................... 104

19.0. Procedures practiced for quality control and assurance (Finishing) ......................... 105
19.1. Quality / workmanship standards in general ............................................................................. 105
19.2. Glossary of finishing department defects .................................................................................. 107

20.0. Different Stages of Samples and their requirements ................................................... 108

20.1. Development samples or enquiry samples ................................................................................ 108
20.2. Salesmen samples or promotional samples ............................................................................... 108
20.3. Photo samples or fit samples ..................................................................................................... 109
20.4. Counter samples or reference samples or approval samples .................................................... 109
20.5. Wash test samples...................................................................................................................... 110
20.6. Pre-production samples ............................................................................................................. 110
20.7. Production samples .................................................................................................................... 110
20.8. Shipment samples ...................................................................................................................... 110

21.0. Product Zones Zoning defects and Appearance ....................................................... 111

21.1. Product Zones ............................................................................................................................. 111

22.0. Packaging ......................................................................................................................... 113

22.1. Apparel Packing Merchandise ................................................................................................. 113
22.2. Diagram for Packaging a shirt ..................................................................................................... 114

1.0. Introduction to Apparel Industry

Apparel is one of the basic necessities of human civilization along with food, water and
shelter. The Apparel Industry reflects peoples lifestyles and shows their social and
economic status. The Apparel and Textile industry is Indias second largest industry
after IT Industry.
At present, it is amongst the fastest growing industry segment and is also the second
largest foreign exchange earner for the country.
The apparel industry accounts for 26% of all Indian exports. The Indian government
has targeted the apparel and textiles industry segments to reach $50 billion by the year
2015.
One of the most interesting features of the apparel industry is that, it migrates from
high cost nations to the low cost nations. The growth of the domestic demand for
clothing in India is linked with the success of the retailing sector.
India presently has entered the second phase of growth and is witnessing a massive
rise in the domestic demand. This is primarily due to the rise in the standard of living
caused by the rise in the middle-income groups.
In our present economic world of demand and supply, price and quality are the key
factors, which determine the success of any business.
The key element here though, is the cost of labor. India and China have a comparative
advantage in this industry though, their vast labor forces and the relatively low cost of
labor. Since, India and China have the advantage of making textiles and so fabric costs
are lower than in other countries, they have become the Apparel sourcing choice for
many international companies. Sourcing choices arise from profitability. This includes
considering costs, such as, buying factors of production, like land, buildings and
machines versus factors affecting revenues, including pricing, marketing, and
distribution. The issues of labor, material, shipping costs and tariffs structure also affect
the sourcing choices. Since, apparel production is a labor-intensive activity, wage rates
are also a major factor in sourcing decisions. This gives immediate competitive
advantage to producers in countries like India and China to export to more developed
and high cost countries like the United States and the European Union.
1.1. Performance of Indian Apparel Industry
As the worlds second largest producer of textile and garments, Indias
garment exports totaled US$ 10.17 billion during the year 2008-09, giving it an
enviable market share of 2.99%.
The Americas, EU, much of Asia and Middle East are Indias clients.
The industry proudly supports 7 million people as part of its workforce, and
aims to double this figure by 2011-12; even today it is the second largest
provider of employment in the country.
8

For every INR 100,000 invested in the industry, an average of 7 additional

jobs created.
The Apparel Sector alone contributes to 8% of Indias total exports with
exports recording a 1% growth over last year.
By the year 2011-12, India expects to record a 15% growth in quantity and
20% growth in values
In RMG exports, India, today, ranks 6th in the world, with a 2.6% world market
share and robust 11% growth

1.2. Some Interesting Facts

The largest producer of JUTE
The 2nd Largest producer of Cotton yarn
The 2nd largest producer of cellulosic fibre / yarn
The 2nd largest producer of Silk
The 3rd largest producer of raw cotton
The 4th largest producer of synthetic fibre/yarn
1.3. Quotas, Tariffs and the End of the Multi-Fibre Arrangement
On 1 January, 2005, the quota restraints of the Multi-Fibre Arrangement
(MFA) expired, finally bringing to an end four decades of restrictions on trade in
textiles and garments among World Trade Organization (WTO) members.
Trade in these products is now governed by normal WTO rules.

2.0. Apparel Industry Departments

MERCHANDISING
SAMPLING DEPARTMENT
FABRIC SOURCING
PURCHASING DEPARTMENT
FABRIC AUDIT DEPARTMENT
ACCESSORY STORES DEPARTMENT
PLANNING DEPARTMENT
LABORATORY DEPARTMENT
MACHINE MAINTENANCE
CAD ROOM
CUTTING ROOM
PRODUCTION DEPARTMENT
IED DEPARTMENT
EMBROIDERY DEPARTMENT
WASHING DEPARTMENT
QUALITY ASSURANCE DEPARTMENT
FINISHING DEPARTMENT

Process Sequence of Apparel Manufacturing

Design / Sketch

Pattern Design

Sample Making

Production
Pattern

Cutting

Spreading

Marker Making

Grading

Sorting/

Sewing/

Bundling

Assembling

Inspection

Pressing/
Finishing

Packing

Final Inspection

Despatch

2.1. MERCHANDISING
Merchandising is a process through which products are planned,
developed, executed and presented to the buyer.
It includes directing and overseeing the development of product line from start to
finish.
Marketing and merchandising department -A team of merchandisers and
marketers work together under a profit controls head.
Merchandisers handle the foreign buyers. The teams are made according to the
buyers being handled.
2.1.1. A Merchandisers key responsibility
Product Development
Market and product Analysis
Selling the concept
Booking orders
Confirming Deliveries
Designing and Sampling
Costing
Raw Material
Flow Monitoring
Production Follow Ups
Payments Follows

10

2.2. Sampling Department

In any export house, the sampling department is one of the most important
departments and it plays a vital in the uplifting of a unit.
Sampling department directly co-ordinates with the merchandising and
production department.
Sampling is done to see how the product will look like when produced in bulk
and to check whether there are any discrepancies in the pattern are made
according to the buyers specification.
Sampling is the product development stage. It is a process by which a small
number of garments are made so as to match the buyer requirement and to get
approval from the buyer so as to start off the production.
It is different from bulk production as here each tailor is multi skilled. This
department makes samples on the basis of specifications and requirements sent
by the buyer in the tech pack
2.2.1. Types of Samples in Sampling Dept.
Proto Sample:
Fit Sample:
Pilot Run Sample:
Pre Production Sample:
Pre Size set
Size Set
Shipment Sample
Sales Sample
2.3. FABRIC SOURCING
Fabric sourcing department is basically engaged in determining how and
where its merchandise i.e fabric will be obtained.
It works in co-ordination with the merchandising department and looks after the
delivery of the required goods within the scheduled time and cost.
A fabric sourcer must have knowledge about all varieties of fabric in order to
execute their function effectively.
2.4. PURCHASING DEPARTMENT
The purchasing department is similar to the sourcing department but the main
difference is that the sourcing department works for sourcing the fabrics alone
while the purchasing department works for sourcing the accessories and trims.
However, the working procedure is the same
2.5. FABRIC AUDIT DEPARTMENT
The main objectives of this department are:
Analysis of defects in the fabric by various methods.
Selection of fabric according to AQL
11

Inspection is done basically on the following grounds:

100% shade segregation is done.
100% width segregation is done.
15% fabric inspection is done for defects.
10 15% shrinkage test for light weight fabrics and mostly 100% for
heavy weight fabrics.
The fabric is checked in full width form only.
The quantity is checked, whether the mentioned length of the roll is
correct or not.

2.6. ACCESSORY STORES DEPARTMENT

The stores receives the raw materials in-house and after this they will have to do
the sampling process and then they have to make a list of the tests that are
supposed to be carried out for that particular accessories and then they send
this to the laboratory.
The lists of accessories and tests that are generally tested are as follows,
Button breaking test
Colored laces and tapes are tested for color fastness
Color fastness test for elastics
Lining fabrics for their dimensional stability
2.7. PLANNING DEPARTMENT
Planning department has a vital role to play
in the approval of the order
helps the merchants to determine the costing of a particular style
tell the merchants if the company is capable of producing the
particular style in the given span of time
Helps them to know the capacity of the production floor.
2.8. LABORATORY DEPARTMENT
The laboratory in the factory is equipped with all the necessary devices
and instruments that are required for the testing of both the fabric and the
accessory items.
But, there are several tests which the buyer prescribes for which the
machineries are not available in the factory for such tests the factory does not
have the right machineries so they send such fabrics or accessories, which
requires some other tests to the external laboratories which are authorized ones
with the buyers and the merchants approval.
2.9. MACHINE MAINTENANCE
Apart from having quality system and the best practices, machine maintenance
is also a very important are to get quality products.
Unacceptable quality of products often results ill-maintained machines.
12

Breakdown and preventive maintenance is primarily aimed toward reduced

downtime and increased life respectively.
Proper machine maintenance is also necessary to avoid casualties at the floor.

2.9.1. The function of PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

Care of the fittings
Adjusting settings
Oil changing
Graph maintenance
Outward/inward reports
Needle weekly reports.
Machine configuration chart
History card
Needle log cards.
2.10. CUTTING ROOM
Cutting department receives the order for cutting a garment style from the
production manager. Cutting order is an authorization by the production
manager to cut a given amount of styles, from the spreads.
It comes in form of a package file that carries the following details:
Sampling average, weight of garment (base fabric consumption only), and other
trims averages.
Measurement sheet
Design worksheet of the garment
Purchase order
Fabric requisition sheet
CAD mini marker
Marker planning- length of lay etc., size ratio and colors in which the patterns
are to be cut.
2.11. Production Department
The production floor does production in two types,
Pilot Production
Bulk Production
The production floor will receive the details like,
the style or the garment,
number of operators required,
the batch for which the style has to be installed,
any extra kinds of machines that are to be used for the particular
style,
target for each day
Breakup of the production quantity.

13

 The production managers help the planning department during planning

or allocating a particular line for the style by telling them the capacity of
the line and also telling them about the skills of the operators.
2.12. IED DEPARTMENT
The IED department has to work with many other departments as this
department gives the entire idea
of the garment construction
and the thread and trims consumption criteria,
operators skill level categorization
and other related aspects,
hence they play a vital role in determining the cost of producing a single piece of
the garment and they also calculate the cost of the factory for that particular
style of garment
The IED department helps the planning department to know the time required
for the production of that particular style of the garment by calculating the SAM
value
2.13. EMBROIDERY DEPARTMENT
The embroidery section is a department which comes into picture only when the
particular style demands.
The embroidery section receives the garments from the sewing floor or from the
cutting department and then they start their embroidery process.
2.14. WASHING DEPARTMENT
Once the garment has been finished with all the operations then they are sent to
the washing department for the washing or finishing that has to be done for that
particular style according to the buyers specifications and hence it plays a vital
role in the final feel and the texture of the garment which has to match the
specifications of the buyer 100%.
There are different types of washing procedures involved and they are classified
as follows,
Normal wash/ water wash / dip and dry, Softener wash, Desize wash,
Enzyme wash, Stone enzyme wash, Rubber ball wash, Denim wash,
Bleach wash, Tinting/ T- staining
2.15. QUALITY ASSURANCE DEPARTMENT
Quality is the major criteria for any product and the same rule applied even to
garment industries also.
In order to maintain quality the quality assurance departments has split up their
job into different stages of manufacturing and there are classified into four major
groups which are as follows.
Pre-production audit:
Cutting audit:
14

 Sewing audit:
End line audit:
2.16. FINISHING DEPARTMENT
The finishing department is the department which comes after all the
departments and it plays an equally important role in the final appearance of the
garment.
This department includes majorly of the following steps,
Trimming
Inspection
Semi pressing
Pressing
Tagging section
Packing
Solid Packing
In this method of packing, the carton box will include
garments of single colour and same size.
For example, 20 shirts of a similar colour say navy blue and
the size say S will be put in one carton box.
Ratio Packing
In this method the carton box includes garments of same
colour but of different sizes according to the ratio.
For example, S: M: L: XL = 5: 7: 7: 5.
Mixed Packing
In this method the carton box includes garments of different
colours but of same size or garments with different colours
and different sizes in a particular ratio form.
After the packing is done the garments are kept in the stores until the buyer sends the
buyer QC for the inspection purpose before delivering them and once the QC arrives
checking will be carried according to the AQL level and then it will be decided if the
garments has to be accepted or rejected.

15

3.0. What is Quality?

Quality is unusually slippery and difficult to come in grips with and therefore,
someone has said, Quality is something I know when I see it.
Quality is essential character; nature; an ingredient or distinguishing
attribute; property, a character trait, superiority of kind, degree of grade or
excellence.
Quality is a complex concept. No single definition addresses all the
dimensions, areas of impact and concerns relating to quality.
The term quality is used in many ways for many reasons.
3.1. Answers for Quality from Different Peoples
Quality means different things to different people. The answer from different people
may be
1. The best money can buy
2. Meeting a specification or conformance to specifications
3. Craftsmanship
4. The degree of excellence
3.2. Meaning of Quality
Quality can also mean meeting or exceeding customer expectations all the time.
The key here is to know accurately customer expectations on a continuing basis
because unless you know customer expectations how can you meet or exceed them?
3.2.1. Expectations of Quality
The expectations of Quality and the ability to distinguish various quality characteristics
also vary from one group of customers to another.
Generally more educated and sophisticated customers, the expectations of the quality
will be more specific.
JOHN RABBITT defines quality as the ability to exceed a customers expectations
while maintaining a cost competitive market position
3.3. Definitions of Quality.
The quality can be defined based on the following perspectives
A. Holistic Perspective
B. Product Perspective
C. Producer Perspective (Manufacturer Perspective)
D. Customer Perspective
E. Value based Perspective.
3.3.1. Holistic Perspective
Websters dictionary (1977) defines quality as that which belongs to something and
makes or helps to make it what it is; characteristic element; any character or

16

characteristic which may make an object good or bad; the degree of excellence which
a thing possesses.
This definition helps us to look at quality from a holistic perspective and implies that
even if quality is not the same for all things; it is still inherent in all objects and actions.
3.3.2. Product Perspective
A product quality is represented by total set of precise and measurable characteristics
or components of a finished product.
Differences in product quality can be attributed to differences in components or
characteristics.
Consider the following example to understand quality based on product perspective
more clearly.
Two measures can be used to characterize the quality of the woven fabrics
o (1) Weight in GSM or oz/yd2
o (2) Yarns / inch in warp and filling.
These characteristics of the weight and count are linked to the yarn and
weaving costs, but do not necessarily imply better products.
Clearly these common measures of quality are not necessarily directly
related to consumer satisfaction
3.3.3. Producer Perspective (Manufacturer Perspective)
From a producer or manufacture perspective, quality is defined as consistent
conformance to specifications and standards.
When a product meets a companys standards and specifications, it has
achieved the desired quality level.
The desired level may be high, low or medium or at any point in between the
extremes of continuum.
The producer oriented definition of quality addresses a companys ability to
produce products that consistently meet predetermined criteria and can be sold
in the market at full price.
Products that meet this level of quality are assumed to produce greater profit
and income for the company
This does not address consumer expectations.
3.3.4. Customer Perspective
From a customer perspective quality depends on the dimensions of a product or
service that are of important to that user.
A user based definition of quality simply means that the quality is whatever the
customer says or wants which goes back to meeting or exceeding customers
requirements and expectations.
This perspective recognizes the primary role of the customer in determining
whether a product or service meets or exceeds expectations. However, quality
is not in steady state; from a customers perspective, quality reflects an ever
17

changing market place and satisfies the ever changing needs of the customer in
that market.
One challenge of examining the quality from the customers perspective is
understanding and incorporating the characteristics that the customer finds
desirable at a price that is acceptable. Hence a company needs a good
understanding of the wants of the immediate consumer and the ultimate
consumer.
This focus on customers and their satisfaction is a basic underlying principle of
total quality management (TQM). Several definitions of TQM exist. All focus on
the integrated, continuous improvement process that involves everyone in the
organization. In TQM, all the companys actions are directed towards producing
a quality product for the target market, satisfying the target market, and meeting
the companys business objectives.
Customer Satisfaction

Cost

Value

Benefit
s

Losses

Quality

Satisfaction of
requirements

Satisfaction of Business
Objectives
Business Objectives vs. Customer Satisfaction
(Satisfying business objectives forms the foundation for customer satisfaction)
The Deming Cycle

One of the first individuals to recognize the need to focus on quality in production and
product development was W.Edwards Deming (1982), who maintained that quality is
the responsibility of the management. Demings management principles include
adopting a philosophy of improving products and services, remaining competitive,
staying in business, and providing jobs.
The Deming Cycle links the production, target markets and business objectives, is a
five step approach.

18

The Deming Cycle 5 Step Approach

(1). Conduct consumer research. Use results in the planning the product
(2). Produce the product.
(3). Check the product.
(4). Market the product.
(5). Analyze the product.

Check

DO

Act

The
Deming
Cycle

Plan

Analyze

Many companies follow these steps as they develop, produce, market and evaluate or
analyze their products. Communication within the company and with the customers is
vital for survival in the market.
3.3.5. Value based perspective
A value based definition of quality takes into consideration cost or price of a
product or service.
Form a value based approach, quality products are those that perform at
acceptable prices or conform at acceptable costs.
The question from the customers view point is what is the value of this product
or service to us?
How valuable is a given product or service?

19

4.0. Dimensions of Quality

The characteristics or conditions those are important to quality need to be established.
Garvin has identified eight dimensions related to quality. They are
(1).Performance
(2).Features
(3).Reliability
(4).Conformance
(5).Durability
(6).Serviceability
(7).Aesthetics
(8).Perceived Quality
4.1. Performance
Performance is based on the primary operating characteristics of a product.
Examples
A rain coat should be a water repellent,
A mosquito net should not allow mosquito to enter inside.
A pen should be writeable
4.2. Features
Features of a product are those secondary characteristics that supplement a
product basic functioning.
Examples
- baby clothing should be dressing ease, softness, durability, safety
4.3. Reliability
Reliability refers to the probability of products malfunctioning or failing within a
specified period of time.
We depend on, demand, and expect reliable products.
It takes a long time for a company to build up a reputation for reliability,
and only a short time to be branded as "unreliable" after shipping a
flawed product.
Reliability is "quality changing over time
Reliability is a major economic factor in determining a product's success
Sometimes equipment failure can have a major impact on human safety
and/or health. Automobiles, planes, life support equipment, and power
generating plants are a few examples.
Some failures have serious social consequences and this should be
taken into account when planning reliability studies

20

4.4. Conformance
Conformance refers to the degree or extent to which a products design and
operating characteristics meet pre-established standards.
4.5. Durability & Serviceability
Durability means the length of time a product will last or product life.
Serviceability refers to the speed, courtesy, competence and ease of repair of a
product.
4.6. Aesthetics & Perceived Quality
Aesthetics refers to how a product looks feels, sounds, tastes or smells.
Perceived Quality refers to what consumers perceive to be the quality of a
product based on image, advertising, and brand name reputation

21

5.0. Quality Related Terms and Definitions

What is Quality?
Quality is also the reflection of the customers opinion of the value they see in
your product compared to that of your competitors.
In other words quality is whatever the customer says it is or the customer it is or
the customer is the final judge of quality.
Quality Definition by ISO
Quality is defined by ISO (International Standards Organization) as the the
totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to
satisfy stated or implied needs

5.1. Quality related terminology

Here is some quality related terminology taken from an American National
Standard ANSI/ASQC A3 Quality systems terminology

Quality
Management

Quality
System

Quality Plan

Quality Policy

Quality
Assurance

Quality
Control

Statistical
Quality
Control

Inspection

Testing

Quality Management: Aspect of all the overall management function that determines
and implements the quality policy
Quality System: The organizational structure, responsibilities, procedures, processes,
and resources for implementing quality management
Quality Plan: A document setting out the specify quality practices, resources, and
activities relevant to a particular product, service, contract, or a project.
22

Quality Policy: The overall intentions and directions of an organisation as regards

quality as formally expressed by top management
Quality Assurance: All those planned or systematic actions necessary to provide
adequate confidence that a product or service will satisfy given requirements for
quality.
Quality Control: The operational techniques and activities required to fulfill the
requirements for quality
Statistical Quality Control: The application of statistical techniques to the control of
quality.
Inspection: Activities such as measuring, examining, testing, gauging, one or more
characteristics of a product or service, and comparing these with the specified
requirements to determine conformity.
Testing: A means of determining the capability of an item to meet specified
requirements by subjecting the item to a set of physical, chemical, environmental,or
operating actions and conditions.
5.2. Introduction to Quality Assurance
Quality Assurance: All those planned or systematic actions necessary to provide
adequate confidence that a product or service will satisfy given requirements for
quality.
5.2.1. The Textile Industry Complex
The textile industry complex indicates suppliers of
Raw material and processed materials,
Sewn product manufacturers,
Wholesalers, and
Retailers.
5.2.1.1. Raw Materials
Raw materials include the unprocessed components used to produce a product. Raw
materials include fibres, yarns, dyes, finishing chemicals and other materials as
plastics and metals that are processed into buttons, zippers and other items that are
used to produce finished goods.
5.2.1.2. Sewn product manufacturers
Sewn product manufacturers make apparel, furnishings and industrial products. These
manufacturers often incorporate other activities such as fusing and dyeing, into the
production process.
23

They may sell their products to wholesalers or directly to consumers.

Fibres & Yarns

Dyes & Pigments
Fabrics
Closures, Trims
and Support
Materials

Producers of
Materials

Producer of
Products
Manufacturers
Contractors

Wholesalers
Retailers (Store
and non-store
formats)

Consumers of
Products

Distribution of
Products

5.2.1.3. Retailers
Retailers present merchandise to the consumers via stores, catalogs, websites, TV,
direct sales, and other venues.
Many manufacturers and retailers have off-shore production facilities or work with
contractors who produce goods
5.2.1.4. Consumers
Consumers are the individuals who use or wear finished textile products. Consumers
include consumers, companies, such as sewn product manufacturers who buy fabric
and other materials, and retailers who buy quantities of identical products for sale to
the consumer.
5.2.2. Textile quality Assurance
Textile quality assurance is the process of designing, producing, evaluating, and
assessing the products to determine that they meet the desired quality level for a
companys target market.
It is based on the knowledge of
Textiles
Design
Merchandising
Production
Consumer behaviour
Product and process evaluation
Marketing
Statistics

24

5.2.2.1. Phases of Quality Assurance

Inspection
Before/after
Production

Acceptance
Sampling

Inspection and
Corrective
Action during
Production

Quality built
Into the
Process

Process
Control

Continuous
Improvement

The most
Progressive

The least
Progressive

5.2.2.2. Some issues facing the quality profession

How to define quality from the customers perspective?
Keeping up with the constant increases in the level of quality of todays goods
and services.
The particular difficulties encountered in managing service quality.
How does the organization identify the quality dimensions that are most
important to its customers?
Being able to avoid the costs of poor quality products and services.
Being able to deal with the shift in balance of power to consumers from
producers through globalization.
Recognizing that customer loyalty is increasingly based on quality.
Getting leaner by achieving higher levels of productivity.
5.2.2.3. Internal and External Benefits of Quality
Internal Benefits

Reduces costs
Increases dependability
Increases speed
Boosts moral
Increases customer retention
Increases profit

External Benefits

Customer gets correct product

or service
Correct specifications
Appropriate intangibles
Customer satisfaction
Customer retention

25

5.2.3. Quality Control

Quality control (QC) includes the activities from the suppliers, through production, and
to the customers.
Incoming materials are examined to make sure they meet the appropriate
specifications.
The qualities of partially completed products are analyzed to determine if production
processes are functioning properly.
Finished goods and services are studied to determine if they meet customer
expectations
5.2.3.1. QC throughout Production Systems
Inputs

Conversion

Outputs

Raw Materials,
Parts and Supplies

Production
Process

Products and
Services

Quality of Inputs

Quality of partially
completed products

Quality of
outputs

5.2.3.2. QUALITY CONTROL ASPECTS OF GARMENT EXPORTS

There are a number of factors on which quality fitness of garment industry is based
such as
Performance,
Reliability,
Durability,
Visual and Perceived quality of the garment
Quality needs to be defined in terms of a particular framework of cost.
5.2.3.3. Costs of Quality Failure
Defects are not free; someone makes them and gets paid for the privilege
Cost of Internal Failure
Cost of External Failure
Scrapped
materials,
goods
and
Warranty and servicing
services
costs
Rework/ retest
Product liability / Litigation
Reduced capacity/ yield/ increased
Complaints
and
their
downtime
administration
Rescheduling
Loss of customer goodwill
Service delays
Inconvenience
to other
Disruption to the service process.
customers
Focus is on troubleshooting not
improvement
26

5.2.3.4. The Economic Costs of Quality

COST OF PREVENTION
Quality planning
Design of quality system
Staff
quality
training
and
development
Preventative maintenance
Supplier development training
Administering quality procedures
(e.g. ISO 9001)
Time spent problem - solving,
improving process
Measurement
of
customer
satisfaction during process

COST OF APPRAISAL
Testing and Inspection of supplier
goods and services
Testing and Inspection of internal
service processes
Measurement
of
customer
satisfaction after process
Quality Audits

5.2.3.5. Points to note down for quality in garment manufacturing system

Here some of main fabric properties that are taken into consideration for garment
manufacturing for export basis:
Overall look of the garment.
Right formation of the garment.
Feel and fall of the garment.
Physical properties.
Colour fastness of the garment.
Finishing properties
Presentation of the final produced garment.
5.2.3.6. Basic Thumb Rules for Garment Manufacturers & Exporters
1. Quality has to be taken care by the exporter, excuses are not entertained in
international market for negligence for low quality garments, new or existing
exporters for both it is mandatory to use design, technology and quality as major
up gradation tools.
2. Apart from superior quality of the garment, its pricing, packaging, delivery, etc
has to be also taken care of.
3. The garment shown in the catalogue should match with the final garment
delivered.
4. It is important to perform according to the promises given to the buyer, or else it
creates very bad impression and results in loss of business and reputation.
5. In international market, quality reassurance is required at every point.
6. Proper documentation and high standard labels on the garment are also
important aspects as these things also create good impression.
27

7. Timely delivery of garments is as important as its quality.

8. If your competitor has the better quality of garment in same pricing, it is better to
also enhance your garment quality.
9. Before entering into international market, garment exporters have to carefully
frame out the quality standards, or else if anything goes wrong it could harm the
organization. And after that strictly follow it.
10. The garment quality should match the samples shown during taking the orders.
11. The garment exporters should know to negotiate a premium price after quality
assurance is done.

28

6.0. Quality Standards and Quality Grade

Many companies have established sets of expectations for the products they produce
or sell. These expectations describe various factors, including the sizes or size range,
features or style components, appearance aspects, materials, and performance.
Expectations may exist in a written and organized form, in a series of memos from
various individuals within the company or in an unwritten form.
These expectations may be stated in general terms, or they may incorporate very
specific numerical descriptions. Companies that are committed to quality are far more
likely to have complied their expectations in an organized, detailed written quality
assurance manual.
6.1. Standards Introduction
We have all come across the term standard or standards in reference to quality
control, but what exactly is a standard and who makes the standards?
A standard may be defined as
a) Something that is established by the authority, custom or general consent as
a model or example to be followed;
b) Something established for use as a rule or basis of comparison in measuring
or judging capacity, quantity, content, extent, value, quality, etc.
c) The type, the model or example commonly or generally accepted or adhered
to; criterion set for usage or practice;
d)
A level of excellence, attainment, etc. regarded as a measure of
adequacy.
Standards are commonly agreed upon aids for communication and trade. Standards
are set of characteristics or procedures that provide a basis for resource and
production decisions. Standards are used to define the quality level, characteristics
and performance for a firms products.
6.1.1. Standards Definition by ISO
According to ISO, standards are documented agreements containing technical
specifications or other precise criteria to be used consistently as rules, guidelines, or
definitions of characteristics, to ensure that materials, products, processes and
services are fit for their purpose.
6.1.2. Standardization
Standardization is the process of developing and applying rules for a consistent and
uniform approach to a specific activity for the benefit and with the cooperation of all
concerned.
Standardization involves a series of actions by a group of individuals who work toward
a specific goal.
29

6.1.3. Developing Standards

Standards are developed with the cooperation of producers, suppliers, manufacturers,
government agencies and consumers, because a need is perceived within an industry,
a company, or another area of interest.
Often a standard reflects one companys interest that has been broadened to reflect a
wider range of applications.
Standards are evaluated and revised many times before they are acceptable to all
groups
6.1.4. Benefits of Standards
The benefits of standards literally surround us. Clothes fit and do not fade or fall apart
in just one laundering or dry-cleaning, buildings stand, cars run, tape recorders record,
and planes fly because each is made to conform to some technical standards for
material, design, and performance. Civilization or industrial progress as we know it
today would have been impossible without the order standards create. Some of the
benefits of standards are
Standards facilitate communication and prevent misunderstanding.
Standards make parts interchangeability possible and as a result mass
production is possible
Standards can be used in marketing strategy to promote purchase of products
that meet nationally recognized requirements, especially, when conformance is
backed by a certification program
Standards reduce cost and save money.
6.1.5. Levels of Standards
There are various levels of standards
Company Standards: - These standards are useful to the companys design,
development, production, purchasing, and quality control departments. These
standards may be those developed by the company itself or developed by some other
organizations and adopted by the company as it own standards.
Industry Standards:- These standards are typically developed by a trade association
or professional society. For example, American Chemical Society has for many years
maintained specifications for chemical reagents.
Government Standards:- These are standards either developed by the government or
developed by other organizations and adopted by the government. The government
standards generally tend to be related to safety or well-being of the people.
Full consensus standards:- These are the standards developed by the
representatives of all sectors, such as industry, consumer, government, academia, who
have an interest in use of these standards either as a producer or consumer.

30

6.2. Types of Standards

ASTM develops six types of full-consensus standards
Test methods
Specifications
Practices
Terminology
Guides
Classifications
Test methods: A definite procedure for identification, measurement, and evaluation of
one or more qualities, characteristics, or properties of a material, product, system or
service that produces a test result.
Specifications: A precise statement of set of requirements to be satisfied by a
material, product, system, or service that indicates the procedures for determining
whether each of the requirements is satisfied. They often are given as numerical
requirements with appropriate units and within reasonable limits.
Practices: A definite procedure for performing one or more specific operations or
functions that does not produce a test result. These are not down-graded tests. They
include statistical procedures, writing statements on precision, and selecting, installing
and operating equipment.
Terminology: A document comprising definitions of terms, descriptions of terms, and
explanations of symbols, abbreviations.
Guide: A series of options or instructions that do not recommend a specific course of
action. Guides suggest approaches, offer guidance for a procedure, increase
awareness of available techniques and provide information regarding evaluation and
standardization.
Classification: A systematic arrangement of materials, products, systems or services
into groups based on the similar characteristics such as origin, composition, properties,
or use.
6.3. Other types of Standards in the Industry
A Company Standard
Industry Standards
Voluntary Standards
Mandatory Standards
6.3.1. Company Standards
A company standard reflects a consensus among employees for products or
services provided.

31

Company standards are used throughout the company in product development,

production, purchasing and quality assurance.
Company standards describe general characteristics or features of a product or
service or they describe a required level of performance.
6.3.2. Industry Standards
Industry standards reflects consensus among many companies in an industry or
among individual members of a profession.
Industry standards are not common in the textile industry in terms of product
performance.
Very few industry wide standards exist for performance of materials, in spite of
what vendors may indicate.
Standards are much more common in terms of materials.
There are several standard types on the market, so that companies can buy the
type and quality needed for their products
6.3.3. Voluntary Standards
Voluntary Standards allow individuals or companies to determine on their own
whether to adopt standard.
ASTM standards are examples of voluntary standards. No organization or group
forces adoption of these standards.
However voluntary standards may become incorporated into laws, regulations or
contracts.
6.3.4. Mandatory Standards
With mandatory standards, adoption is required, generally by a law or
regulation. Most mandatory standards relate to safety or health issues.
For example, with textile products, childrens sleepwear has to meet mandatory
standards in terms of its minimal burning behaviour.
6.4. International Standards
Since standards have become so important to many industries worldwide,
standards are used internationally to facilitate trade and technology transfer
among nations.
International standards describe a situation in which majority of the products or
services conform to the same standard regardless of where a product was
produced or service was performed.
International standards exist for many industries including
o Information Processing
o Banking
o Energy production
o Communication &
o Textiles
32

Often standards that are widely used by one country involved in international
trade become part of the international standards simply because they are widely
used in many parts of the world.
More than 150 countries are involved in developing international standards.
Some of the national standards organization that work with ISO are
o Japanese Industrial Standards Committee (JISC)
o The Standards Council of Canada (SCC),
o American National Standards Institute (ANSI),
o Standards New Zealand (SNZ)
o British Standards Institute (BSI)
Many standards relate to the textile industry.
6.5. APPLICATION OF STANDARDS TO TEXTILE INDUSTRY
Introduction of Standards in business
Standards reflect business objectives that deal with meeting target market
needs and expectations. Standards must exist when communicating among producers,
suppliers, vendors, retailers and consumers. Standards guide product development,
materials selection, prototype analysis and refinement, production and finishing,
labeling, packaging, shipping, and other activities within a company.
Uses of NATIONAL & INTERNATIONAL standards for business
National standards address labeling and supplying information for consumers at
point of purchase. International standards relate to information necessary to do
business.
International standards relate to information necessary to do business in a
global market. ISO 9000 standards are one example.
6.5.1. Purpose of standards & specification
The purpose of standards and specifications is to incorporate the desired
quality into the products based on those documents and requirements.
One does not write or develop quality standards, but appropriate aspects
of quality are incorporated into standards and specifications as they are
developed.
Quality cannot be added to the products after production, so quality
standards enforced at that stage merely separate first quality
merchandise from second quality merchandise
6.5.2. Focus of Company towards Quality Standard
Company should focus on identifying the factors that contribute to a
quality product and on incorporating standards that address those
concerns.
33

A company needs to examine each element of its product and relate

those elements to consumer expectations and satisfaction.
Many divisions of the company will be involved in the process of
developing and continuously examining and refining company standards.

Marketing

Provides feedback from the customers

and may seek out information from
consumers.

Production

Analyses the requirements and

capabilities related to equipment, skills
and training costs, and quantity

Merchandising

Examines product requirements in

terms of materials, products and
customer expectations

These information are integrated to form the standards related to the product line
A company is likely to develop standards for
Size based on its basic blocks for patterns,
Grading rules used in developing the size range for each style
Expectations for fit
Performance of materials used in the product line
Basic elements regarding product construction
Special needs of the user
Appearance of the finished products
Packaging
6.5.2.1. Product Size
Product size is based on basic pattern blocks.
The basic block is the starting point for developing the pattern for specific style.
It is the block and the grading rules used to change the size of that determine
the dimension of the finished product.
A consumer may discover that one company basic block fits her/his figure better
than another companys basic block.
Many companies have developed dimensions that are acceptable for each size.
The dimensions incorporate a plus / minus tolerance or range overlaps into
adjacent sizes
34

6.5.2.2. Product Fit

In terms of product fit, companies may develop standards that describe a loose
or tight fit.
Fit standards must be consistent so that the products fit in a constant and
consistent manner.
Some companies may combine some aspects of fit with those of appearance.
(Ex. A company may have a standard that all the side seams are perpendicular
to the floor)
Thus requirements for pattern, fit, and construction should address meeting this
standard.
6.5.2.3. Performance of Materials and Products
Performance of materials and products may be addressed by standards.
In some companies only materials performance is addressed. This practice
assumes that if materials meet the standard, then the products will also meet
the standard.
o Materials performance may focus on
o requirements for care
o Ability to be spread
o Cut
o Sewn & Finished in the production facility
o Durability
o Comfort
o Appearance retention
6.5.2.4. Some common terms included in Standards
Terms which are commonly used by the consumers may be included in the
standards.
o Care may be described as easy care, machine washable and dryable, or
dry cleanable.
o Durability requirements may use terms such as strong, abrasion
resistance, pill resistant, and long wearing.
6.5.3. Construction Standards
Construction standards may address how components are assembled. Standards
might be listed as
Shirts always have a separate collar stand,
Hems are circular (Side seams are produced first, then garment is hemmed)
Elastic are stitch in place
All shirts have seven button fronts
Construction standards do not describe the specific steps in production, but they
address expectations for product characteristics and performance for consumers

35

6.5.4. Special Consumer needs

Special consumer needs may be addressed in company standards.
Companies that produce buttons for mens shirt may focus on producing buttons
that do not crack when subjected to pressure, heat, and seam in commercial
laundry presses.
Companies that produce childrens wear may focus on incorporating features
that enable children to dress themselves.
6.5.5. Appearance of the finished product
Company standards may also address the appearance of the finished product.
Standards may be as simple as
o Stating that fabric and thread colors match
o Hems do not roll
Product appearance is one of the very first characteristics that attracts the
attention of the consumer, appearance should address those characteristics that
consumer may consider in assessing products.
6.5.6. Packaging
Packaging is another area that standards may address. Many companies have
packaging standards that minimize environmental impact.
In addition, bar code labeling is commonplace. Standards of location of bar
codes information incorporated in the bar codes are important.

36

7.0. Different Textile and Apparel Standards

7.1. Sources of Standards
In an industry with so many segments and interests, communicating quality
requirements and supplying goods of the appropriate quality level are difficult.
Professional and trade organizations have developed to educate members and
enhance communication among industry segments.
Organizations
Several organizations which are available for quality standards
o identify and define terms,
o develop consistent practices within the field for describing and evaluating
materials and process,
o encourage fair trade practices,
o Develop technological advances to remain competitive in the world
market and promote the textile industry.
Major organizations for Quality Standards
a) American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC)
b) American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
c) American Society for Quality (ASQ)
d) American Apparel and Footwear Association (AAFA)
e) TC2 Textile / Clothing Technology Corp
f) American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
g) International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
7.2. American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC)
Introduction
AATCC is the worlds leading not-for-profit association serving textile professionals
since 1921.AATCC is headquartered in Research Triangle Park, N.C., USA, providing
test method development, quality control materials, and professional networking for
thousands of members in 60 countries throughout the world.
7.2.1. About AATCC
The American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) was
founded by Dr. Louis Olney of the Lowell Textile School in 1921.
AATCC is the world's leading not-for-profit professional association for the textile
design, materials, processing, and testing industries.
Members of AATCC are employees of textile, apparel, and home goods
manufacturers; dye and chemical manufacturers; testing laboratories; consumer
and retail organizations; state and federal government agencies; and colleges
and universities.
AATCC has thousands of individual and corporate members in more than 60
countries world wide.
AATCC develops internationally recognized standard test methods used by the
industry, governments, researchers, and others.
37

It develops procedures to assess the characteristics of materials and their

performance in the areas of
o Wet processing,
o Dyeing
o Care
o Biological properties &
o Other related factors
These procedures are sometimes described as wet tests because liquids, such
as water and other solvents are used in preparing specimens or in the
procedure.
AATCC standards and test methods are developed by research committees
after extensive investigation and inter laboratory comparisons.
Development or extensive revision of a procedure reflects several years of work.
Test methods are approved by three level hierarchies before they are published
in the Technical Manual.
A test method is reviewed annually for its first three years of existence. After that
it is reviewed every five years and reaffirmed, revised or withdrawn
7.3. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
Introduction
ASTM International, formerly known as the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM), is a globally recognized leader in the development and
delivery of international voluntary consensus standards.
Today, some 12,000 ASTM standards are used around the world to improve
product quality, enhance safety, facilitate market access and trade, and build
consumer confidence.
ASTM is one of the oldest professional organizations in United States. ASTM
was established in 1898.
ASTM consists of more than 130 technical committees, is international in scope
and supports the work of National Institute of Standards and Technology.
7.3.1. ASTM Committees
ASTM Committee D-13 focuses on textiles; other committees focus on other
materials or products, such as leather and building materials.
ASTM procedures are used to identify physical characteristics and assess
performance related to physical-mechanical procedures.
These procedures are often referred to as dry procedures because the materials
are most often tested in the dry state.
ASTM also works with industry, government, and others interested in developing
uniform standards.
7.3.2. ASTM Standards
ASTM standards are full consensus standards. This means that a standard
result when a full of all concerned parties is met.
Proposed standards and revisions are voted on by ASTM voting members.
38

Once the standard has been approved, it is included in the Annual Book of
Standards. All interested individuals participate in the development and/or use of
the standard.
ASTM requires that all standards be reviewed by committee every five years, so
that each standard reflects current practices within industry.
Standards are used voluntarily and are not legally binding unless they became
incorporated in laws or regulations or are cited in contracts
ASTM has no certificate program, but standards sometimes are used in
certifying products.
Products may carry labels indicating that a product was certified following an
ASTM procedure.
This means that a standard ASTM procedure was followed and that the product
met or exceeded a minimum level of performance established by another group
completely separate from ASTM
7.4. American Society for Quality (ASQ)
The American Society for Quality (ASQ) is an organisation of professionals
who work to improve the quality of manufactured goods services and related
factors.
ASQ has developed a professional code of ethics to guide professional
practices.
ASQ has technical committees and a certification program for professionals.
The society publishes a newsletter, On Q, ten times a year;
Quality progress, a monthly journal that includes articles on quality methods
and issues; several journals that examine technical, theoretical, and practical
issues related to quality; and books related to quality issues.
7.4.1. The ASQ code of Ethics
Fundamental Principles
ASQ requires it members and certification holders to conduct themselves ethically by
Being honest and impartial in serving the public, their employers, customers and
clients
Striving to increase the competence and prestige of quality profession, and
Using their knowledge and skill for enhancement of human welfare.
Members and certification holders are required to observe the tenets sets forth
below.
Relation with the public
o Article 1 : Hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public in
the performance of their professional duties
Relation with Employers and Clients
o Article 2 : Perform Services only in their areas of competence
o Article 3 : Continue their professional development throughout their
careers and provide opportunities for the professional and ethical
development of others
39

o Article 4 : Act in a professional manner in dealings with ASQ staff and

each employer, customer, or client
o Article 5 : Act as faithful agents or trustees and avoid conflict of interest
and the appearance of conflicts of interest
Relation with Peers
o Article 6 : Build their professional reputation on the merit of their services
and not to compete unfairly with others
o Article 7 : Assure that credit for the work of the others is given to those to
whom it is due
7.5. American Apparel and Footwear Association (AAFA)
The American Apparel & Footwear Association (AAFA) is the national trade association
representing apparel, footwear and other sewn products companies, and their
suppliers, which compete in the global market.
7.5.1. AAFA Committees and Divisions
AAFA members actively serve on some 14 committees, subcommittees, councils and
divisions.
The Committees are classified under the following Headings
Government, Trade and Regulatory Issues:
Management Issues:
Divisions and Specialty Markets:
Technology Issues:
Government, Trade and Regulatory Issues:
Government Relations Committee
Brand Protection Council
Government Contracts Committee
Social Responsibility Committee
Environmental Committee
Product Safety Council
Management Issues:
Financial Management Committee
Human Resources Leadership Council
Supplier Resource Committee
Divisions and Specialty Markets:
Footwear Division
Intimate Apparel Council
Technology Issues:
Information Systems Committee
Supply Chain & Product Innovation Committee
40

7.6. TC2 Textile / Clothing Technology Corp

TC2 was established in 1981 as a coalition of leaders in the U.S textile and apparel
industry, Labour unions and government organizations.
TC2 focuses on improving the sewn products industry to make it more productive,
competitive and cost effective.
It works with manufacturers to develop new processes, equipment, and implementation
procedures
7.7. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
The American National Standards Institute, which is a federation of many
organizations, agencies, and groups, coordinates all national voluntary agencies
that develop standards.
It has an accredited certificate program. Certification attests that products has
been tested and meet specified requirements.
These requirements are usually based on minimum performance characteristics
and often relate to such health and safety issues as strength of structural steel
components used in bridges and buildings.
Many ASTM procedures have been approved by the ANSI, and this is the
indicated in the designation of the test method.
7.8. ISO International Organization for Standardization
International Organization for Standardization is a worldwide federation of
national standards bodies from some 100 countries, one from each country.
ISO is a non governmental organization established in 1947. The mission of ISO
is to promote the development of standardization and related activities in the world with
view to facilitating the international exchange of goods and services, and to developing
cooperation in the sphere of intellectual, scientific, technological and economic activity.
7.8.1. Need for ISO
The existence of non-harmonized standards for similar technologies in different
countries or regions can contribute to so called technical barriers to trade.
Export oriented industries have always felt the need to agree on world standards
to help international trade. This was the origin of the establishment of ISO.
International Standardization is now well established for very many technologies
in such diverse field as information processing and communications, textiles,
packaging, distribution of goods, energy production and utilization, ship building,
banking and financial services.
7.8.2. ISO 9000 Series Standards
The ISO 9000 series is a set of five individual, but related, international
standards on quality management and quality assurance.
41

They are generic not specific to any particular products. They can be used in the
manufacturing and service industries

ISO 9000

Quality Management and Quality Assurance Standards

Guidelines for Selection and Use

ISO 9001

Quality Systems Model for Quality Assurance in Design,

Development, Production, Installation, and Servicing

ISO 9002

Quality Systems Model for Quality Assurance in

Production, Installation and Servicing

ISO 9003

Quality Systems Model for Quality Assurance in Final

Inspection and Test

ISO 9004

Quality Management and Quality System Elements

Guidelines

These standards were developed with the goal of effectively documenting the
quality system elements to be implemented in order to maintain an effective
quality system in a company.
These standards seek to ensure that a company has in place necessary
organization, commitment and systems to consistently meet defined quality and
performance standards.
It is important to recognize that these standards do not set or define quality
levels; the setting of the quality levels or performance standards is very much up
to the company, depending on the needs of the market place and the
requirements of its customers.

7.8.3. How does the series work?

ISO 9000 is the road map for the series.
Its purpose is to provide the user with the guidelines for selection and use of
ISO 9001, 9002, 9003 and 9004.
ISO 9001,9002, and 9003 are actually successive subsets of each other.
ISO 9001 is the most comprehensive covering design, manufacturing,
installation, and servicing systems, and it covers 20 elements of company
operations.
42

ISO 9002 covers production and installation, and ISO 9003 covers only final
product inspection and test.
7.8.4. Elements of ISO 9000 Standards
1. Management responsibility
2. Quality System
3. Contract Review
4. Design Control
5. Documents and data control
6. Purchasing
7. Customer-supplied product
8. Product identification and
traceability
9. Process Control
10. Inspection and Testing
11. Control of Inspection, measuring,
and test equipment

12. Inspection and test status

13. Control of nonconforming
product
14. Corrective and preventive action
15. Handling, storage, packaging,
preservation and delivery
16. Control of quality audits
17. Internal quality audits
18. Training
19. Servicing
20. Statistical Techniques

7.8.5. Who is using ISO 9000?

Corporations around the world have been building and continue to build their
quality systems around these standards.
Both large and small companies with international businesses perceive the ISO
9000 series as a route to open markets and improved competitiveness. One
doesnt have to be a multinational corporation to benefit from implementing
these standards.
7.8.6. What does being registered to ISO 9001, 9002 or 9003 mean?
Being registered to ISO 9001, 9002 or 9003 means having an accredited
independent third party conduct, an on-site audit of your companys operation
against the requirements of the appropriate standard.
Upon successful completion of this audit, your company will receive a
registration certificate that identifies your quality system as being in compliance
with ISO 9001, 9002 or 9003.
You may publicize your registration and use the third party registrars
certification mark on your advertising, letterheads, and other publicity materials,
but not on your products.
7.8.7. Advantages of Implementing or registering to these standards
These standards can be used as a vital management tool to improve quality and
productivity and save costs.
As company beings to implement ISO 9000 standard, it forces all the employees
to review the current practices in a variety of areas of the company operations
43

and improve them as an effort is made to comply with the requirement of the
standard.
It forces consistency in procedures and practices and thereby brings discipline
in operations, resulting in reduced variability, which is the key to process
improvement.
It generates greater awareness of quality at various levels and across functions
within a company.
It helps identify opportunities for reducing errors and improving quality and
productivity.
As a company goes through registration process quality and productivity
improves.
ISO 9000 registration can be used as a marketing tool, and a competitive
advantage.
Being registered to ISO 9000 Standard will result in reduction in multiple audits /
assessments as customers are increasingly accepting supplier quality system
registration / certification from an accredited third party.
Being registered to ISO 9000 standards offers worldwide credibility as a
company having good quality system in place

44

8.0. Quality Specification

Specifications:
A specification or spec is a precise statement of a set of requirements to be satisfied by
a material, product, system, or service that indicates the procedures for determining
whether each of the requirements is satisfied.
Several key elements have to be emphasized in this definition.
Requirements
Requirements indicate that these expectations are nonnegotiable.
Requirements must be met for the specifications to be satisfied.
Specifications describe requirements. In other words, specific terms and
numerical values with the measurement units are listed so that it is clear what
issues are considered important.
The expectations for performance, quality, or condition is expressly defined.
8.1. Two important elements in Specifications
The numbers used in writing specs address two important elements in
Specifications :
(1) MINIMUMS & (2) TOLERANCES
8.1.1. Minimums
A minimum is the least or low acceptable value for any given parameter or
dimension.
Establishing minimums can be very difficult task because it is these values that
encompass performance, appearance, and quality of the product.
8.1.2. Tolerances
A tolerance describes the range of acceptable values, or in other words, it
describes allowable deviations from specified values.
Tolerances may be listed in several ways; as range from X to Y, as plus/minus
value such as X + Y, or as a minimum with any value greater than the value
listed is being acceptable.
A major problem with tolerances is that they can accumulate or stack up in a
product. The result is an unacceptable product, even though no single
specification is outside the acceptable limit. Tolerances are included when a
range is acceptable. However, not all the specs include tolerances
8.2. Key element in Specification
The final key element in specifications is the inclusion of procedures for analysis
and evaluation. The procedure, test method, or process must be identified in
detail in the specification.

45

 In terms of materials performance, this detailed procedure usually refers to a

standard test method, such as those developed by ASTM or AATCC.
In terms of other aspects, such as product dimensions, diagrams and detailed
explanations or procedures may be included. Identification of procedures is
critical, because they ultimately measure whether the product conforms to
specifications and is acceptable to the company and its target.
8.3. Types of Specification
Companies develop specifications for a product or a material as
An open or
Closed specification.
8.3.1. Open Specification
An open specification allows for consideration of multiple vendors and includes
a description of character and/or performance desired in the product or material to be
purchased. An open specification describes what is wanted and leaves the field open
to any supplier who can meet the requirements specified. Open specifications can
include general information or very specific information regarding fabric mass,
resistance to fading, or whatever performance and design features are required. Open
specifications are used to locate appropriate materials that would satisfy the target
market
8.3.2. Closed specification
A closed specification specifies the exact material, component, or product by the
manufacturer or vendor and includes style numbers, trade names, or other specific
identifiers. All producers or vendors except for the one specified are restricted in
submitting a bid.
Closed specifications are used for the production purposes, pricing and for items
that must incorporate specific materials.
8.4. Types of specifications used by various industries
Some of these are having little relation to textile products. Others may be of
interest when dealing with specific textile products.
8.4.1. Target Specification:
Target specifications relate to the understanding the companys focus in terms of the
product type, price point, and target market needs and expectations. Target
specifications for textile products may be stated in nebulous terms in the companys
mission and philosophy statement.
For example, a company describes its mission as we provide high fashion, upscale
furnishings for discriminating consumer incorporates some general aspects related to
their market and types of products produced.
46

8.4.2. Functional specifications

Functional specifications for textile products relate to performance requirements.
Understanding customer expectations for products will assist in developing the
functional specifications.
Several laws and regulations incorporate functional specifications that must be met.
For example, functional requirements for flammability are defined by the federal law for
mattresses and mattress pads.
8.4.3. Product specification
Product specification includes elements related to production: seam and stich type,
equipment to be used for each operation, and the aspects related to quality.
This would include a description of each seam, the thread to be used, seam type, stitch
type, stitch density, and the precision of matching required for the plaids and when
seams meet. For example, what is the acceptable precision when arms-eye and sleeve
seams meet at the underarm
8.4.4. Materials Specification
Materials Specification for textile products combines identification of the characteristics
of each material (its type, quality characteristics, description, and condition) with the
function or performance aspects.
For materials, this would focus on how the materials, not the product, react to various
conditions of use. Functional specifications need to focus on the product.
8.4.5. Process specification
Process specification addresses all processes, including pattern and marker making,
spreading and cutting, sewing, finishing, packaging and shipment. Product
specifications should address the issues related to product quality.
For example, specifications for packaging might address the number of items to be
placed in a box and the kind of labels needed on the exterior of the box.
These criteria are important for large companies that operate from distribution centers
because of the space available, conveyor belt size restrictions for moving
merchandise, and in tracking merchandise deliveries.
8.4.6. Inspection specifications
Inspection specifications include in-process inspection, final inspection, or acceptable
inspection. These specifications, will describe how and when to inspect products.
8.4.7. Test specifications
Test specifications may be combined with functional and materials specifications.
Test specifications describe the procedures to follow in evaluating the process or the
product before, during, or after production.

47

Testing done before production focuses on the materials their character and
performance.
Testing done during the production focuses on the processes, often during the finishing
step
8.4.8. Acceptance Specifications
Acceptance Specifications describe the frequency, type and the location of the defects
that will be acceptable in the finished product.
Acceptance specifications often address aspects relate to the appearance,
performance, labeling, and packaging.
8.4.9. Installation Specifications
Installation Specifications most often relate to the installation of the contract and home
furnishings and industrial products. It is the detail instructions necessary for installing
products on site ready for use. Probably prepared by the design or product
development and engineering divisions.
8.4.10. Use Specifications
Use specifications include information and special instructions that users will need to
enable them to use the product in its intended manner. Probably prepared by
marketing with assistance from the design and engineering divisions.
8.4.11. Maintenance Specifications
Maintenance specifications gives in details the procedures to be followed to ensure
that the product receives correct maintenance at required intervals. Probably prepared
by the design and marketing divisions
8.4.12. Disposal Specifications
Identifies any special requirements in terms of disposal of the product. May be included
with the recyclable products. Probably prepared by the design and engineering
divisions
8.4.13. Procurement Specifications
Provide a total picture of the what, where, when and how expected of the product so
that prospective suppliers know what is expected of them. Used by buying
organizations to procure relatively complex products that must meet variety of
requirements related to materials, functional, inspection, test and acceptance areas.
Probably developed by design, product development, and engineering divisions.

48

8.5. Tolerances
Tolerances identify the acceptable range of variation from a specification. When
reviewing specs for products, tolerances are more likely to be listed as ranges of
behaviour than as minimums, as was the situation with the materials.
If dimensions for any given size are too far above or below the specifications, the
product is outside that size and does not meet customer expectations. Thus, if
dimensions differ too much, a garment will no longer fit within the dimensions that
define a size.
In addition, the function of a product or component may be critical to its target market.
Components are the products pieces that are sewn together or otherwise attached and
treated as one piece in a later production stage, such as collars, cuffs, sleeves, and
plackets. If a product or a component of a product exceeds the acceptable range, it
may no longer function. For example, buttons and buttonholes must match within a
narrow range or the closed placket will not line up with the correct button hole, and the
product will hang in a distracting or uncomfortable manner.

49

9.0. Fabric Inspection Systems

Inspection
Inspection in reference to the apparel industry can be defined as the visual
examination or review of raw materials (such as fabric, buttons, zippers, sewing
threads, trims etc,), partially finished components of the garments and completely
finished garments in relation to some standards, specifications, or requirements, as
well as measuring the garments to check if they meet the required measurements.
The principle involved in inspection is the early detection of defects, feedback of this
information to the appropriate people, and determination of the cause, ultimately
resulting in the correction of the problem. The main objective of inspection is the
detection of the defects and nonconformances as early as possible in the
manufacturing process so that time and money are not wasted later on in either
correcting the defect or writing off defective garments.
9.1. Inspection Loop:
For inspection to be effective, the entire inspection loop is shown below must be
completed.
Inspectio
n
Correctio
n of the
defects

Deternminatio
n of causes of
defects

Detection
of Defects

Feedback of
these defects
to appropriate
personnel

Inspection Loop
The inspection is divided into the following three sections
1). Raw Material Inspection.
2). In-process Inspection.
3). Final Inspection.
Raw Material Inspection Fabric Inspection
After fabric is received, it should be inspected to determine its acceptability from a
quality viewpoint; otherwise extra cost in garment manufacturing may be incurred due
to either the loss of the material or time, to say nothing of customers returns and
dissatisfaction due to poor quality.
50

Some garment manufacturers rely on the fabric suppliers to perform the fabric
inspection and mark fabric defects. Either way the fabric is inspected prior to spreading
will remove the burden of the quality responsibility from those performing the spreading
and cutting operations.
A spreader will be able to concentrate on spreading more quickly without having to
worry about inspecting the fabric. A cutters productivity would increase because the
defects are already marked. In many small companies spreading and cutting is done
by the same personnel and fabric is inspected as it is being spread on a table for
cutting.
Regardless of what practice is followed, the important point is that the fabric should be
inspected before cutting, the defects marked and the patterns cut around the defects
so as not to include them in the finished garment.
9.2. Fabric Inspection Machine
Fabric inspection is usually done on fabric inspection machines.
These machines are designed so that rolls of the fabric can be mounted behind the
inspection table under adequate light and rerolled as they leave the table.
Defects in the fabric can be seen easily and readily with these machines, as the
inspector has a very good view of the fabric and the fabric does not need to be
reversed to detect defects.
The inspection machines are either power driven or the inspector pulls the fabric over
the inspection table.
The defects are located, marked and recorded in the inspection form. Such machines
are also equipped to accurately measure the length of each roll of the fabric as well as
monitor the width of the fabric.
The width of the fabric is very critical to the cost of the manufacturing but it may be
even more critical to the manufacturers of basic garments such as mens and boys
underwear who frequently reuse the markers, make pattern changes less often, and
perhaps use tight markers resulting in greater fabric utilization.
Therefore the Variation in the width would result in the higher cost of manufacturing for
such companies. On the other hand, fashion garment manufacturers frequently change
their patterns and therefore do not use the same markers again and again, so variation
in fabric width may not be as much of a problem for them as for the manufacturers of
basic garments. Also the profit margin for the basic garment manufacturers is usually
lower than the fashion garment manufacturers, and therefore, maximum fabric
utilization is vital for basic garment manufacturing companies.
9.3. General Inspection Procedures
1. Fabric inspection is done in suitable and safe environment with enough
ventilation and proper lighting.

51

2. Fabric passing through the frame must be between 45-60 degree angles to
inspector and must be done on appropriate Cool White light 2 F96 fluorescent
bulbs above viewing area. Back light can be used as and when needed.
3. Fabric speed on inspection machine must not be more than 15 yards per
minute.
4. All fabric inspection must be done when 80% of good or lot is received.
5. Standard approved bulk dye lot standards for all approved lots must be available
prior to inspection.
6. Approved standard of bulk dye lot must be available before starting inspection
for assessing colour, hand, weight, construction, finish and visual appearance.
7. Shade continuity within a roll by checking shade variation between centre and
selvage and the beginning, middle and end of each roll must be evaluated and
documented.
8. Textiles like knits must be evaluated for weight against standard approved
weight.
9. Fabric width must be checked from selvage to selvage against standard.
10. All defects must be flagged during inspection
11. The length of each roll inspected must be compared to length as mentioned on
supplier ticketed tag and any deviation must be documented and reported to mill
for additional replacement to avoid shortage.
12. If yard dyed or printed fabrics are being inspected the repeat measurement must
be done from beginning, middle and end of selected rolls.
In India and many other countries fabric inspection many times is carried out manually,
either on a slanting inspection table or on a horizontal table, some time with light under
it or some time without it. This way of fabric inspection is neither effective nor efficient.
There are various fabric inspection systems, as listed below. However, the 4-point
system and 10-point system are used most widely.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

4 Point System
10 Point System
Graniteville 78 system
Dallas System.
Textile Distribution Institute (National Federation of Textiles-1955) System
4 Point System revised.

9.4. 4 Point System

The 4 Point System, also called the American Apparel Manufacturers Association
(AAMA) point grading system for determining fabric quality, is widely used by
producers of apparel fabrics and by the department of Defense in United States and is
endorsed by the AAMA as well as the American Society for Quality Control (ASQC).
Fabric flaws or defects are assigned point values based on the following.
52

Length of the defect in fabric, either warp or weft wise direction

Up to 3 inches
Over 3 inches up to 6 Inches
Over 6 inches up to 9 inches
Over 9 inches
Holes and openings (Large Dimensions)
1 inch or less
Over 1 Inch

Points allotted
1
2
3
4
2
4

The total defect points per 100 square yard are calculated, and normally those fabric
rolls containing more than 40 points per 100 square yard are considered as seconds.
However, a garment may use more or less than 40 points per 100 square yards as an
acceptance criteria.
Therefore
Points per 100
Square yards

Total points scored in the roll X 3600_______

Fabric width in inches X total yards inspected.

The following points are worthy of note:

1. The maximum number of defect points to be counted against any one linear
yard is 4 points. Overall, fabric quality is assessed on the basis of the number of
defect points per 100 square yards of fabric.
2. The fabric is graded regardless of the end product. However, this drawback can
be overcome. For example, a manufacturer may decide to use different point
values for first and second quality fabrics (or acceptable / rejection criteria)
depending on the end item being manufactured. For example, acceptance /
rejection criteria of 40 points / square yard may be alright for fabric for mens
casual trousers and sports shirts, but the same may not be adequate for fabric
for mens suits. Different types of fabrics have different point levels of
acceptability. These levels of acceptability are usually established by the mutual
agreement between the buyer and the seller.
3. A defect point in a 4 Point system is not a consistent unit of measure. For
example, 4 points when representing slubs may affect no more than 4 inches of
defect, but when representing a full width of defect in a 60-inch wide fabric, 4
points represent 60 inches of continuous defect. In the first case, a point
represents 1 inch or less, whereas in the second case, a point represents 15
inches of defect. This system is not sensitive to the width of the fabric being
inspected.
4. The 4 point system makes no provision for the probability of minor defects
causing seconds or minor defects falling out on the cutting table, being lost in
the fabrication or escaping scoring in the finished garment. There are defects
accepted inconspicuous areas of the first quality garments and rejected when
found in conspicuous areas. There is no provision for the very influential factor

53

5. There is no standard sampling plans used in the industry for the inspection of
the fabric or piece goods.
6. No industry standards or acceptable limits exist for shortage in number of yards
on roll of fabric.
Defects which must be scored includes:
a. Bar Filling wise thick place, thin place, coarse yarn or fine yarn.
b. Bad Selvedge Loose, tight, beaded, raged etc.
c. Broken End A warp yarn missing for a portion of its length
d. Chafe An area where the fabric has been damaged by abrasion or friction.
e. Coarse End Or Pick A warp or weft yarn having larger diameter or more plies
than normally used in the fabric.
f. End Out A warp end missing from the entire length of the cloth.
g. Fine End A warp yarn having smaller diameter or less plies than normally
used in the fabric.
h. Flat Two or more threads weaved as one and not meant to be a feature of the
weave.
i.

Float A thread that extend unwoven over the threads of the opposite set with
which it should normally be interlaced.

j.

Fly loose fibers not originating from the fabric or foreign mater that have been
woven into the fabric.

k. Fuzz Balls Loose fibers originated from within the fabric that have formed balls
and is woven into the fabric.
l.

Hard Size An excessive quantity of size material.

m. Double Pick An extra pick dragged into shed with the correct pick for a portion
of the width of the fabric
n. Kink (Snarl) A short length of yarn spontaneously doubled on itself.
o. Misspick A pick woven in the wrong order with respect to the weave or colour
pattern.
p. Missing End A warp wise streak causing the improper spacing of the warp
across the fabric.
54

q. Mixed Yarn Yarn that differs from that used in normal.

r. Reed Mark -- A warp wise streak caused by damage reed.
s. Smash An area where the fabric been ruptured by breakage of large number
of ends.
t. Temple Mark Disturbance of the appearance at the temple region.
u. Tight end or pick
v. Torn Selvedge
9.5. 10-Point System
Under this system, fabric defects are assigned point values based on the following.
Length of the defects
Warp defects
Up to 1
1 to 5
5 to 10
10 to 36
Weft defects
Up to 1
1 to 5
5 to Width
More than Width

Points allotted
1
3
5
10
1
3
5
10

For width less than 50

First Quality =

Total Defect Points < Total Yards inspected

Otherwise it is second Quality

For more than 50 width
First Quality =

Total Defects X 1.1 Points < Total Yards Inspected.

Maximum defects allotted /yard = 10. Otherwise it is second quality.

9.6. Correlation between Fabric Quality and Apparel Quality
Various studies have shown that there is a direct correlation between fabric quality and
apparel quality, and poor quality fabric results in excess cost of apparel manufacturing.
The subject point system can be used consistently, effectively, and economically as an
55

index of fabric quality. The quality grade obtained by this system bears a measureable
relation to garment quality. The weighting of the defects as 1,2,3 & 4 points defects is
sound. The greatest weakness of this point system is difficulty in evaluating
seriousness. Using proper precautions, this weakness is not disabling. The general use
of this grading system will provide profitable to the seller and the buyer alike.
While inspecting fabric for obvious defects, one should note any extreme variations in
the hand, nap, or nay other such surface finish characteristics if they will be
detrimental. Also any noticeable variation in the shade of a fabric should be recorded.
This variation could be in the roll of the fabric or from roll to roll. Comparing the shades
of two colors of two pieces of fabric (such as from roll to roll or between a standard
piece of fabric and a roll of a fabric) is called shade matching.
The shade matching process sounds fairly simple; however, due to subtle factors like
lighting and background color in the area where shade matching is being done; or the
ability of the individual who is doing the shade matching to perceive shades of color,
shade matching can be difficult.

56

10.0. Sewing Threads:

The necessity of the good sewing thread is evident because of the following
(1). During sewing process in a high speed lock stitch machine, the thread is subjected
to complex kinematic and dynamitic conditions. The speed at which it passes through
the needle eye can reach 140-165 km / hour and at the moment at which the thread is
caught by the sewing hook, the speed reaches 2000m/sec.
While moving at such high speeds, the thread is subjected to friction from a number of
guides, from the needle eye, from the fabric being sewn, from the bobbin case
assembly, and from the bottom thread. At the same time, the thread is subjected to
many stresses, all of which take place very quickly and at high speed.
These effects acts on the sewing thread repeatedly and for a fairly prolonged period of
time, since a length of the thread, before being incorporated in a stitch, may pass more
than 30 times through the fabric, the needle eye, and the bobbin case mechanism.
Such a severe working condition with the heat generated in the needle can reduce the
initial strength of a thread by as much as 60% and this is one of the causes of
increased breakage in the needle thread during high speed sewing.
Therefore the sewing thread should be checked and tested for following
characteristics.
1. Construction
Yarn count, yarn ply, number of twists, twist balance, yarn strength (tenacity),
yarn elongation.
2. Sewability
At least three sewing thread packages from a lot should be used for at least 100
yards of sewing under normal conditions and a record kept for running
performance. A good quality sewing thread should be able to produce uniform
consistent stitches in the chosen sewing material at the highest machine speed
under normal conditions. In addition, actually using at least three packages of
sewing thread from each lot will give a very good indication of the following
properties of sewing thread.
10.1. Properties of Sewing Thread
1. Imperfections
Sewing threads should be free from slubs, knots or any such defects.
Otherwise, there will be excessive stoppage on the sewing machine, resulting in
the lower sewing efficiency.
2. Finish
Thread finish is basically a lubricant applied to a sewing thread so that the
thread will slip easily and smooth through the eye of the sewing machine needle
and through various thread handling parts of a sewing machine. This finish
57

varies from 3 to 15% of the weight of the thread. The amount of finish must be
consistent from package to package and from lot to lot; otherwise, sewing
quality and efficiency will be lost completely.
3. Color
Color of a sewing thread (including white) should match that of either he original
or the standard sample and should not vary too much within a lot or shipment of
sewing thread. Also, the color should not bleed in washing and or dry cleaning
and fade in sunlight.
4. Package Density
Package density of the sewing thread should be consistent from package to
package within a shipment or lot and from shipment to shipment. If package
density varies too much, sewing machine operators will have to adjust the
tension frequently, resulting in lower productivity.
5. Winding
Winding of the sewing thread on packages should be uniform; otherwise, it may
result in excessive thread breakages, again causing lower efficiency.
6. Yardage
Length of the sewing thread on each package should be at least the specified
amount or within certain tolerance, such as + 2% of the labeled length.

58

11.0. Zippers:
Zippers should be checked for the following.
1. Dimensions
Check for the correct width of the tape. If it isnt correct, the machine will run off.
Measure overall length with the zipper closed from extreme ends of metal. Tape
extensions should be as specified.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Top and bottom stops be fastened securely

Zipper tape should be of uniform in color if that is important
Zipper should not cause wrinkling or puckering after it is sewn in to the garment
Can a zipper be washed or dry cleaned? Will it fade? Will the slide deform under
pressing or ironing?
Check the force it takes to pull open the zipper (sideways)
Pull tab should be affixed firmly to the slider body
Slider should ride freely but must not be so free that it is loose on the chain
Check also to be sure the slider locks securely.

11.1. Avoiding Zipper Problems

Most zipper failures in garments are the result of
- Improper installation methods in the sewing
- Questionable garment design or construction
- Incorrect product application
- Factory and / or retail customer abuse.
As a mechanically operational device, a zipper is the most sophisticated component in
the garment, and thus is acutely vulnerable to human error. This is especially true in
factories that use continuous zipper chain and perform the gapping, bottom stopping,
and slidering operations in-house
Slider Direction
The slider direction must run in a specific direction. On metal chain, the points of the
teeth face towards the open end of the zipper. Correct direction is more difficult to
determine with the plastic chai, but in both cases, arrows are usually printed on the
tapes that point towards top, open end.
Right Side Up
On plastic coil and extruded tooth chain, the slider should be mounted, with the pull tab
on the same side as the printing on the tapes. Some of coil zipper is not symmetrical,
therefore making slider mounting obvious. Side to side orientation is not critical with
metal or molded chain.

59

Stabilization
Most zippers tapes contain some percentage of cotton, or cotton blend yarns in order
to provide a dense anti-sleazy construction. A resin treatment option is available for
permanent press or low shrink applications, which are commonly referred to as
stabilization. The process consists of applying a material to the chain which, when
cured with a specified temperature/time relationship, will impart synthetic qualities to
the cotton, at some sacrifice of strength. Resin treated chain is available in either a
semi cured or fully cured state, to match similarly treated textiles. The use of fully cured
chain with semi-cured textile will result in tape degradation when the assembly is
subjected to a final cure. Also, the use of resin treated chain in a garment that receives
resin treatment as an assembly, will subject the tape to double treatment, resulting in
degradation of the cotton yarns.
Slider and Chain Combinations
Every zipper manufacturer has a large stable of slider and chain available for most
applications. Materials vary from light weight plastic through the family of metals such
as Zinc, steel, brass, and nickel-silver. Slider action covers a spectrum from nonlock,
pinlock, camlock, flangelock, fliplock and atuolock. Selecting the proper combination is
best left to application lab of the zipper supplier.
60

Handling and Processing Zipper

Zipper chain should be stored at a moderate temperature and humidity. Long term
storage at elevated temperatures can cause some tape yarn deterioration, especially
with resin treatment.
Excessive tension or shock loading of zipper chain during processing can affect
dimensions and cause latent shrinkage
Running more than one manufacturers chain simultaneously can result in accidental
mixing of components.
Ratcheting
This is the act of forcing the slider down the chain by pulling the two open halves apart.
Although some sliders are designed to ratchet, this action does the damage, degrade
the teeth, and with positive locking sliders the chain is destroyed. Ratcheting occurs in
the sewing room, finishing, and at industrial laundries when operator wants to open the
garments fast.
Retail users can ratchet a slider by not fully opening the zipper when putting on or
removing the garment, or as deliberate act to allow return of an unwanted item.
Shear
This is the act of attempting to shift one half of the chain with respect to the other half
after the slider is mounted. It occurs when an operator tries to adjust the waistband
alignment without first removing the slider, and usually results in permanent damage.
Slider Distortion
A slider is clam shelled when the top and bottom have been spread apart, as in
opening a clam. This condition can be caused by sticking slider holder or by an overzealous consumer trying to move a stuck slider with a pair of pliers. A crushed slider
usually occurs in the pressing buck of the garment factory or in industry laundering.
Slider holder
This device holds the slider by the pull tab, and lifts the lock out of the path of the chain
during slider threading. A misadjusted holder can cause ratcheting if the lock release
malfunction or clam shelled sliders and chain damage if the pull clamp does not
release after threading.
Bottom Stop
The primary function of the bottom stop is to prevent accidental opening of the closed
end of the chain. A stop that is not tightly clinched over the zipper teeth, or is totally
missing will allow the chain to open behind the slider. This condition can sometimes be
repaired in the factory by pulling the slider down thus rehealing the chain, and applying
a new stop.

61

Sewing
The major cause of zipper failure is poor sewing. A garment panel attached too close
to teeth will interfere with the slider and get caught inside. Attempting to free the slider
can cause garment and chain damage, or clam shelled sliders. A sew line that is not
parallel to the chain or wanders, causes localized high stresses and curvature which
can eventually lead to erratic slider action and tape failure. Low stitch count can lead to
tape sleaziness, and using blunt, large diameter needles will cause heating and melting
during sewing because of the high density tight weave inherent in zipper tapes.
Improper thread trimming will cause interference with slider action when the loose ends
become caught.
Fly Serging
The outer edge of zipper tape can be accidentally cut during right fly serging knives,
causing disastrous zipper failure. The best policy is to remove the knives entirely, or
use a positive edge guide.
Hump
Hump is a roller coaster effect of either the zipper chain or garment at the sew line.
A humpy zipper is usually caused by the operator over tensioning the garment panel
during sewing, or feeding the assembly with the chain down in engagement with the
feed dog. A humpy garment is usually caused by the over tensioning the zipper during
sewing, or excessive foot pressure. Hump after washing or dry cleaning is the result of
excessive foot pressure. Hump after washing or dry cleaning is the result of the
excessive differential shrinkage between the garment and zipper. Contrary to poor
opinion, this condition is usually the result of excessive garment textile shrinkage,
resulting in zipper hump.

62

Popping
A zipper that opens in one spot has been popped. This can be caused by very high
localized force, but is usually the result of folding the zipper back upon itself while
under cross wise load. Most metal and extruded or molded plastic chain is almost
impossible to pop. Coil zipper pop more readily, but can be healed by running the
slider down and back up.
Waist band and Hook/Eye Closures
The hook and bar, snap, hook and eye, and button closures used at the top of the
zipper opening are intended to absorb all the crosswise stress when closed. Mislocated
or poorly attached closures will subject the zipper teeth to very high stresses at the top.
Garments that are sized small, or retail customers that purchase undersized items,
promote failure because these closures are usually left open and the slider is used to
keel the opening closed.
Bar tacks
Bar tacks serve the function of protecting the bottom stop from excessive load in fly
operations. A missing bar tack, or one set too low, could result in a bottom stop failure
at the retail level.
Design Problems
Many potential zipper problems can be avoided at the garment design level. Some of
the more common errors are;
-

Opening too short, causing bottom stop failure, such as in hip hugger jeans
Wrong side zipper not designed for stress
Wrong type zipper
Installation across a heavy fell seam, causing popping and slider snagging
Insufficient fly piece reinforcement
Improper sew line position, either too near the outer tape edge or the teeth.
Lack of bar tacks at the bottom, as previously mentioned.

Zippers problems that do not fall within the scope of this bulletin are best diagnosed by
calling in the supplier. Some manufacturers supply a free application lab service that
will analyze a new design or construction prior to production.

63

12.0. BUTTONS, BUCKLES AND SNAP FASTENERS

12.1. Buttons
Buttons should have large, clean sew holes that are free
from flash and will not cut the thread. Holes must be
located properly in relation to the edge of the button.
Buttons should be uniform thickness. The color or shade
of the buttons should be within a certain visual tolerance.
Buttons should be able to withstand laundering, dry
cleaning, and pressing without any changes such as
cracks, melting of surface (scorch), and change in color
or shade.

12.2. Buckles
Buckles should be checked for any visual defects such as sharp, burred edges. If a
buckle is cloth or vinyl covered, there should not be an appropriate difference in the
buckle and garment materials.
12.3. Snap Fasteners
The attaching machinery should locate the snap fasteners accurately and at proper
pressure. Components parts should be checked to close tolerances and free from dirt
and other foreign substances so that
they will feed rapidly through the
hopper and permit uniform and troublefree
assembly.
Hardness
and
workability of metal are important
factors also and are controlled carefully
by quality suppliers. If the metal is too
hard, the parts will be formed poorly
and may crack; if it is too soft, the
closure will be weak.

64

13.0. TRIMS TESTING

Fusible Interlinings
Zippers
Elastic Waist band
Sewing threads
Buttons
Snap Fasteners
13.1. Testing of Fusible Interlining
The purpose of fusible interlinings is to give shape or form and improve the aesthetics
of a garment. There is no better way to test fusible interlining other than to actually fuse
the interlining with the end-item fabric and evaluate such samples before starting mass
production.
Therefore, at least three 30 X 30 cm (12 X 12 in.) pieces of end-item fabric cut and
fused to the 23 X 23 cm (9 X 9 in.) pieces of fusible interlining at the recommended
time, temperature, and pressure. Then these specimens are checked for compatibility,
shrinkage and bond strength.
Compatibility means that the fusible interlining material should provide good
drapability, bulk, and support without altering the natural hand of the end item (shell)
fabric.
Shrinkage can be measured by placing gauge marks on the interlinings and shell
fabrics before fusing and measuring the distance between these gauge marks after
fusing. Any significant shrinkage in the fusible interlining fabric would result in a
noticeable bubbled appearance on the right side of the shell/interlining assembly.
Bond strength can be determined by using the standard method of testing bonded
and laminated apparel fabrics.
13.2. Testing of Zippers
Zippers can be tested using any one or more of the following ASTM test methods
-

Durability of finish of zippers to laundering

Colorfastness of zippers to dry cleaning
Colorfastness of zippers to light
Colorfastness of zippers to crocking
Colorfastness of zippers to laundering
Durability of finish of zippers to dry cleaning
Resistance of zippers to salt spray (fog)
Measuring zipper dimensions
Strength tests of zippers
Operability of zippers

65

The durability of the finish of the zippers to laundering is evaluated by laundering

the test specimen in a Launderometer. The effect of the test on zipper coating is
evaluated by noting the loss of coating on the zipper chain or components or both
The color fastness of zippers to dry cleaning is tested by subjecting the zipper tape
to commercial dry- cleaning with multi-fibre fabric. The dry cleaned specimen is
compared with the original specimen and any change in the color of the specimen or
staining of the multi-fibre fabric is then assessed using AATCC grey scale for color
change or the chromatic transference scale.
The color fastness of the zippers to laundering is tested by subjecting the zipper
with a multi-fibre test fabric to home laundering according to the intended care
instructions of the garments on which this particular zipper would be used. The
alteration in shade of the zipper tape and degree of staining of multi-fibre test fabric is
evaluated by the AATCC gray scale for staining and color change or the chromatic
transference scale.
The durability of the finish in the zippers to dry cleaning is tested by subjecting the
zipper to the dry cleaning, as in AATCC test method 86, but the zipper is air-dried
rather than hot pressed. The specimen is then evaluated visually for any exposed base
metal compared to a new zipper or compared to a sample illustrating an acceptable
degree of coating loss.
Sometimes due to corrosion, a zipper will not operate smoothly and its crosswise
strength may be reduced. Such deterioration in a zipper can be evaluated by
subjecting the zipper to a slat spray test. Of course, plastic/nylon zippers do not
corrode, and therefore this test applies only to metal zippers. In this test method,
specimens are subjected to slat spray [5% salt solution at 33 0 to 360 C for 24 hours
continuously] as directed by ASTM method D 2059, slat spray testing. The exposed
specimens are then visually evaluated for any sign of corrosion and tested for ease of
operation and crosswise strength, and results are compared with the ease of operation
and crosswise strength of the original specimens. Zippers dimensions should be
measured in certain ways so that they can be communicated effectively.
13.2.1. Zipper Strength Tests
The usefulness of a zipper in service can be evaluated by the following strength tests.
No one test determines the suitability of a zipper for a specific end use. Since the tests
are interrelated, more than one may be needed for a complete evaluation. Zipper
strength is usually tested in the following areas.
1. Crosswise Strength The ability of a zipper chain to withstand lateral stress is
measured by loading to destruction a 1 in. section of the specimen in the tensile
testing machine.

66

2. Scoop pull-off The gripping strength of a scoop around the bead is determined
by pulling a single scoop from the bead at right angles to the stringer using a
tensile testing machine with a specially designed fixture.
3. Holding strength of stops The ability of stops to perform their intended purpose
is determined through the use of five different methods that simulate the
important stresses encountered in the end use of zippers.
4. Scoop slippage The ability of a scoop to resist longitudinal movement along
the bead of the tape is determined with a tensile testing machine fitted with a
specially designed fixture
5. Resistance to cushioned compression of sliders The lower plateau of
compression tester is cushioned with a neoprene pad. The specimen is laid on
the pad and a load is applied. Then, the operability of zipper is tested and
compared to the operability of the original zipper.
6. Slider deflection & recovery There are two procedures for determining the
resistance of slider planes of zippers to an opening or spreading force. In one
procedure, the force is applied to the mouth of the slider. In the other, an
alternative method, the force is applied through the slider pull and back plane of
the slider.
7. Resistance to twist of pull and slider In this method, the twist resistance of a
pull and slider assembly against a torsional force applied to the pull of the zipper
is evaluated. A fixture is used with a torque wrench to apply a specified twisting
force to a slider pull. The amount of permanent twist imparted to the slider pull
or other permanent damage or deformation are noted. The specimen is also
examined for any other effects such as breaking of deformation of the lug or any
other part of the assembly.
8. Resistance to pull-off slider pull In this test, with a special fixture, tensile load
is applied to the slider pull to determine how much force is required to pull off
the slider pull.
The operability of zippers are tested by pulling the slider with a force indicator (such as
pull gauge) along the zipper chain alternately in the opening and closing directions and
the force required to maintain each movement is recorded. The force required to move
the slider on the chain is a measure of the ease with which the zipper will operate in
end use applications.
13.3. Elastic Waistband Testing
There are two properties of an elastic waistband that need testing;
i. Fit for labeled size
ii. Resistance to degradation (becoming loose, losing elasticity) due to laundering.
67

13.3.1. Fit for the labeled Size

This property can be tested by stretching the waistband about 5 cm more than the hip
dimension for the labeled size (to stimulate the condition that exists when putting on
the garment) and bringing back the waistband to the waist dimension for the labeled
size and measuring the force it takes to keep the waistband stretched at that particular
dimension. Then the similar garments must be wear tested and the numerical value of
the force required must be correlated with the actual comfort during wear. This testing
can be done on a tensile testing machine.
13.3.2. Resistance to Degradation, Accelerated Aging Method
1. Take three specimens of the elastic that would be used for a waistband. Mark
them in such a way that the distance between the marks is 25 cm (10 in.). Then
subject them to accelerated aging [expose them to 149 0C for 2 hour in a
circulated air oven]. After aging, let the specimens cool down to room
temperature.
2. Then, stretch the specimen 50% and keep them in that stretched condition for
24 hours. Allow them to relax for 10 min. Then, measure the distance between
the gauge marks and express that as a percentage of the original distance
between the gauge marks 25 cm (10 in.). Use a sign to indicate shrinkage and
a + sign to indicate growth in the distance between the gauge marks. The final
results are expressed as the average of the three specimens.
3. Usually any growth over 7% or 8% is not acceptable. Any shrinkage is
unacceptable because it will result in tight fit.
13.4. Sewing Thread Testing
There is an ASTM test method for sewing threads. This test method outlines the
procedure for testing the following properties of sewing threads.
-

Diameter
Length per thread holder
Strength and elongation
Shrinkage, single end
Twist and twist balance
Yarn number.

Diameter Knowledge of thread diameter is important because diameter can affect

sewing performance and seam appearance. Sewing performance can be influenced
because thread is required to pass through restrictions, such as needles eye and
tension disks. Seam appearance can be adversely affected when the diameter of a
thread is large enough to displace fabric yarn and results in a puckered seam. Sewing
thread diameter is also a consideration when selecting sewing threads for embroidery,
contrast stitching, or other decorative applications.
The diameter of the thread is determined either with the thickness gauge or optically.
The procedure for measuring sewing thread diameter by thickness gauge is as follows:
68

Draw the thread from the side of the sewing thread holder, taking care not to disturb
the twists. Place four strands of the thread side by side on the anvil and approximately
midway between the sides of the pressure foot of the thickness gauge. Measure the
thickness to the nearest 0.0025 cm under 240gm/cm2 (0.001 in. under 3.4.psi)
pressure at 10 points along the thread and calculate the average as diameter of the
sewing thread.
The optical method for measuring sewing thread diameter is not recommended
because it has difficulty determining the exact boundaries of threads having hairy fibres
on the surface.
Length per thread holder The length of the sewing thread on a thread holder is
measured in meters or yards while being removed from the thread holder.
Strength and Elongation Strength and elongation of sewing threads are determined
by the same way as the strength and elongation of yarn, by a single strand method
(ASTM D-2256).
The loop length and elongation of a sewing thread are a measure of the threads ability
to contribute to seam performance. The loop strength of a thread bears a direct
relationship to stitch strength and hence to seam strength. Loop elongation is an
indication of the degree to which seam, under stress, can be stretched without a thread
breaking. Besides loop elongation, the ultimate elongation of a seam is dependent on
the material stitched, the stitch and seam type and number of stitches per inch.
In a loop strength and elongation test, each specimen consists of two pieces of yarn
taken from one package or end. Both the ends of one piece are secured in one clamp
of the testing machine so that the length of the loop is about one-half the gauge length.
One end of the second loop is passed through the loop formed by the first piece of the
sewing thread, and both ends of the second piece are clamped in the other clamp of
the testing machine, the machine is started, and the load and elongation, when the
loop breaks, are observed and noted.
Shrinkage, Single End Shrinkage of sewing thread is important because shrinkage
can cause puckering of a seam, thus adversely affecting seam appearance.
A conditioned single end of thread is measured under a prescribed tensioning force
before and after exposure to boiling water for hour or dry heat 1520 + 30 C for 1 hour.
The change in the length is expressed as a percentage of the length before exposure.
Twist and twist balance For determining twist level in the sewing thread, the ASTM
test methods cited in [88-89] can be used. The determination of twist balance is
important in predicting the snarling tendency of the thread during actual sewing
operations. In this method, about a meter (yard) of conditioned thread from a holder is
withdrawn in the same manner as that in which it is delivered to the sewing machine
and formed into a loop, positioning the ends of the threads so that they are 10 cm (4
69

in.) apart at the top of the loop. The twist balance is reported in terms of the complete
rotations that the loop makes.
Yarn Number The yarn number of the sewing threads can be determined by the
ASTM test methods
13.5. Buttons Testing
Durability of the buttons can be tested by an impact test. Individual buttons are placed
on a surface centered under a tube through which a preselected mans falls from a
preselected height. After the mans impact the button, the button is removed from a
testing device and visually examined using 5x Magnifying glass for breakage, cracking,
or chipping. The practice is used for acceptance testing of buttons. The buttons are
classified as class A, B1 through B3 depending upon the impact resistance, the class A
button being the most durable.

70

14.0. Procedures practiced for Quality Control and Assurance (Cutting)

-

Process of Inspection,
Types of Defects and their possible solutions,
o (Marker making,
o spreading,
o cutting,
o bundling ,
o ticketing
o quality parameters and formats )
Quality Specs.

14.1. Introduction In-Process Inspection

In-process inspection means the inspection of parts before they are assembled into a
complete product. In apparel manufacturing, this means inspection at various points in
the entire manufacturing process from spreading to pressing / finishing. The idea
behind the in process inspection is to inspect or check the quality of component parts
close to the manufacturing a possible and thereby identify the source of quality
problems as early in the manufacturing process as possible. This type of inspection
can be performed by either quality control inspectors or individual operators
themselves after they perform their respective operations. This will minimize the need
for later repairs and rework. Each production operation performed correctly makes for a
smooth running plant with low operating costs. Poor quality at any stage in production
compounds itself and can be expected to increase total cost.
In process inspection is also called as during production or du-pro inspection
A well run in-process inspection program will result in the following two advantages.
1. Reduction of major surprises from the customers due to bad quality.
2. Decrease in labor costs due to decrease in repair rates.
These advantages are generally derived from the fact that due to in-process inspection
a. The operators (workers) and supervisors are constantly reminded that the
company has a specific quality level to meet, just by the very presence of the
inspectors in their section on a daily basis.
b. Because each worker realize that his/her work is subjected to being inspected at
any time throughout the day the quality of work produced by workers will
improve
c. The data obtained can be effectively analyzed and utilized by the production
supervisors and plant manager in correcting problems or improving quality.
The day is long past when apparel manufacturers can depend solely on 100% final
inspection at the end of a production line. The quality cannot be inspected into a
garment after it has been made; instead, quality should be manufactured into a
garment at every step and checked repeatedly during production.
71

14.2. In-Process inspection - Spreading defects

Various factors that affect the spreading process are
- Ply alignment
- Ply Tension or Slackness
- Bowing
- Splicing.
The greater the variation in width or length alignment, the greater the waste in the
precision cutting because the ends and sides must be trimmed to the narrowest and
shortest plies.
A tight spread will contract after cutting, resulting in smaller and skimpier components
than what should be. A slack spread possesses excess length within the stipulated end
of the spread. Cut components from a slack spread will tend to be oversized.
Bowing is the distortion of filling yarn from a straight line across the width of the fabric.
This would cause unbalanced stresses in fabric, resulting in slackness and tightness in
the ply that will lead to undersized components. Also the garment component
containing such a defect will tend to twist or distort in laundering or dry-cleaning.
Splicing is the overlapping of two ends of fabric in a ply. A short or insufficient overlap
will result in incompletely cut pattern sections and a long overlap will result in waste.
Static in the fabric may cause a distorted spread, resulting in incompletely cut pattern
sections. Static can be eliminated by either increasing the humidity in the cutting room
or using static eliminators.
Some more possible spreading defects are
- Not enough plies to cover the quantity of garments required.
- Narrow fabric
- Plies not all facing in the correct direction. That is, not all the plies are spread
face down, face up, or face to face, as required.
- Mismatching of checks. Plies not spread accurately one above another ready for
cutting.
14.3. Pattern Defects Marker making Defects
1. Pattern Parts Missing Correct number of parts for all sizes not included by the
marker maker.
2. Mixed parts- Parts not correctly labeled in the marker; therefore, a marriage of
wrong-sized parts.
3. Patterns not facing in the correct direction on napped fabrics
4. Patterns not all facing in the same direction on a one way fabric
5. Patterns not aligned with respect to the grain line of the fabric. As a result, a
garment may not drape or fit properly
6. Line definitions poor (e.g., chalk, too thick, indistinctly printed line, perforated lay
not fully powdered), leading to inaccurate cutting.
72

7. Skimpy marking Either the marker did not use the outside edge of the pattern
or the pattern was moved or swung after partial marking to squeeze the pattern
into a smaller space in the interest of fabric economy. Alternatively, the pattern
is worn around the edges and should be replaced.
8. Generous marking A combination of points 7 and 8 results in the components
being sewn together with puckering or pleating.
9. Marker too wide Garment parts at the edge of the lay are cut with bits missing
10. Not enough knife clearance allowance
11. Mismatched checks and stripes
12. Notches and drill marks omitted, indistinct, or misplaced.
14.4. Cutting Defects
Cutting quality is a prerequisite for quality in a finished product. In addition, cut work
quality affects the ease and cost with which construction is accomplished. The quality
of work leaving the cutting room is determined by how true the cut fabric parts are to
the pattern; how smooth or rough the cut surface is; material or fabric defects in cut
fabric parts; shade differences between cut fabric pieces within a bundle.
In addition various factors in cutting that can affect the subsequent quality should be
checked, such as under- or overcut, size, placement and sequence alignment of
notches and drill holes, ripped or pulled yarns etc.
The defects that may arise in the cutting are
1. Frayed Edges
May impede cutting time by clogging the knife action and / or mar the fabric with
the rips or pulled yarns. The amount of fraying depends on fabric construction
and finish. Improper cutting tools or dull knives cause excessive fraying in a
pattern as section is cut.
2. Fuzzy, ragged or serrated edges
This is the result of the poor cutting. Such edges will impede sewing and / or
diminish sewing quality. Such a condition is caused by faulty knife edges such
as burrs, chips, or dullness.
3. Ply to ply fusion
More common and troublesome. Adjacent plies in a block are fused together,
which makes if difficult for the sewing machine operator to pick up a single ply
quickly. Fusion occurs due to heat created by excessively high speed of cutting
or by friction of a dull knife. To prevent fusion, check knife speed, keep knives
sharp, place wax paper between fabric plies, and lubricate cutting blade.
4. Single edge fusion
Consists of a single ply whose cut yarn ends are fused to form a hard brittle rim
on the cut edge. Sometimes, this is desirable to prevent fraying; however
73

hardness and brittleness are undesirable it they impede sewing manipulation or

may result in seams uncomfortable to the consumer.
5. Pattern Precision
Misshape or distortion of the pattern perimeter as cut. Whether it is under-or
overcut is due to poor manual control of cutting machine and poor lines on the
marker. To assure precision in a pattern, check markers before cutting, use
tensionless spreading, or allow time for fabric to relax. After a cut, check the top,
bottom, and middle plies against the pattern.
6. Notches
Notch size refers to the depth of the notch. If the depth of the notch is too great,
the notch may show after a garment is sewn. If the notches are too small,
sewing operators may have difficulty locating them quickly, resulting in
decreased efficiency. Misplacement of a notch may be due to an improper
spread marker, poor control of cutting machine with cutters notching tool
stroking diagonally instead of vertically, incorrect marker in that notches for
mating parts do not coincide. Check notch placement against mating pieces.
Quality control in stitching may be a problem if notches are not aligned.
7. Drilling
The drill hole may be too large or too small in diameter. In addition, a drill may
become too hot due to high speed or wrong size, causing the plies to fuse
together at the drill hole. The drill must stroke vertically to the table for uniform
placement throughout the bundle. Sometimes fabric properties are such that the
slight movement of yarns in a fabric would close a drill hole. In such cases, it is
necessary to drill holes with a marking fluid. The drill used for such purpose is
hollow and carries marking fluid (ink) that is deposited at the drill point on the
fabric as the needle is withdrawn. Such marks should last long enough so that
further processing can be finished without difficulty, but should be easily
removable after processing or in case of an error.
14.5. Glossary of Cutting room defects
(Pattern, Marker, Spreading and Cutting room defects)
S.No Defect
Description
Pattern Grading Defects
01
Grade not conforming to
Finished product not measuring to specified
Specification Measurements dimensions and component parts not fitting in
relationship to notches, openings, and seams
such as armholes, sleeve heads, neck bands,
neck openings, side seams, inseams and waist
measurements etc.,
02.
Distorted Grading:
Unbalanced patterns which would cause twisted
seams, puckering, pleating and a general
uneconomical yardage waste.
74

09.
10.

Marking Defects
Shaded Parts:
All component pans not included in same
section.
Pieces not Symmetrical
Will not sew together without puckering or
pleating.
Not Marked by Directional
Bias will not fit together, causing twisting,
Lines:
puckering, pleating and a general mismatching
of component parts.
Skimpy marking
Marker did not use outside perimeter of pattern.
Pattern moved after partially marked to fit into
space.
Notches and Punch Marks:
Left out, not clearly marked or misplaced.
Marker Too Wide
Parts will not catch in the lay causing skimpy
garments or requiring recuts
Marker Too Narrow
Results in wasted material.
Mismatched Plaids
Marker did not block component parts to match.

11.

Misdirected Napping

03.
04.
05.

06.

07.
08.

12.
13.
14.
15.

16.

Patterns not marked in same direction on

napped fabrics
Spreading Defects
Uneven Spreading:
Front edge of lay is not even, resulting in front
or back edge of marker not catching all plies.
Narrow Material
Bolts or rolls of material too narrow to cover
marker width
Missed Sectional Breaks:
Sectional marker breaks too long or too short.
Parts in lay will be short or material wasted.
Improper Tension
Cloth spread too tight or too loose, causing
parts not to fit in sewing or distorting dimensions
of garments.
Mismatching Plaids:
Material spread too loose or too tight causing
plaid lines to run diagonally or bow.

17.

Misdirected Napping:

18.

Improper Matching of Face of Not spread face down, face up or face to face
Material
as required
Cutting Defects
Marker or Perforator
Not stapled or stenciled on lay to catch both
edges causing parts to miss in cutting. Too tight
or too loose distorting dimensions of garment.
Perforated stencil not powdered, or inked
sufficiently to show distinct lines, notches and
punch marks
Misplaced Piece Rate Tickets Attached to, or marked on, wrong bundles
or Bundle Members
causing mixed sizes and/or shades.

19

20.

Air pockets not removed. Napped material

reversed in spreading.

75

21.
22.
23.

24.
25.
26.
27

28.
29.
30.
31.

Drill Marks

Drill marks misplaced, not perpendicular,

omitted or wrong side drill used.
Opening Slits
Cut under above to the side or at incorrect
angle. Not cut through entire bundle or omitted.
Improper Cutting
Not following marker lines resulting in distorted
parts. Letting knife lean, causing top and bottom
ply to be of different sizes.
Notches
Misplaced, too deep, too shallow or omitted.
Oil Spots
Equipment improperly oiled or cleaned.
Improper Knife Sharpening
Causing ragged, frayed or fused edges on
bundles.
Knife or Scissors Cut
Piece damaged by over run in cutting previous
piece
Shade Marking Defects
Pencil or Machine marking
Too dark, too light, bleeding through, not legible
or marked on wrong side.
Stains
Ink stains from stamping or pin ticket machines.
Thermo ply or Pin Ticket
Improperly placed or marked
marking:
Mixed Plies
Results in mixed shades

76

15.0. Inspection procedures in Sewing Room

Introduction
In process inspection in the sewing involves the inspection of work from each operator,
with a quality standard established to limit the amount of bad work permitted and a
provision for operators to re inspect and repair entire bundles should this limit be
exceeded.
The decision on where to place the inspection stations will be influenced by various
factors, such as the importance of operations, and controlling troublesome or key
operations. Since the inspections can often be performed for two or more operations at
the same time, in process inspection can be established at various inspection points in
sewing operations, as opposed to the inspector literally selecting work at each
operators work station. First, a complete manufacturing process chart should be made,
clearly identifying the production or manufacturing steps for each type of garment
made.
15.1. What to Inspect during Sewing?
Manufacturing process flow chart for mens dress shirts is given below.
1. Marker lay made according to cutting ticket. Marker lay checked 100%
2. Marker and material delivered to spreading operation. Material spread.
3. Machine knife cut
4. Die cutting small parts
5. Cut parts delivered to plant
6. Collar department: Fuse stays, run collar tops, trim points. Turn and press
(shape), top stitch, trim tops. Hem bands, stich lining to bands. Band collar. Turn
band ends. Top stitch bands. Trim and baste. Quarter-mark band. Button hole.
Button sew.
7. Cuff department: Hem cuff, run cuff. Shape cuff top stitch. Button hole. Button
Sew.
8. Under fronts: Baste neck. Crease Front. Hem button stay. Button Sew. Set
Pocket. Set flap.
9. Upper Fronts: Baste neck. Crease Front. Centre Pleat. Buttonhole. Set Pocket.
Set Flap.
10. Sleeves: Piece binding. Bind Sleeve. Tack binding.
11. Backs: Pleat. Backs
12. Yokes: Label. Sew.
13. Attach yoke backs.
14. Assemble completed bundles of parts, any size, section, ply number, and /or
shade.

77

2
3

4
5

11
1

10

13

12

14

15

16

17

18
9

19
9

20
9

15. Join shoulder seam

16. Join collar to shirt
17. Set sleeve, join side and underarm seams (Side fell)
18. Cuff attach, hem shirt, trim threads.
19. Button shirt, run collar, press, and fold.
20. Pack
The inspection points or stations should be carefully selected so that the operations to
be checked are neither covered by later operations, nor necessitate ripping good work
to repair a defect.
Inspection stations should provide a uniform work load for each inspector and should
minimize the elapsed time between the completion of an operation and its inspection.
78

Each operator should be told what standard of work is acceptable and what is not.
There should be a written quality specification for each job in the manufacturing
process.
Wherever possible sketches of the garment parts should be included, illustrating how
they are supposed to appear after completion. Dimensions and tolerances for critical
points must be included. Knowledge of the factors that create problems in a particular
operation helps to determine the specific dimension or characteristic to be maintained.
Each inspector should be clearly told what to look for while inspecting various
operations.
There is no standard amount of inspection that will provide the right balance between
the quality and costs for all types of garments and production methods. It is advisable
to plan on having enough inspectors so that, on the average, every fourth bundle is
inspected and no operation ever goes longer than 4 hours without being inspected.
The daily volume of the garments produced should decide the numbers of inspectors
and not the number of operators. Studies have shown that usually 15-20% of the
operators in any plant will cause 65% to 80% of the defects.
Most inspections in the in process check points can be performed rapidly without
sacrificing the accuracy, and quite large units of inspection should be expected of
inspectors each day.
The inspectors must be allowed with enough time to inspect in greater detail when
necessary and to carefully explain the quality problems to the supervisors. As with all
the inspection activities, the thoroughness of inspection is more important than the
quantity inspected.
15.2. Sewing Defects
1. Needle damage are evidenced by holes, picked threads, ruptured threads or
other damage to the fabric; caused by wrong size or type of the needle, blunt
needle, needle heat, or machine feeding difficulty.
2. Feed damage, particularly on thicker sheer fabrics, or when machining over
transverse seams, from incorrect type of teeth, excessive pressure by foot,
improper alignment of feed and foot, damaged throat plate, excessive machine
speed.
3. Skipped Stitches, from the hook irregularly failing to pick up the loop of thread
from a needles eye owing to a number of causes.
4. Thread breaks, arising from too thick a thread for needle, too thin a thread,
needle heat, operator working un rhythmically, or too tight tensions.

79

5. Broken stitches, arising from the wrong stitch type, too tight tensions, a badly
formed joint in the seam where the second line of the stitch runs over the first
and cracks it, sharp feeds, and too great a pressure.
6. Seam grin, arising from too loose a tension or too large a stitch, or use of the
wrong stitch type.
7. Seam pucker, because of incorrect handling by the operator, misaligned
notches, or tight tensions.
8. Pleated seams, an extreme form of seam pucker, where operator failed to ease
fullness evenly
9. Wrong stitch density. Too many give rise to jamming and rapture of fabric
threads; too few to grinning or weak seams
10. Uneven stitch density. Operator causes machine to snatch and does not allow
machine to control fabric.
11. Staggered stitch, from faulty feed motion, incorrect needle, and other machine
parts.
12. Improperly formed stitches, caused by bad tension, incorrectly adjusted timing,
ill fitting machine components.
13. Oil spots or stains.
15.4. Seaming Defects
Seaming defects are usually caused by the errors arising from the interaction of the
operator and the machine in the handling of the garment.
1. Incorrect or uneven width of inlay, arising from bad handling by operator,
incorrectly set guide, incorrectly adjusted folder. In extreme cases, the seams
burst open, raw edges show, slippage of weave threads occur, or notches are
exposed.
2. Irregular or incorrect shape of the sewing line (sometimes called run-offs) in top
stitching, arising from lack of or badly set guide, not following a mark, or
incorrect handling.
3. Insecure back stitching, because subsequent rows do not cover the first row of
stitching.
4. Twisted seam leading to irregular puckering or the garment parts not hanging
correctly when worn; caused by improper alignment of fabric parts, mismatched
notches, and allowing one ply to creep against another.
80

5. Mismatched check or stripes

6. Mismatched seam, where transverse seams do not match (e.g., inside leg
seams at the fork of the trousers)
7. Extraneous part caught in seam, an unrelated piece showing through the seam.
8. Reversed garment part, where part is sewn with the face side opposite from
specification, perhaps when the part cut for one side of the garment is sewn in
the other, or when the whole garment is assembled inside out.
9. Blind stitching showing on the face side, or not securely caught on inside,
arising from improperly adjusted bender.
10. Wrong seam or stitch type used.
11. Wrong shade of thread used.
15.5. Assembly Defects
Assembly defects are perhaps caused by errors arising in marking and cutting, as well
as sewing operations in the sewing room, or a combination of these.
1. Finished components not correct to size or shape or not symmetrical
2. Finished garment not to size, arising from incorrect patterns, inaccurate marking
or cutting, shrinking or stretching fabric, incorrect seam widths.
3. Parts, components, closures, fixtures omitted, caused by bad work flow, wrongly
printed work tickets, parts omitted in cutting, careless operator.
4. Components or features wrongly positioned or misaligned arising from incorrect
marking, or sewing not following the mark. (e.g., pockets, bar tacks, top
stitching, button holes, buttons, hooks and bars, hooks and eyes, zips).
5. Interlining incorrectly positioned, twisted, too full, too tight, cockling.
6. Lining too full, too tight, showing below the bottom of the garment, twisted,
incorrectly pleated and so on.
7. Garment parts cockling, pleated, twisted, showing bubbles and fullness; for
example, collar in relation to the under collar or the neck, sleeve in relation to
the armhole, pockets, tapes, zips, pads in relation to the shoulder.
8. Garment parts shaded owing to being mixed after cutting
81

9. Parts in one- way fabrics in wrong direction, usually only small parts, such as
pockets.
10. Mismatched trimming.
15.6. Glossary of sewing room defects
S.No Defect
Description
01
Scissors or Knife Cut
Self-explanatory
02.
Tear
Usually the result of excessive strain or
snagging on the manufacturing machinery.
03.
Needle Chew
Caused by use of wrong or blunt needle or
machine feeding difficulty
04.
Incorrect Material Shading
Where components do not match exactly as to
shade
05.
Spots or Stains
Normally the result of a defective machine or a
dirty work area.
06.
Loose Threads
Can be caused either by malformed stitching or
poor trimming techniques
07.
Puckered Seams
An irregular seam surface usually caused by
a) Inherent fabric characteristic, b) Needle
puncture, c) Machine feed slippage or
d) incorrect machine application
08
Pleated Seams
Caused by incorrect machine attachments.
Machine sewing parts too large or small for
fabric or seam desired irregularly cut patterns or
fabric irregularities and operator feeding fabric
faster than normal feeding action of the
machine.
09
Thread Breaks
Wrong thread application, sewing machine
malfunction, defective thread.
10
Insecure Backstitching
Original stitch row not covered with second
seam.
11.
Wrong Shade of Thread
Either caused by basic purchasing error,
manufacturing defect by thread supplier or
operator selecting wrong color from thread bin.
12.
Irregular Gauge of Stitching
Not using correct sewing machine or using
single needle machine where a multiple needle
machine is required
13.
Open Seams
Incorrect folder or poor operator technique.
Sometime results from poor selection of type of
seam for fabric used or purpose of seam in
garment.
14.
Run Off
Operator not following marking or not using
mechanical aids such as edge guides to assure
uniform stitching.
82

15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

21.
22.
23.

24.

25.
26.
27.
28.
29.

30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.

Wrong Seam or Stitch Type

Management error in selection-or operating

personnel failing to follow specifications
Loose Thread Tension
Tensions not adjusted correctly by operator
Tight Thread Tension
Tensions not adjusted correctly by operator
Wrong Stitches per Inch
Normally caused by operators who lengthen
stitch to increase machine speed
Skipped Stitch
Caused by machine malfunction or excessive
needle heat due to friction.
Broken Stitches
Often times the fault of wrong type of stitch for
specific seam construction. Could be caused by
excessive tightness in machine tensions
Closures Omitted
Normally an oversight by operators or failure by
inspectors
Closures Misplaced.
Inattention or inexperience by operating
personnel or improper alignment with gauges.
Finished Components Not Could be caused by faulty pattern, cutting,
measuring to Tolerances
previous operations in stitching or by indifferent
operator attention to the specified tolerance
Dimensions out of Tolerance Could be caused by faulty pattern, cutting,
previous operations in stitching or by indifferent
operator attention to the specified tolerance.
Notches Exposed

Poor operator technique and execution in not

covering notch with seam.
Omission of Any Part of Poor work flow, inattentive operator. wrong work
Garment
tickets or poor inspection
Twisted Seam
Caused by improper alignment of fabric pieces.
uneven tension or pull on plies being stitched
Pieces Not Aligned
Pieces sewn together not matched to each
other
Reversed pieces
Where piece is sewn with face side opposite
from specification; where part cut for one side of
garment sewn in other.
Excessive Fullness
Caused where piece surface not smoothed prior
to stitching.
Uneven Edge
Where stitching not straight or improperly
formed in creasing machine
Ragged Edges
Usually occurs where knives on automatic
button-hole machines do not dip smoothly.
Uncut Buttonhole
Where knife failed to cut button-hole
United Stitch
Where tying stitches on automatic machines fail
to secure.
Hole
Damage caused by faulty machine or related
equipment
Faulty Gauging
Where operator has not sewn seam to specified
Margin
83

37.
38.

Misaligned Closure
Misplaced Component

39.

Misaligned Seam

40.
41.

Mislocated Reinforcement
Uneven Stitch

42.
43.

Needle Pick
Caught Place

Closure components do not line up

Where part not positioned according to
specifications
Where seams .do not line up or cross specified
point
Where bar tack or brad not in proper location
Caused by operator speeding up machine too
rapidly or by holding back or pushing fabric
through machine in variance with correct
machine feed
Failure of operator to replace a dull needle
Where a component of part of a garment been
caught in an unrelated operation.

84

16.0. Procedures practiced for Quality Control and Assurance in Fusing

Operation.
There is nothing much that can be done visually on interlinings. The performance
testing of interlinings as well as the control of variables in the fusing of interlinings are
of utmost importance.
These materials (Interlinings, linings, and other support materials) provide a foundation
for product shape, support areas subjected to stress, help maintain a products
appearance, enhance comfort or enclose interior parts for aesthetic or performance
reasons. These materials must be compatible with the fashion fabric. Although they
contribute to the overall quality of the finished product, they may not be visible at point
of sale. Often many types of support materials are combined in one product because
each material has a different function. These materials come in variety of different
types, are made from many different materials, and may have different application
methods and care requirements.
16.1. Interlinings
Interlinings or interfacings are sewn or fused to specific areas of the product to shape,
support, reinforce and improve performance. Many different types are available and
influence the aesthetics, performance, cost, comfort, and care of the finished product.
For example, the hand and drape of the fabric can be altered by the selection of the
interlinings.
Handling and sewability are the other two important factors to consider. Interlinings that
are easy to sew and handle have lower production costs that those of that require more
effort and attention to detail. Fibre content, fabric weight, fabrication method, and
method of application need to be specified. For products were soft hand is important,
cotton and rayon may be preferred. Where resiliency is needed, wool and hair fibres
are preferred. Nylon provides a stiff, resilient, lightweight interlining. The heavier the
weight, the more support provided to the fashion fabric. Light weight interlinings
produce a softer hand.
Interlinings can be fused to the fashion fabric quickly and inexpensively. Fusible
interlinings incorporate a bonding agent that is heat, pressure, or steam activated.
Several types of bonding agents can be applied in a pattern to or all over the back of
the interlining.
Selection of interlinings with the appropriate properties for the fabric and the style
requires knowledge of the available products, the processes to be used, and an
understanding of compatibility factors. As styling needs change, producers of
interlinings may create new fabrications, weight, and adhesives with different
properties. The soft unstructured look that was popular during the 1990s did not mean
interlinings were omitted; their characteristics were modified to produce a softer hand
and better drape ability.

85

16.1.1. Functions of interlinings

Interlinings serve mainly for two major functions
(1). To produce and retain the desired aesthetic appearance, and
(2). To improve garment performance.
Selecting the appropriate interlining is not a simple task because many considerations
must be taken in account. Interlinings must be compatible with piece goods and other
materials used in the style, and they must be adaptable to the equipment used in the
plant. Interlinings that enhance the hand of the shell fabric and create the desired
aesthetic characteristics for a garment component may be preferred choice.
Aesthetics
Appropriately chosen interlinings provide the foundation for the shape and hand of the
garments and the stability to maintain the same appearance through use, care, and
storage. Aesthetic standards are often subjective and vary by designer. One designers
interpretation of a soft silhouette may be interpreted as limp by another designer. A firm
with high quality standards may determine that shrinkage of either the interlining or
shell fabric is unacceptable; other firms may allow tolerances for shrinkage if both the
shell and interlining shrink the same amount.
Interlinings help form and maintain the hand, stability, durability and resiliency of the
shell fabric. Hand refers to the drape, stiffness or softness of materials used in a
garment. Interlinings are available in a variety of different hands and must be analyzed
with the shell fabric when determining the best combination.
Performance
Interlining performance may be evaluated from two different perspectives: performance
during production and performance in the finished garment. Manufacturers may select
certain types of interlinings to facilitate handling and improve the sewability of the
fabrics and garment parts. Interlinings may be used to reduce raveling and provide
stability for the sewing process. They are frequently used under the embroidery to
stabilize fabrics for better-executed stitching.
16.2. Fusing Technology
The term fusing technology is concerned with:
- Base cloths
- Resins
- Coating systems
- Machinery and Equipment
- Control of Quality.
16.2.1. Base cloths
The Base cloth, also called the substrate is an interlining material on which the
thermoplastic resin is coated, sprayed, or printed. Base cloths are produced in a variety
86

of woven, knitted and non- woven forms from natural or synthetic fibres and each type
has a specific application.
Irrespective of the construction and fibres used, the base cloth influences the following
characteristics in the finished garment.
-

Handle and bulk

Shape retention
Shrinkage control
Crease recovery
Appearance in wear
Appearance after dry-cleaning or washing
Durability.

In addition, the final cost of the garment is influenced by the type and amount of the
fusibles used in its construction.
16.2.2. Resins
These are the materials applied to the base cloth and when subjected to heat and
pressure they become the sole bonding agent between the top cloth and the interlining.
Thermo plasticity, or change with heat, is the basis of all fusible interlinings in its cold
state the resin is not adhesive and only becomes viscous when heated. Through the
application of pressure, the heated resin penetrates into the top cloth; on cooling it
solidifies again, forming a bond between the two fabrics.
Today no naturally occurring resins are used for interlinings, but large variety of
thermoplastic resins including polyamides, polyester and PVC.
16.2.3. Coating Systems
Coating is the process whereby the thermoplastic resin is applied to the substrate
material. There are many coating methods in use, some of the more commonly used
ones being;
Scatter coating: This method uses electronically controlled scattering heads to
deposit the resin on to the moving substrate.
Dry- dot printing: In this process, the resin is printed onto the substrate by a roller
engraved with small indentations which hold the resin powder.
Performed: The resin is heat-processed to form a net which is then laminated onto the
base cloth by heat and pressure. During heating, the net melts and leaves a minute dot
pattern on the substrate.
A coating system is basically concerned with flexibility and uniformity, and these factors
have to be considered when evaluating the use of the specific fusibles.

87

16.2.4. Machinery and Equipment

The mechanical medium required for fusing is a press, and the three basic types are
(1). Steam
(2). Flat bed
(3). Continuous fusing
16.2.4.1. Steam press
Regular steam presses with shaped bucks are designed for fusing but are used for this
purpose by many factories that cannot, or will not invest in the correct equipment.
While fusible with certain types of resins can be fused on steam presses, these
machines have number of serious limitations for general use.
-

Even when fitted with heated bucks, steam presses are usually unable to reach
the heat levels required by most resins.
The pressure applied over the full buck area is uneven, which restricts the
machines use to the fusing of small parts.
Most of the older types of steam presses are not fitted with timers and
programme controls, thus leaving the time element completely dependent on the
operator.
When the resin has been originally activated by steam heat, the same thing can
happen again when garments are pressed during production. This is likely to
cause serious problems with lamination and handling.

All in all, steam presses do not have the complete range of the operating
characteristics necessary for correct fusing.
16.2.4.2. Flat bed press
These are purpose built fusing machines available in a wide variety of types from small
table models to large, floor-standing machines. There is also wide choice of manual or
mechanical loading and take off systems for use with these presses.
Basically this type of press consists of padded top and bottom bucks with heating
elements in one or both of the bucks. The bottom buck is static, with top buck raised or
lowered to open or close the press. Flat bed presses can have single or double trays
which move horizontally to feed work into and extract it from the machine. There are
many types of special purpose flat bed presses which are built to suit a particular,
repetitive type of operation.
One of these has a carousel action which automatically moves the assembly from the
loading position of the operator through the fusing and cooling process and returns the
fused components to the operator for unloading.
There are large ranges of flat-bed presses available for different purposes, which
enables a factory to equip itself with the right machines for each job.

88

16.2.4.3. Continuous fusing press

These machines all operate on the same principle, transporting the assembly for fusing
through all the processes on a powered conveyor belt. There are two conveyor belt
systems in general use.
-

End to End Feed: The parts are conveyed from the loading area at one end of
the machine, via the fusing and cooling areas, to take-off area at the opposite
end of the machine. This system is used where production levels require one set
of operators for loading and another set for unloading.
Return Feed: This machine has a belt system which returns the fused
components to the same end of the machine at which they are loaded. The
upper belt transports the unit through the fusing processes and the lower belt
returns the fused unit to its starting point. This enables the operator to load and
unload from the same position.

Continuous fusing presses are also available for special purpose such as the fusing of
trouser and skirt waistbands or other narrow components which can be fused in
continuous tape form.
Fusing is known to be a labour intensive operation and in the past few years there
have been some major developments which are substantially reduce the manual
labour content.
16.3. The Control of Quality
Relatively speaking, fusible interlinings are precision products and it is essential that
they are fused on the correct equipment and under strict control. Some factors which
influence fusing quality are
(1). Temperature
(2). Time
(3). Pressure
(4). Peel Strength
(5). Dry Clean and / or wash.
16.3.1. Temperature
There is a limited range of temperatures effective for each resin. The applied heat
generated by the machine can be checked by simple and practical method involving
the use of the thermal test papers. These are narrow strips of paper calibrated in
increments of 20 C, which react to temperature by changing the colour of the segment
with the matching temperature rating.
16.3.2. Time
The only time element of any value in fusing is when the assemblies are actually being
heated. For flat bed presses this is the time between the closing and the opening of the
89

bucks; for continuous machines it is the time when the assemblies are actually in
heating zones of the machine.
16.3.3. Pressure
During fusing it is necessary to apply equal pressure all over the component in order to
ensure that:
- An intimate contact is effected between the top cloth and the interlining
- The heat transfer is optimum
- There is a controlled and even penetration of resin points into the fibres of the
top cloth.
There are many methods of verifying whether pressure is being exerted equally over
the pressure surfaces of the machine. One of the simplest is to fuse a large piece of
cloth with an identically sized piece of fusible. After cooling, the fused assembly should
be carefully separated. In some cases the interlining fibres will remain on the cloth and
in others the fibres of the cloth will be pulled out by the fusible. In both the cases, a
clear optical pattern will result which would indicate the areas where there are pressure
variations. Serious variations of adhesion need the attention of skilled technicians.
16.3.4. Peel- Strength test
This test checks the strength of the bond between the top cloth and the interlining; the
force required to pull them apart is compared to a standard for that particular cloth and
fusible. The test is usually performed on a fused strip about 70cm X 5cm with the
length on the warp of the cloth. The force required to separate them can be measured
on a instrument called a tensometer, or more simply with a good spring balance.
16.3.5. Dry clean and /or wash
It is recommended that production garments should be subjected to the appropriate
cleaning methods on a regular basis. One garment in each cloth and fusible
combination should be tested at least once every two weeks.
16.4. Problems associated with the use of the fusible interlinings.
16.4.1. Boardiness
It is a problem related to the inappropriate selection of adhesives used on fusible
interlinings. If resins liquefy and run together to form a resin coating instead of being
retained in a sintered or dotted manner, a stiff hand is produced. This can be the result
of over-fusing, too much adhesive, and the application of excessive heat and/or
pressure. This is a problem when the interlining distorts the shape of the microfiber
fabrics.

90

16.4.2. Bubbling
Bubbling occurs when the face fabric or interlining becomes puckered from
delamination, poor bonding, differential shrinkage, uneven temperatures or pressure,
and inconsistent use of the resin.
16.4.3. Color Change
This may be temporary or permanent discoloration caused by the high temperatures
and resins used in the fusing process. Certain types of dyes may change color with the
application of high temperature.
16.4.4. Delamination
Delamination is the loss of bond between the interlining and the shell fabric. Resin,
because it migrates toward heat, becomes embedded in the interlining substrate
instead of the shell fabric, which prevents an effective bond between the two materials.
The shell fabric may appear to be bubbled. Delamination may be the result of
underfusing, overfusing, not enough cooling time, or incompatibility of the resin and the
shell fabric.
16.4.5. Shrinkage
Shrinkage may cause performance problems if one garment part shrinks because of
application of fusible interlining and adjoining pieces do not shrink. This is a common
problem with jacket fronts and facings. Often the high temperature needed for fusing
causes the fabric to shrink. This may make accurate seaming impossible, create
puckered seams, or cause puckered surfaces of shell fabric. With proper testing the
amount of potential shrinkage of the shell fabric and interlining can be determined and
adjustments made in patterns.
16.4.6. Strike back
Strike back is the penetration of the resin through the interlining substrate. It causes
resin to stick to the fusing press, conveyor, or shuttle tray. It can affect both cost and
quality of fusing. It may be the result of too much resin for the type of fabric and
interlining fabrication or too much pressure.
16.4.7. Strike Through
Strike through is the penetration of resin through to the face of the shell fabric. It may
be caused by too much pressure, too high a fusing temperature, or too long a fusing
time. This is a greater problem with sheer, lightweight, non absorbent fabrics than with
heavier, bulkier, more absorbent ones.
Strike through is the cause of many other problems such as color change, differential
shrinkage, bubbling, poor strength, and boardiness. This is the common problem with
microfiber fabrics because of the construction and weight.

91

17.0. Final Inspection

Final inspection consists of inspecting finished garments from the consumers point of
view; size measurement; form fitting (putting garments on the proper-size mannequins
to see if they properly fit the labeled sizes); and live modeling if necessary (again to
see if the garments properly fit the labeled sizes).
Final inspection may occur before or after garments are packed in polybags and boxes.
If it is done after garments are packed, then proper size and style markings on the
package can also be checked. In any case, there should be a list of points to be
checked in a garment, including a table of finished measurements. For example such a
list is shown for mens dress shirts in the below table.
Final Inspection - Quality Specifications for Mens Dress Shirts.
Location
Inspect for
1. Collar
Both points same length (+1/8 in.). Stripes, plaids, checks, or
pattern should match on both points. Uniformly stitched, no
puckering, skipped or broken stitches, or raw edges. Should lay
flat.
2. Buttons and Properly spaced, no puckering or fullness. Buttonholes properly
Buttonholes
sewed, no cut stitches. No broke buttons. Located so stripes,
plaids, or patterns match (+1/8 in.).
3. Pocket
Top of the pocket horizontal. Uniformly stitched, no puckering,
skipped or broken stitches, or raw edges. Corners securely
tacked. Stripes, plaids, checks or patterns should match (+1/8
in.). Should lay flat
4. Hems
Uniformly stitched, no puckering, skipped or broken stitches, or
raw edges. Stitching 1/16 in. from edge.
5. Yoke
and Pleats (if any) properly placed. Uniformly stitched, no puckering,
Shoulder
skipped or broken stitches, or raw edges. Should lay flat.
6. Side Seams

7. Cuff

8. Finished
appearance

Stripes, plaids, checks, or patterns should match (+1/8 in.).

Uniformly stitched, no puckering, skipped or broken stitches, or
raw edges.
Stripes, Plaids, checks or patterns should match the sleeve
(+1/8 in.). Uniformly stitched, no puckering, skipped or broken
stitches, or raw edges.
Clean of all loose thread. No oil/dirt stains. Free of any fabric
defect. No shade difference within a shirt from part to part
(panel to panel).

92

17.1. Measurements for mens L/S dress shirts.

17.3. Some possible defects in garments with diagrams

Left side is off grain to the seam

93

Poor Stitching : Loops pulled to one side

Poor Collar: Collar is not smooth and

there are tucks where the collar and
lapels join together.

Zipper is unattractive because facing

does not cover it completely

Plaids do not match at the seam

94

Armhole seam is unattractive because

gathers caught in seam

Hem is unattractive because gathers and

stitching show on the outside

Unattractive seam because of puckering

Pocket opening is too loose

95

Material is caught in armhole seam

Opening is uneven at the bottom

Top button hole is too large for the button

Pocket Opening is too loose

96

17.4. Not readily apparent defects

Control of proper size is extremely important because no matter how well a garment is
made, unless it fits properly, it will be useless from a customers point of view. Control
of garment dimensions will not guarantee that the garments will fit right, look right, and
feel right. Fit is dependent on pattern shape, proportion, and dimension as well as
proper grain. Poor cutting and inaccurate sewing can result in poor or not fit at all.
Checking garment for size, appearance, fit drape, and so on by putting them on
appropriate mannequins is called form fitting, whereas the checking those items by
having someone try them on is called live modeling. Form fitting and live modeling will
contribute significantly toward assuring that the garments in question fit right, look right,
and feel right for their intended sizes.

97

18.0. How much to Inspect?

The purpose of inspection is to make a sound judgment on the disposition of a material
or product, whether to accept it or reject it. What is done with a rejected lot may be a
matter of negotiation between a buyer and a seller, it may be passed on by a review
board or committee or it may be inspected 100% (100% inspection of a rejected lot is
also called screening), but the immediate decision is that the lot is not acceptable.
However, before an accept / reject or pass /fail decision can be made, a fundamental
question must be answered:
How much should be inspected?
The entire shipment or lot?
Only a part of it?
If so, how big or small a part?
How many pieces out of a shipment?
The following alternatives will help answer this fundamental question.
18.1. No Inspection
If no inspection is done, little or nothing is known about a material. In case the material
is defective, no one knows until the material is in critical demand. This situation
increases cost. If the defective material is detected before it is put in process, the
needless waste of the labour, machine time, and rework and so on can be avoided.
No inspection also means that next to nothing may be known about the product and no
one will be aware of any defects until that product is in the hands of the customer.
Then the customer may return it for a refund or may decide never to buy that product
again. Either way, cost is increased and loss of goodwill created, and in long run,
goodwill is invaluable. Loss of goodwill will result in the loss of repeat business. If the
defective product was detected before it reaches the customer, such a loss could have
been avoided. Needless to say, this alternative is not acceptable.
18.2.100 % Inspection
This is other extreme of no inspection. 100% inspection is the inspection of every unit
of a product. The accept / reject decision is not made for entire lot of the shipment, but
for each unit individually, based on the results of inspecting a unit for the quality
characteristic concerned. The obvious advantage of 100% inspection is that it gives the
better idea of the product quality than any other inspection alternative. However,
generally 100% inspection does not guarantee detection of all defects, especially when
the inspection is done by human inspectors; 100% inspection is usually not 100%
effective. The direct cost of 100% inspection will generally be higher than that of any
other inspection alternative. Therefore, this is also not an acceptable alternative.
18.3. Spot Checking
This represents an attempt at a compromise between no inspection at all and 100%
inspection and consists of inspecting random shipments. This procedure, of course,
98

stops some defective material from entering production or some defective products
from reaching customers, but it is only partially effective since many shipments are
accepted without inspection. Therefore, this is also not a practical alternative.
18.4. Arbitrary Sampling
Under this alternative, a certain percent of a shipment is inspected and an accept /
reject or pass / fail decision regarding that shipment is made, based on the inspection
results of that certain percent of the shipment. The most popular and widely used plan
under this alternative is called 10% sampling. This means that regardless of the size of
a shipment, 10% of the shipment is inspected and the results are used as the basis for
a decision regarding the entire shipment. Although this alternative is better than the
previous three alternatives, it still has some drawbacks.
For some shipments or lots, 10% is too small a sample to be representative, whereas
for other shipments or lots, it may be too large. Also, as with any sampling, certain risks
(chances) or making a wrong decision exist. Too often, the users of arbitrary sampling
have little idea of the risk inherent in their procedure, but at least, they will have some
idea about product or material quality. However, there is a better way to gather such
information, and that is statistical sampling.
18.5. Statistical Sampling
Statistical sampling is known as acceptance sampling. The inspection alternative also
provides a comparison between 100% inspection and no inspection at all. Still it has
certain disadvantages.
Large shipments or lots are not over inspected;
Small shipments or lots are not under inspected;
Most important, the risks of making wrong decision (such as accepting a defective lot
or rejecting a good lot) are known controllable.
This is usually the most economical means for determining product quality. Statistical
sampling has the advantage of flexibility with regard to the amount of inspection to be
performed at any given point of time, depending on the importance of the product and
apparent product quality
Statistical sampling, which is also sometimes referred to simply as random sampling or
random sampling inspection, means taking a sample of units from a lot or shipment of
product, inspecting the samples for defects, and making a decision as to whether the
lot is acceptable or not based on the quality of the sample. Statistical sampling is
equally applicable to incoming inspections of shipments of raw materials or partially
finished products, products at various stages of manufacture, and finished products as
well as outgoing shipments.
Let us look at the some terms and definitions used in conjunction with statistical
sampling. The definitions of these terms are taken from the Sampling Procedures and
99

Tables for Inspection by Attributes, ANSI / ASQC Z1.4. The international designation
for this standard is ISO 2859.
Sample: A sample consists of one or more units of a product drawn from a lot or
batch, the units of the sample being selected at random without regard to their
quality. The number of units of a product in the sample is the sample size.
Lot or Batch: The term lot or batch shall mean inspection lot or inspection
batch, that is, a collection of units of a product from which a sample is to be
drawn and inspected to determine conformance with the acceptability criteria,
and may differ from a collection of units designated as lot or batch for other
purposes (e.g. production, shipment, etc.).
Lot or Batch Size: The lot or batch size is the number of units of a product in a
lot or batch.
Percent Defective:
Percent Defective =

number of defective units

X 100
Number of units inspected .

Process Average: The process average is the average per cent defective of a
product submitted by the supplier for original inspection. Original inspection is
the first inspection of a particular quantity of a product, as distinguished from the
inspection of a product that has been resubmitted after prior rejection.
18.6. Acceptable Quality Level (AQL)
AQL is one of the most frequently used terms when it comes to quality in the apparel
export industry. Everyone in the industry uses this term quite liberally, assuming that
they know what AQL signifies. But when a few years ago, an American apparel
importer requested me to provide inputs to him and his sourcing office in India on what
AQL actually was? What was the logic behind it and how to use it effectively? I realized
that AQL in its true sense remains little understood among the large number of
executives working in the apparel industry.
As most of the acceptance decisions of the apparel shipments for the export market
are made on the basis of AQL based sampling plans, it is important that all concerned
in the industry at least have a basic idea about what is AQL. In this article we shall look
at fundamental concept of AQL, its origin and how to prepare an organization to meet
the prescribed AQL level.
All of us know that inspection is the tool that is used for assessing the conformance of
the merchandise to the agreed specifications or the requirements. Though inspection is
important and it gives us an idea about the acceptance level of a product, it may not be
possible to carry out 100% inspection of all the units in a particular shipment or a lot.
This is mainly due to following reasons:
It is costly.
100

100% inspection is seldom 100% accurate and dependable.

It may be impractical and not desirable as it leads to excessive handling of
goods which results in goods losing their freshness.
Having known that 100% inspection may not be the best thing to do, the next question
is if not 100%,how much to inspect? There are two options available. The first option is
to decide a fixed proportion of the lots that will be inspected to arrive at the acceptance
decision of the whole lot or the second option is to use Acceptance Sampling
procedure to arrive at a sampling plan for given AQL and make an acceptance
decision. The first option is arbitrary and it does not have any scientific basis, which
can tell us about the reliability of this technique. Since the acceptance decisions are
important commercial decisions, it is important to have a reliable and scientific method
of arriving at such decision and one should be aware of the extent of risk involved in
such decisions. Acceptance sampling is a scientific technique and it also tells us the
probability of making a wrong judgment while using it.
18.6.1. What is AQL?
As Pradip V. Mehta describes, "The AQL is the maximum per cent defective that for the
purpose of sampling inspection can be considered satisfactory as a process average."
In layman's language this means, when a buyer specifies a particular AQL for sampling
inspection, it is an indication that as long as the percentage of defective garments in
the shipments (lots) supplied by a manufacturer is lower than the AQL, most of the
shipments will be accepted. Process Average means the average percentage of
defective products (percent defective) in the lots submitted for the first inspections.
Assume a true percent defective level of six lots of garments is 2.3, 2.7, 2.4, 2.6, 2.8
and 2.2 respectively the process average will become 2.5% defective.
18.6.2. Brief History of AQL and Acceptance sampling
Acceptance sampling is an important field of statistical quality control that was
popularized by Dodge and Roming and originally applied by the U.S. military for the
testing of bullets during World War II. If every bullet was tested in advance, no bullets
would be left to ship. If, on the other hand, none were tested, malfunctions might occur
in the field of battle, with potentially disastrous results.
Acceptance sampling plans help in distinguishing between the acceptable and the
unacceptable lots. The basic assumption here is if the proportionate sample is
randomly drawn from a lot, the sample would represent the quality level of the lot and
based on this the acceptance decision can be made.
Acceptance Sampling is the middle of the road approach between 100% inspection
and no inspection. Based on the extensive work by the American military during and
past World War II, US Government issued the standard for sampling procedure and
tables for inspection called MIL-STD-105D in 1963. This was further modified in 1989
as MIL-STD 105 E and re-designated as ANSI/ ASQC Z 1.4 in Feb 1995. For all the
101

practical purposes MIL STD 105D and ANSI/ASQC Z 1.4 are almost similar. For the
purpose of acceptance sampling inspection in the garment industry, most buyers refer
to the tables from either of these standards. Though garment industry generally uses
normal level on inspection, the standards also provide from reduced and tightened
inspections based on the past performance of the supplier.
Table: Acceptable Quality Level

18.6.3. How do the Acceptance Sampling Plans Work?

The apparel industry mainly uses single sampling plans for the acceptance decisions.
However, a few buyers also use double sampling procedure. In single sample based
on AQL table you randomly draw a sample consisting of specified number of garments
from a lot. The sample plan also provides the number maximum allowed defective
pieces. If the defective pieces are less than allowed number the lot is accepted and if
the number of defective pieces is greater than allowed the lot is rejected. One may say
that as the acceptance sampling is scientific, ideally speaking, it must lead to 100%
reliable results. In other words, it must always lead to acceptance of lots containing
lower defective level than AQL and must reject all the lots that contain more defective
products than AQL. But this is not possible, as the acceptance decision is made only
on the basis of small sample drawn from the lot and it carries a risk of making a wrong
judgment.
The acceptance decisions based on AQL based inspections contain two kinds of risks
as detailed below:
102

1. Producer's risk: The chance of rejecting a good lot that contains equal or less
percent defective than AQL.
2. The Customer's risk: The chance of accepting a bad lot that contains more
defective than the largest proportion of defects that a consumer is willing to
accept a very small percentage of the time. It is also known as Lot Tolerance
Percent Defective (LTPD) or represented as RQL (Rejecting Quality level).
18.6.4. How to ensure success at AQL based inspections?
The answer to this question is very simple but difficult to achieve. Ensure that your
average percent defective level is below the AQL prescribed by your buyer. What does
this mean? It means the true percent defective level of the lots submitted for AQL
based inspection must be less than the AQL. For this purpose an organization has to
measure its current average percent defective level (process average). This can be
achieved by conducting sampling inspections of the lots before the inspection by the
customer. In such case, all the pieces in a sample drawn from the lot are inspected to
arrive at percent defective level of respective lots. If an organization does this for about
300 consecutive lots and calculates the average of the per cent defective of all lots
inspected, it would give a good idea of the 'process average'. Assuming your process
average is lower than the AQL level, and then there can a very minimal chance
(generally less than 5-10%) of your shipment getting rejected. If your process average
is greater than AQL level, you need to work towards, if not eliminating, reducing the
generation of defect level at source so that the process average becomes lower than
the AQL level. In case process coverage remains higher than the AQL level the
chances of your shipments failing to pass AQL based inspection are higher depending
on the process average.
18.6.5. What AQL is not?
Having known what is AQL? How does it work? How to succeed in AQL based
inspections? It is equally important to now, as indicated below, what AQL is not:
1. A permit to ship defective goods to the tune of agreed AQL level: AQL 4.0 does
not mean that supplier has a right to send up to 4% defective merchandise to
customer /buyer.
2. A guarantee that all shipments passed as per AQL plan will definitely contain
lower percent defective than the specified AQL. There is also no guarantee that
lots with higher percentage defective will not pass on AQL based inspection.
3. An indicator of the quality level achieved by a manufacturer. Let us assume that
the average rate of defective garments in a manufacturer's shipment is 6%, but
the AQL used by buyer for final inspection is 2.5. It is possible that the
manufacturer may resort to 100% inspection of the merchandise to weed out the
defective garments so that the shipment can pass the final inspection by the
buyer at AQL 2.5.

103

18.7. Sampling Plan Production System:

The above sampling plans are suitable for the bundle system or group system of
production. These are not suitable for continuous production system or unit production
system.
The statistical sampling plan applicable for continuous production called continuous
sampling.
18.7.1. Continuous Sampling Plan CSP 1
In the beginning all the pieces until X pieces found acceptable are to be inspected.
Then the inspection has to be restricted to a fraction of the pieces produced. This can
be done by inspecting n pieces in succession.
All the defective pieces should be either repaired or replaced with good pieces.
18.8. Average Outgoing Quality Level (AOQL)
It means the maximum possible value of average percent defective in the outgoing
product or shipments.
E.g. AOQL of 3% means that in long run the average percent defective of outgoing
product will not be more than 3.0% defective.
To select C.S.P-1 Plan, one must decide level of AOQL and fraction to be inspected,
that is, 1 out of 20 pieces (5%), 1 out of 5 pieces (20%), 1 out of 10 pieces (10%), etc.
or the number of successive pieces you want to find acceptable before discontinuing
the inspection of all pieces, that is, 100% inspection

104

19.0. Procedures practiced for quality control and assurance (Finishing)

The basic objective of finishing must be quality and appearance. Appearance is the
basis of most consumers judgment on whether or not to purchase a garment.
The quality of pressing operation can be measured by evaluating the following:
1. Burned or scorched garments
2. Water spots / stains
3. Gloss and/or change in color (original shade)
4. Flattened nap or surface
5. Broken zippers, buttons, etc.
6. Creases not correctly formed
7. Fabric of finished garment not smooth, wrinkle- free, and showing its proper
appearance
8. Edges wavy and stretched or thick and cockling
9. Garments not thoroughly dried.
10. Pockets not smooth
11. Lining showing pleats, creases, wrinkles, shine
12. Garments not correctly molded, either in detail or total silhouette
13. Shrinkage due to heat and moisture
Also it is very important to continuously monitor the temperature (surface temperature
of the press), the pressure under which the garments are pressed and the time of the
length for which those garments are pressed and the time of length for which those
garments are pressed.
19.1. Quality / workmanship standards in general
A. Open seams No open or raw seams allowed except on hems where up to 5/8
allowed.
B. Skipped Stitches No skips allowed on chain stitch or raveling stitch unless skip
will be covered by a subsequent operation. Two or fewer skips allowed on lock
stitch provided skips are non-consecutive. More than two skips are allowed on
lock stitch provided seam will be covered by a subsequent operation. Skips on
decorative top-stitching allowed on non- reveling seams if not obvious on face of
garment.
C. Cracked stitches All seams must withstand stress reasonably expected in
wearing without breaking stitches.
D. Stitches / Inch All operations must meet SPI (Stitched per inch) requirement
designated in the product specification and/or standard speed and stitch chart.
E. Uneven seams Leg, sleeve cuff, or other seams designed to meet evenly must
be no more than from meeting evenly. Intermediate operations may have
105

larger tolerances provided measurement, appearance, or

operations are not affected by failing to meet evenly + tolerance.

subsequent

F. Crooked, puckered, curled, pleated seams Finished garment appearance or

serviceability must not be adversely affected.
G. Needle and Feed cuts No feed cuts allowed unless cut will be cut off or
completely covered by a subsequent operation. One needle cut allowed
provided no hole or run develops when subject to normal wearing stress. Two or
more allowed if meets run or hole criteria and only needle cut appears in
finished seam. (Exception: Holes confirmed by gripper or embroidery).
H. Unclipped Threads and Long ends On intermediate operations (i.e. those
operations which will be seamed over or covered by a subsequent operation)
threads will be specified on In-process quality specifications for that operations
a. Automatic operations such as buttonhole or bar tack, 3/8 allowed unless
thread contrasts with garment and creates poor appearance.
b. Finished seams 3/8 allowable if texturized polyester thread is used.
c. Otherwise none allowed outside if contrasting and visible to the
consumer. Allowed on outside if matching thread is used and tail is less
than
d. Exception: Foot or hand area of footed or handi- cuff garments may not
have a thread tail exposed on finished seams in excess of 3/8. Strictly
Enforced.
I. Raw Edge, Untrimmed No raw edge allowed on outside finished seams. No
raw egde inside wider than .
J. Turn Ends Defect on finished seam if appearance or secureness is affected.
K. Labels Defect if crocked, missing, incorrect, insecurely attached, or seriously
puckered. Stitching not to cover logo in any manner.
L. Snaps, Fasteners Missing, loose or misaligned. Stud must match socket within
. Greater tolerance allowed only if appearance is not seriously affected.
M. Broken Needle Any broken needle left in the garment.
N. Hems Defective if excessively curled puckered, pleated, or excessive bite.
O. Smocking Ends not caught securely such that subsequent operations will fail
to secure. Incorrect design. One skip on securing stitch or obvious skips on
decorative thread affecting appearance.
P. Trim Missing or obviously pieced, shaded or defective so as to affect
appearance of finished garment.
106

19.2. Glossary of finishing department defects

Defect
Description
Trimming defects
Thread not Trimmed or Self-explanatory.
Threads not Trimmed to
Specified Length
Cuts or Nicks
Caused by indifferent handling of scissors. snips or
mechanical trimmers
Seam Tears
Frequently caused by the turning equipment used to
reverse garments in finishing
Soil
Caused by oil, grease or dirt. Often times originating
from a dirty work area or machinery not properly
cleaned.
Streaks
Marking caused by some types of turn boards or
defectively finished trimmings
Pressing Defects
Pressing Omitted. Burned or Self-explanatory.
Scorched Garments
Inadequate Pressing
Excessive heat or pressure resulting in poor pleating,
fullness or twisting of a seam or garment surface
Garments not Thoroughly
Resulting in excessive wrinkling of garment.
Dried:
Improper Pressing Over
Often produces a tear or unsightly impression on the
Zippers or Other Closures
face of the garment
Pockets or Linings not
Causing wrinkles or ridges to appear on the surface
Pressed Correctly
of the garment
Pressing Producing a Shine
Usually caused by excessive heat or incorrect type of
in Fabric
pressing surface
Folding Defects
Garment not Folded to
Self-explanatory.
specifications
Garment not Folded with
Cardboard, tissue or other specified packaging
Proper materials
materials
omitted
Pins or Folds in Garment
Pins in wrong location or folds not correctly aligned
Incorrect
for package
Garments not Buttoned. Flys Self-explanatory.
not Closed. Incorrect number
of Pins:
Label not Showing
Garment not positioned in package to show label on
top surface

107

20.0. Different Stages of Samples and their requirements

There may be a separate sampling department in a company. But the merchandiser is
the person who is interacting with the buyers regarding samples and other
requirements, this sampling department will work under the supervision of
merchandising department. Also as the samples are to be made according to the
buyers price ranges and quality levels, merchandiser has to advise sampling
department suitably.
There are different types of samples used in the apparel industry. They are
Salesmen samples or promotional samples
Proto samples or fit samples
Counter samples or reference samples or approval samples
Wash test samples
Photo samples
Fashion show samples
Pre-production samples
Production samples
Shipment samples
20.1. Development samples or enquiry samples
When we work with some buyers continuously, we will have to keep on sending
samples to them very often. Whenever they have enquiries, buyer may need samples.
Buyers may like to see the garments in a new fabric. For one enquiry, they may need
samples in different fabrics to choose from. If they want to develop new style in new
fabric, then also we will have to send these samples.
We may have to spend too much on these samples. But these samples are inevitably
important to develop business. Some times, even the buyer is not so confident of some
enquiries, if our samples are good and attractive at reasonable prices, they will bring
orders to us.
Also we will have to send samples to the newly contacted buyers to show our
workmanship, product range, quality standards and price level. These samples should
be sent so that they would attract the buyers. So it is better for a company to have a
separate sampling department so that they can create new styles in new fabrics to
impress the buyers.
20.2. Salesmen samples or promotional samples
Some buyer needs these samples for getting the orders from their customers. If the
buyer is having 7 salesmen in his office, then the buyer will ask us to make 7 samples
in each style. The salesmen will book the orders from their customers, by showing
these samples. Buyer will place the order to us accumulating the quantities.
108

If we have sent samples for 5 styles, some times, we may get orders for all 5 styles, 3
styles or 1 style. Some times, we may not get order for even a single style. Expected
sales may not be possible, due to poor quality, unsuitable colours, improper
measurements, unmatched prints or embroidery, etc. of salesmen samples. Or it may
be due to local business recession or competition or unsuitable prices. Any way, we
have to make these salesmen samples perfectly with sincere interest to get orders.
We might have spent more money, time, etc. for making these samples. But as we
dont get orders, we can not blame the buyer. He too can not help us in this regard. To
avoid this embarrassing situation, it is better to discuss about the cost of these samples
with the buyer before proceeding for sampling.
Normally the sampling will cost us approximately 3 to 5 times of the garment price. We
can not expect to get the full cost from the buyer. Of course these samples will help us
for our business. Hence we can ask the buyer to accept 2 or 3 times of garment price
as the sampling cost, for the styles which we dont get orders. Some genuine buyers
will agree for this.
20.3. Photo samples or fit samples
These samples are to be made after getting the order sheets. These samples are
needed to check the measurements, style and fit. So they can be made in available
similar fabrics but in the actual measurements and specifications.
Some buyers may need these samples if they want to print the photos of garments on
photo inlays, packing box, hang tag, etc. These samples may be needed for local
advertisement or buyers promotional occasions.
In any case, the samples will be worn by the highly paid models. The buyers will
arrange the photo shoot session, by spending huge money to the advertising agencies.
So the buyers will need these samples strictly on time. If they dont get samples on
time, the buyers will have to pay more compensation to the advertising agencies and
models.
Buyers will ask us to make the photo samples according to the intended models body
fit. So it is important to strictly adhere to these measurements. Buyer may ask these
samples to send either from production or before starting production.

20.4. Counter samples or reference samples or approval samples

These samples are to be made in actual fabrics with actual trims. If the order is for 3
colours, buyer may need samples in any one colour and swatches (fabric bits) in other
colours. These samples should be strictly as per the specifications in the order sheets.
We have to get the approval for these samples from the buyer before starting
production.

109

After getting the approval, the approved samples should be followed in production.
Some times, buyer may comment on fabric, measurements, making, etc. We have to
follow his comments carefully in production.
Some buyer will mention that the order sheets subject to the approval of counter
samples. So these samples are very important.

20.5. Wash test samples

If these samples are sent before starting production and if we get some remarks or
comments on these samples, we can correct them in production. But some buyers will
need us to send these samples from production before shipment. In this case, these
samples may be considered as shipment samples. If these samples are rejected due
to some complaints, then we will not have any excuse and we will be in real trouble.

20.6. Pre-production samples

These samples are almost like approval samples. They have to be made in actual
production fabric with actual bulk trims. They will represent that the production will be
like these samples.

20.7. Production samples

These samples are to be sent before shipment to get the buyers confirmation for
shipment. Hence these samples are needed to be perfect in all manners. Buyer may
check these samples for everything or anything. Some times, they may do wash test
also. We should not get any remark or comment. We have to get only OK from the
buyer. Then only we can ship the goods and we can be sure of getting payment. So
these samples are to be sent with more and more care.

20.8. Shipment samples

These samples are to be sent after shipment. They should be sent in actual packing
with all labels, tags, etc. (Generally these samples will not be tested by buyer for
anything. And even if we get some comments from buyers, we can save ourselves by
saying that these samples were sent from the left over garments after the shipment;
hence there might be some mistakes. If we expect any comments in these samples, it
is better to inform the buyer during sending these samples).

110

21.0. Product Zones Zoning defects and Appearance

In product zoning, the company recognizes that some parts of a product are more
crucial in terms of appearance than the other parts. Those parts or zones that are more
visible are of greater importance than the other parts that are less visible.
A definition of each zone or priority area should be included in specifications because
terminology and designators for zones are not standard within industry. For example,
one company might use numbers, such as 1, 2 & 3 or Roman numerals, such as I, II &
III to describe the product zones and another company might use letters such as A, B
& C for their Zones. Zone 1for one company might be the part with the greater
demands for appearance, while another company might use Zone C to describe similar
requirements.
Typically, zones of highest priority are those areas most likely to be viewed during
face- to-face conversation with someone or those areas most likely to be seen when
using the product. Thus, the areas of the garment closest to face are of greater
importance for apparel. For upholstery furniture, these areas would include backs,
armrests and cushions. Areas not as likely to be seen, but remain visible, are assigned
to the next zone in terms of priority. Areas that are rarely seen by others, such as
under the arms, the crotch, and inside for apparel and areas under the seat cushions
and bottom of the upholstered furniture, are assigned lower zone priorities.
In addition to defining the zones, many companies also identify types of defects that
would be unacceptable in each area. For example in mens dress shirts, a company
may state that no fabric, construction, or appearance defects are allowed in Zone 1
(the neckline, cuffs, and center front placket area). The company may further state that
in Zone 1, an absence of thread ends, a button and buttonhole match within + 0.16 cm
(+ 1/16 inch), and collar points within + 0.16 cm (+ 1/16 inch), of specified length are
required. If a shirt does not meet all requirements for this zone, the shirt has to meet
specifications and is not acceptable.
21.1. Product Zones
Explanation of Zones
When a construction flaw or defect occurs in a product, acceptance or rejection of the
defective product is prioritized by the area, or zone, in which it occurs. Product zones
that are more visible to the customers are more crucial in maintaining higher levels of
quality.
Each product has specific zones that are more important than others, and guidelines
are defined accordingly.
Zone 1
Areas with extremely high visibility that is likely to be viewed from a close distance at
the time of purchase or receipt. Cosmetic flaws located in these zones would be
considered major and would be cause for the rejection of the product.
111

Zone 2
Areas that are not visibly dominant, but are visible in normal use. Cosmetic flaws would
be evaluated based upon the size of the defect, color, and intended end use of the
product to determine acceptability.
Zone 3
Areas normally hidden in everyday use, but could be visible on occasion. Cosmetic
flaws in this zone are more acceptable than in any other location on the garment.
Flaws occurring in this zone would be evaluated product by product based upon the
intended use of the garment.
112

22.0. Packaging
Packaging is the manner in which a product is prepared for transportation, shipped,
and presented to the customer or the ultimate consumer. Packaging standards
describe general aspects of how the product is packaged, whereas the packaging
specs describes the materials that should be used and the manner in which the
garment should be folded, blocked, supported, or manipulated when packaged.
In addition, packaging indicates how many products will be shipped together in the
same box or container and the kind of labeling or product information that is to be
attached to the outside of the individual product packages and on boxes, cartons, or
other containers.
Companies that ship from a distribution centre have very specific requirements for
packaging because of their automation systems and the number of items that are
processed on a daily basis. Bar-coding is essential in such circumstances. Suppliers
who do not meet packaging specs may find orders refused, even though each
individual product meets or exceeds the minimum product specs.
22.1. Apparel Packing Merchandise
- Each Master Shipping Carton must contain only one SKU (Stock Keeping Unit).
The buyer will not accept any Master Shipping Carton that contains multiple
SKUs.
- Merchandise must be bulk placed without multiple units boxing or bagging inside
of the master shipping carton.
- The merchandise inside the Master Shipping Carton must not be tied together in
bundles with string, bands, ribbons, etc.
- Do not ship merchandise on hangers or in hanger packs.
- The minimum case quantity is 4 selling units per master shipping carton
- The buyer encourages its vendors to send full cartons. If you are unable to fill a
standard master shipping carton with one SKU, you may choose one of the two
options.
(1). Reduced Carton Size (Preferred)
If a shipment is small and a full case of one size and style is not possible, you can
reduce the standard carton by no more than 6 inches, thus making the carton
dimension 22 in. X 10 in. X 6 in. (minimum carton dimension).
(2). Quantity Adjustment
Discuss order quantity adjustments with inventory control. For example, if you have a
request for 20 units and the carton will hold 26 units, you may request increasing the
quantity by 6 more units to make a full carton. Another example would be a request for
35 units, and the carton holds only 26. You may request a decrease in the quantity by
9, and include them in a subsequent order.

113

22.2. Diagram for Packaging a shirt

Lay item front down, flat and
smooth
with
the
sleeves
extended.

114

Sleeves must be folded flat and

smooth with cuffs placed even
with the shoulders at top of the
package.

Shirt must be folded neatly,

bulkiness smoothed out by hand.
Clips can be used to secure shirt
in position, however pins of any
sort are unacceptable

The tail of the shirt must be

tightened around the folding
template, extend slightly beyond
the top of the shoulders and
taper in on each side. The shirt
tail is then tucked in between the
sleeve fold and the sleeve cuffs

115

Place folded item in an

appropriately sized polybag. Seal
and label with stock number and
country of origin

116