ary ructures EEE eel eG YZ RE PETER BROUGHTON & PAUL NDUMBARO| Cable & Catenary structures ‘PETER BROUGHTON & PAUL NDUMBARO+ his book has been specifically written to provide sound practical guidance and an understanding of the behaviour of cable and catenary structural systems. It deals with the complicated subject of exact formulation in the theoretical treatment of these systems when subjected to large changes in geometry, in a clear and coneise manner. ‘The analysis of Cable & Catenary structures includes I theoretical procedures for non-linear analysis of cable and catenary structural systems, which may be subjected to large or gross deformations HZ suitable two-dimensional and three-dimensional numerical examples of these different systems ™@ the necessary flow charts which bridge the gap between theoretical procedures and the required computer software I acomputer disk containing a program suitable for the analysis of structures of general shape, loading systems and patterns of displacement. This book will be of benefit to final year undergraduates, postgraduate engineers and all young practising engineers — in fact, to anyone seeking a working knowledge of the theoretical aspects of cable and catenary structures. I98N 0-7277-2008-2 = 1 Thomas Telford | | | 9 780727' 720085" >The analysis of cable and catenary structures Peter Broughton Paul Ndumbaro = 4 1 Thomas TelfordPublished by Thomas Telford Services Ltd, Thomas Telford House, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD First published 1994 Distributors for Thomas ‘Telford books are USA: American Society of Civil Engineers, Publications Sales Department, 345 East 47th Street, New York, NY 10017-2398 Japan: Maruzen Co Ltd, Book Department, 3-10 Nihonbashi 2-chome, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103 Ausiralia: DA Books and Journals, 648 Whitehorse Road, Mitcham 3132, Victoria A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Classification Availability: Unrestricted Content: Original research and analy Status: Unrefereed User: Students of civil engineering and practising engineers and designers ISBN: 0 7277 2008 2 © Peter Broughton and Paul Ndumbaro, 1994, except where indicated otherwise All rights, including translation, reserved. Except for fair copying, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the Publications Manager, Publications Division, ‘Thomas Telford Services Ltd, Thomas Telford House, 1 Heron Quay, London E14 4JD. The book is published on the understanding that the author is solely responsible for the statements made and opinions expressed in it and that its publication does not necessarily imply that such statements and or opinions are or reflect the views or opinions of the publishers. The information contained in this book is intended for use asa general statement and guide only. The publishers cannot accept any liability for any loss or damage which may be suffered by any person asa result of the use in any way of the information contained herein, ‘Typeset in Great Britain by Alden Multimedia, Northampton Printed in Great Britain by Cromwell Press, Melksham.Authors Peter Broughton is currently Project Manager for Phillips Petroleum Company Norway on the Ekofisk II Development Project and is respon- sible for the design, fabrication, and installation of the new process plat- form substructure. He has previously held several engineering management positions within the company, including that of Project Engineer for the Ekofisk Protective Barrier Project. Through Phillips Petroleum Company he is also Visiting Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at Imperial College, University of London, and lectures on various specialist courses, including a course related to the analysis of cable and catenary structures. Paul Ndumbaro is currently a research student within the Department of Civil Engineering at Imperial College, Univ of London. He is studying the non-linear behaviour of cable structures for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. He is also a full time lecturer in the Department of Civil Engineering at the University of Dar-es-Salaam in Tanzania. Acknowledgements The authors would like to acknowledge the help of Dr D. Lloyd Smith for providing encouragement and for reviewing the manuscript, and to Dr P. Davidson for sponsoring the course as part of the MSc course in steel design. The authors would also like to thank Ms Flo Donovan and Ms Susanne Hill for typing the manuscript at different stages.Contents Notation 1. Introduction 1.1, General introduction 1.2. Sources of non-linearity 1.3. Types of structure to which the procedures apply 2. Analysis of general two-dimensional cable structures 2.1. Global system of co-ordinates and direction cosines 2.2. Loads and displacements in the global and intermediate co-ordinate systems 2.3. Transformation from intermediate forces and displacements to global forces and displacements 2.4. Basic displacements and basic forces 2.5. Transformation from partial basic displacements to partial intermediate displacements 2.6. Transformation from basic forces to intermediate forces 2.7. Transformation from partial basic forces to partial intermediate forces and partial intermediate displacements 2.8. Transformation from basic forces to global forces 2.9. Transformation from partial global displacements to partial global forces 2.10. The incremental stiffness matrix for a two-dimensional cable element 3. The contribution of individual element stiffnesses to the overall structural stiffness matrix vii Nw RR y 27 28 29The method of solution of the non-linear stiffness equations 5. Computer program flow charts 6. Analysis of general three-dimensional cable structures 6.1, Global system of co-ordinates and direction cosines 6.2. Loads and displacements in the global and intermediate co-ordinate systems 6.3. Transformation from intermediate forces and displacements to global forces and displacements 64. Basic displacements and basic forces 6.5. Transformation from partial basic displacements to partial intermediate displacements 6.6. Transformation from basic forces to intermediate forces 6.7. Transformation from partial basic forces to partial intermediate forces and partial intermediate displacements 68. Transformation from basic forces to global forces 69. Transformation from partial global displacements to partial global forces 6.10. The incremental stiffness matrix for three-dimensional cable element References Appendices 1. Computer program for three-dimensional cable structures allowing for large displacements 2. Numerical example of two-dimensional structure (vertical 2-D truss) 3. Numerical example of three-dimensional structure @-D hypar roof) - 4, Contents of diskette and user guide 71 79 87Notation [d] e (E] E Px Pye Fz, (kK) (K] [Ko] [k]s iL) t Lo Ip. psp [qa iigs Mg 5 Mos Me P) P Be transformation matrix between intermediate and ba: displacements cross-sectional area transformation matrix between incremental changes in element basic displacements with incremental changes in element intermediate displacements matrix connecting the incremental changes in intermediate forces with the incremental changes in intermediate displacements element extension along deformed member ax displacemend) unit vector of element basic displacements Young's Modulus force at end of A of element A-B in direction of global X-axis force at end of A of element A-B in direction of global Y-axis force at end of A of element A-B in direction of global Z-axis non-linear portion of [K] structural stiffness matrix initial stiffness matrix overall structural stiffness matrix load vector (global system of co-ordinates) length of element original length of element direction cosines with respect to the P-axis direction cosines with respect to the Q-axis direction cosines with respect to the R-axis unit vector representing element basic forces element basic force original element ba sic is (basic force (pre-tension of clement)[R] (T] [u} w x] Ya force vector (element intermediate system of co-ordiantes) force acting along the element P-axis force acting along the element Q-axis transformation matrix between global and intermediate displacements force acting along the element R-axis displacement acting along the element P-axis displacement vector (element intermediate sys co-ordinates) displacement acting along the element Q displacement acting along the element R-axis displacement at end A of element A-B in direction of global Xaxis displacement vector (global system of co-ordinates) displacement at end A of element A-B in direction of global ‘Y-axis displacement at end A of element A-B in direction of global Z-axis axisIntroduction 1.1. General introduction Cable and catenary structures represent an interesting and unusual struc- tural form to the structural engineer. In general, such structural systems form the main load bearing structural elements for cable suspended roofing systems, or suspension bridges, or alternatively they form the restraining system to other structural frameworks or components. An. example of the latter case is the guyed systems used to support and restrain guyed masts and towers. The individual cable section (or componenv or the chain link element provides the simplest form of structural element, in that it has only a component of stiffness in the axial or longitudinal direction. The inter esting aspect of such systems relates to their unusual behaviour, which is exhibited by a non-linear behaviour due to change in shape or geometry whilst under external loading. Generally, the behavioural pattern, for cable or catenary structures, demonstrates a non-linear effect with an increase in stiffness under increasing load. In most cases, for these structural forms, a major portion of the structural stiffness is provided through the initial pre-tension. The application of external loading generally increases the level of tension in the main load bearing elements within such a system, with other elements adopting a reduced level of tension from the original pre-tension level. Very significant non- linear behaviour of the structure occurs when the effect of external loading is to reduce the level of tension within individual elements to zero. In such cases the contribution of such elements to the overall stiff- ness of the structure is eliminated. Other structural forms, for which the procedures described herein have application, include inflatable membrane structures‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES The theoretical analysis of cable and catenary structural systems has previously been treated in many different ways. As an example, the theoretical treatment of a two-dimensional vertical cable truss by Poskitt’ represented a very particular solution, in which only changes in vertical displacements were considered, Similarly, the approach by Krishna and Agarwal’ in the analysis of a suspended roof model (three-dimensional hypar roof structure) represented a particular solution, in which only changes in vertical displacements were consid- ered. An exact solution of the same numerical problem presented by Krishna and Agarwal, as discussed by Dickie and Broughton,? illustrated the significant difference in the behaviour of the structure when a more complete theoretical approach had been included. The exact solutions for the models given in references (1) and (2) are included as worked examples within Appendices 2 and 3. Other more encompassing texts, such as those by Vilnay,* Irvine, Krishna,° Szabo and Kollar,” Buchholdt,® and Otto” presented various theoretical procedures for the analysis of cable and catenary systems. Several of the above authors continued to provide less than general and less exact theoretical formulations. Other authors presented theore- tical procedures which over complicated the problem and very often were difficult for student engineers to understand and apply. The text by Otto,? included a wide variety and description of many forms of cable/tensile structures, The present text provides an exact theoretical procedure for the analysis of cable and catenary structures. This allows for gross non-line- arity due to the effects of changes in geometry, or due to elements becoming slack. The theoretical approach follows a procedure for the non-linear change of geometry effects of planar (two-dimensional) frame structures first developed by Jennings,'° which in turn was based upon the matrix stiffness method of analysis as described by Livesley"! and many others. The theoretical approach is developed for two-dimen- sional and three-dimensional cable and catenary structures. This is followed by appropriate flow charts and the necessary computer soft- ware. Useful numerical examples of differing problems are presented. 1.2. Sources of non-linearity In the majority of cases, most engineering structural forms are considered to behave in a linear fashion. The analysis of the majority of structures isINTRODUCTION based upon a linear relationship between applied external forces and displacements and similarly upon a linear relationship between internal member forces (or stresses) and member displacements (or strains). However, there are important exceptions where the above linear rela- tionships are inadequate to define the structural behaviour properly. In necessary to provide different and more representative (accurate) formulations in order to represent more adequately the struc- tural behaviour. For those exceptions, where the structure behaves in a non: fashion, the sources of non-linearity are primarily due to: these cases it (a) non-linear material behaviour, or (b) non-linear geometric behaviour, or (©) a combination of both of the above effects. This text eats the source of non-linearity in the structural behaviour, which is attributable to changes in geometry. For the non-linear behaviour of structures due to changes in geometry (and large displacements) there are essentially two forms of non-linear behaviour (a) structures which demonstrate a softening effect with increasing load (b) structures which demonstrate a stiffening effect with increasing load These two different forms of structural behaviour are illustrated in Figs 1.1 and 1.2. For the former type of structure, as illustrated in Fig. 1.1, the effect of increasing the externally applied load(s) is generally to produce an overall softening effect, in which the structure gets progressively less stiff. The actual shape of the externally applied load(s) versus displace- Pp @ Arch type of structure Gi) Load displacement behaviour Fig. 1.1. Structure exhibiting non-linear softening effect‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES: ment path can vary (one example is illustrated in Fig. 1.1), and is dependent upon the structural geometry, the form of external loading, and the boundary conditions. This form of structural behaviour is associated with wording such as ‘buckling’ and ‘snap through buck- ling’. Generally this structural form, and form of structural behaviour, is more complex than that associated with the second form of struc- ture (b) which demonstrates an overall stiffening effect. For the latter type of structure, as illustrated in Fig. 1.2, the effect of increasing the externally applied load(s) is generally to produce an overall stiffening effect. For this form of structure, it is equally essential to provide a suitable behavioural formulation in order to develop an understanding of the structure and to provide a proper representation of the distribution of internal forces (stresses) and displacements (strains) within individual elements. This text considers the different types of structural form for which this type of behaviour is representative, and develops a theoretical procedure to deal with the latter form of structural behaviour. The text introduces the effects of geometric non-linearity which are due to large or gross displacements of individual elements. For this latter type of structural form, other very significant sources of non- linearity are included, and this is due to individual elements becoming slack (a chain or cable element being unable to accommodate compres- sive loading). P 4 @ Suspended cable type of Gi Load displacement structure bebaviour Fig. 1.2, Structure exhibiting non-linear stiffening effectINTRODUCTION All of the above effects are considered to be important in developing an understanding of the behaviour of structures, as illustrated with the simple model in Fig, 1.2, in order to achieve an accurate understanding of the distribution of intemal forces and displacements within the structure. 1.3. Types of structure to which the procedures apply ‘The types of structure, for which the text and procedures contained herein apply, cover a wide range of land based and offshore structures. The list below is representative of the types of structure suspension bridges suspended cable net roof structures catenary mooring systems for offshore semi-submersible drill rigs cable stayed masts cable stayed offshore deepwater jacket structures certain inflatable structures catenary moorings for offshore loading buoys Several of the above types of structure are illustrated below. Suspension bridge ais aa Fig. 1.3. Suspension bridge In this example of the suspension bridge, the curved upper chord members and the vertical hangers are represented as cable elements, for which the procedures in this text apply. The vertical columns and the bottom chord members consist of elements having both axial and bending stiffness contributions. A large proportion of the inherent struc- tural stiffness is provided through initial pretension.‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES Suspended cable net roof structure Fig. 1.4. Suspended cable net roof over rectangular plan In this example, the curved roof elements spanning between supports are represented by cable elements, for which the procedures in this text apply. The boundaries are considered as being either totally rigid or consisting of elements having axial, shear, and bending stiffnesses about both primary axes These types of roofing system are light weight and relatively stiff for the amount of material provided. A large proportion of the inherent stiff- ness is provided through initial pre-tension. A numerical example for a three-dimensional hypar structure, as defined in reference (2), is included in Appendix 3. Several examples of various forms of cable net roofing structures are referred to, and are included herein. Figures 1.5 and 1.6 refer to the Olympic Stadium in Munich. Fig. 1.5 shows an interior viewINTRODUCTION‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES Figure 1.6 shows the columns, cable supports and anchorages of the Olympic Stadium, Munich. Fig. 1.6. Detail of columns, cable supports and anchorages of the Olympic Stadium, Munich (Courtesy of Architects Behnisch and Partners with Frei Otto and Engineers Leonardt and Andrea)INTRODUCTION Figure 1.7 shows a different form of cable net roofing system in the form of a tent structure for the Diplomatic Quarters in Riyadh. Fig. 1.7. Heart Tent, Diplomatic Quarters, Riyadh (Courtesy of Architects Frei Otto and Omrania and Engineers Buro Happold) Figures 1.8, 1.9 and 1.10 refer to the Jeddah Sports Stadium in Saudi Arabia. Fig. 1.8 shows the layout of column supports and the cable net at an intermediate position during hoisting,‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES ips ‘umnipors suods qoppal 10INTRODUCTION Figure 1.9 shows a close-up of the cables and connections. This shows a relatively simple clamp connection detail between cable segments. Figure 1.10 shows a close-up of the simple clamp connection and of the fabric supports. Fig. 1.9. Jeddab Sports Stadium, Saudi Arabia. Close-up of cables and of connections (Courtesy of Architects Frei Otto and Engineers Buro Happold) Fig. 1.10. Jeddab Sports Stadium, Saudi Arabia. Close-up of the simple clamp connection detail and of the fabric supports (Counesy of Architects Frei Orto and Engineers Buro Happold)‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES Cable stayed mast Fig. 1.11. Cable stayed mast In this example of the cable stayed mast, all the cable stay elements. which provide lateral support to the vertical mast, consist of cable elements, for which the procedures in this text apply. The vertical mast structure usually consists of a framed lattice structure, each element of which has both axial and bending stiffness. The purpose of the cable stayed system is to provide a relatively stiff support to the mast structure and to reduce the effect of environmental loadings applied to the mast structure itself. Large reactions which would otherwise have to be accommodated at the base of the mast struc- ture Gf without stays) are considerably reduced by the actions of the cable stays. In this way the internal forces within the mast structure and hence the material required for construction are considerably reduced. 2INTRODUCTION Cable stayed offshore deepwater jacket structure Fig, 1.12. Cable stayed offshore deepwater jacket structure This example is very similar to the previous example of the cable stayed mast (onshore). In this case, the vertical lattice tower structure is used to support heavy production equipment above sea level, and is provided with lateral restraint through the use of a cable stay system. The proce- dures described in this text apply to the behaviour of the cable stay elements. Due to the generally larger scale than for the onshore cable stayed mast, the geometry and weights involved are considerably larger. Invariably, the initial geometry of the cable stay elements is curved due to the considerable weight of the cable system. In this example further non-linearity is introduced with the effect of the lower portions of the cable catenary (or chain) system either lifting off or touching the seabed. Normally, the restraining catenary system is designed to be most effective in extreme storm conditions, in which the tower structure is subjected to significant sway motions. In very extreme cases, further non-linearity is introduced into the system by providing clump weights on the lower portion of the cable or catenary, which may in turn lift off or be restrained by the seabed. The behaviour of such systems is generally more complex due to the different form of non-linearity introduced into the system, with the objec- tive in the design to progressively introduce further increases in stiffness as the applied loading and deformations increase. 13‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES Inflatable structures Fig. 1.13. Inflatable barrage or temporary dam structure The above example illustrates a cross-section of an inflatable structure which is used as a temporary dam. Such a system would be used for flood diversion. Figure 1.13 shows the deformed shape of the inflated structure under the action of lateral loading due to flood water. The structural form of this type of structure is achieved through the inflation of the membrane structure. The membrane structure requires firm anchorage foundations, as the membrane itself provides little weight or mass to resist external loadings. For purpose of analysis the continuous membrane element is sub-divided into suitable element lengths. The procedures described in this text apply to the behaviour of the membrane elements, and will allow for the gross changes in geometry as the membrane is taken from the partially inflated stage progressively to the fully inflated stage, and finally to the fully deformed stage due to the application of external loading, as shown in Fig. 1.13. The purpose of analysis would be to determine the internal forces within the membrane through all stages of loading, to determine whether membrane thickness and internal pressure are adequate, and to determine if the overall geometry under applied lateral loading provides a sufficient height for the purpose intended. 4INTRODUCTION Catenary mooring system for offshore loading buoy Fig. 1.14. Qffsbore catenary mooring system The above structural system (Fig. 1.14) is represented by an arrangement of catenary cable or chains. It is used to restrain floating structures such as offshore loading buoys or permanently moored tankers. Vertical support to the buoy and rigid arm system to the tanker is provided through the buoyancy within the buoy. Under severe loading, due to storm action on the buoy and the tanker, the horizontal displacements of the system can be considerable. Horizontal resistance to motio' provided through the stiffness of the catenary chain is tem, which is usually pre-tensioned in order to provide an initial stiffness to the system. The procedures described in this text apply to the behaviour of the cable or chain catenary system, and will allow for significant changes in geometry which are experienced by the chains during severe storm loadings2 Analysis of general two-dimensional cable structures The previous chapter has given a general background into the behaviour of cable structures, and has described the type of structures to which the particular methods of analysis have application. The analytical proce- dures described are simple but provide an essentially exact formulation for cable structures subjected to large deformation. This chapter covers the geometrical non-linear stiffness formulation for a single planar (two-dimensional) element, consisting of a cable element, rod, or chain link when subjected to large deformation. ‘The basis of the theoretical non-linear procedure is based upon the work by Jennings."° Whilst the procedure, described herein, for a planar cable element is simpler than that provided by Jennings (sho included bending effects), the purpose of including the explanation, at this stage, is to be able to extend the procedure to three-dimensional structures at a later stage. 2.1. Global system of co-ordinates and direction cosines Figure 2.1 provides the position of a typical element within the global system of co-ordinates (X-Y). The typical element (A-B) has co- ordinates at either end given by X,, Yq at end A, and Xg, Yg at end B. The original length of the element, with respect to the global system of co-ordinates is given by: Ly = V (Xu — Xa) + Cp — Y4)"] Q1)‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURI Fig. 2.1. Global system of co-ordinates The typi | element has the usual properties A = cross-sectional area E = Young's Modulus For element (A-B) it is convenient to define a set of local axes P and Q The P-axis coincides with the longitudinal axis of the element (in the undeformed state), while the Q-axis is orthogonal to the P-axis. The axes P and Q are referred to as the intermediate co-ordinate system, and are shown in Fig. 2.2. From the local element intermediate co-ordinate system it is possible to define a set of direction cosines for the local axes, (P, Q), with respect t0 the global co-ordinate system, (X, Y). Thus: = Xy—XO/bos my = Yn — Y/Lo (2.2) ‘The above terms define the direction cosines of the element longitudinal P-axis with respect to the global axes (X, Y). The direction cosines of the element orthogonal Q-axis are given by: k= —Me-Yu/lo mq = Xp —Xi/Lo (23) Thus: (2A)ANALYSIS OF GENERAL TWO-DIMENSIONAL CABLE STRUCTURES Fig. 2.2. Intermediate system of co-ordinates 2.2. Loads and displacements in the global and intermediate co-ordinate systems ‘The load vector as applicable to the ends referred to in the globa of the element (A-B), and stem of co-ordinates is given by: [L] = [Pea Fra, Fp, FY] 5) ‘The above system of global forces is shown in Fig. 2.3. ‘The corresponding displacement vector as applicable to the ends of element (A-B), and referred to in the global system of co-ordinates is given by: [X] = [as Yor Mos I] 26) The above system of global displacements is shown in Fig, 2.4 The overall objective in the stiffness formulation is to connect the external global load vector, (lJ, which will include all global loads applied to all elements of the structure, with the global joint displace- ment vector, [X]. The global displacement vector, [X], defines the global displacements of all elements and element end positions (or nodes) throughout the complete structure. 19‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES Y { Fyy Fig. 2.3. Global forces at the ends of element (A-B) Fig. 2.4. Global displacements at the ends of element (A-B)ANALYSIS OF GENERAL TWO-DIMENSIONAL CABLE STRUCTURES This connection of external or global loads to the global displacements of the structure is through the complete (overall) structural stiffness matrix {K] (L) = (K] x x) Qn The development of the stiffness matrix for such elements provides for the non-linear effects due to large displacements. The purpose of previously defining an intermediate co-ordinate system. for each element (P- and Q-axes) was to be able usefully to define a set of so called intermediate forces and intermediate displacements for a typical element (A-B). The load vector as applicable to the ends of the element (A-B), and referred to in the element intermediate system of co-ordinates is given by: [R] = [x, 5] (28) where R equals the force acting along the clement P-axis, and S is the force acting in the direction of the element Q-axis. The above system of element intermediate forces is shown in Fig, 2.5 The displacement vector as applicable to the typical element (A-B), Fig. 2.5. Element intermediate forces 21‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES, and referred to in the element intermediate system of co-ordinates is given by: (U] = [, o @9) where u equals the displacement acting along the element P-axis, and v is the displacement in the direction of the element Q-axis. The above system of element intermediate displacements is shown in Fig, 2.6. Fig. 2.6. Element intermediate displacements 2.3. Transformation from intermediate forces and displacements to global forces and displacements The element intermediate displacements may be connected to the global displacements through the transformation matrix [T], in which [T] is composed of the element direction cosines, as defined previously in equations (2.2), (2.3) and (2.4): . Xa ul] _|[-4 -m , m Ya [= [=e =e & &]*|2 om YyANALYSIS OF GENERAL TWO-DIMENSIONAL CABLE STRUCTURES The above equation satisfies displacement compatibility at the ends of the element and may be written in matrix form as: (u) = [1] x [x] Qld The corresponding global force vector and intermediate force vector are similarly related in order to satisfy conditions of equilibrium at the ends of the element: (= (r] x R] (2.12) where [T'] is the transpose of matrix [T], and in the expanded form, equa- tion (2.12) is written as: FXq -h -k Fy,| _ | —m —m, R mela fe aX [s (2.13) F¥p My My It is important to note that both the global forces and displacements and the element intermediate forces and displacements relate to the original underformed position of the element. This means that there is no non-linearity introduced in equations (2.10), (2.11), (2.12) or (2.13). 2.4. Basic displacements and basic forces A further set of more basic clement displacements and basic element forces may be defined, which in turn relate to the element deformed position (A’-B'), The basic element displacement is given by the element extension as measured along the deformed member axis. e=yiturtu']- Lo (2.14) In matrix form, equation (2.14) may be written as: (E) = [a] x [U] (2.15) where [E] = vector of element basic displacements [U] = vector of element intermediate displacements ‘The above systems of intermediate and basi shown in Fig. 2.7. element displacements are 23THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES Fig. 2.7. Element intermediate and basic displacements The element basic force is given in the form of the element basic displacement and any element pretension, as follows: P = P,+(EA)/L, x e (2.16) where E = Young's Modulus A = element cross-sectional area P, = original element axial force (pre-tension) L, = original element length P= new or updated element basic force e = element extension along deformed element longitudinal axis (basic displacement) 2.5. Transformation from partial basic displacements to partial intermediate displacements Equations (2.14) and (2.15) provide the connection between the element basic displacements and element intermediate displacements in absolute terms. It is convenient to develop the partial derivatives of the element 24ANALYSIS OF GENERAL TWO-DIMENSIONAL CABLE STRUCTURES basic displacements with respect to the partial derivatives of the element intermediate displacements. This is achieved by examining the partial derivatives of each term in equation (2.14) in turn, thus Lotu ov ou Ss 217 [de] [* 2° meal x (5 (2.17) In matrix form equation (2.17) may be written as: [6E] = [AA] x [6U] (2.18) 2.6. Transformation from basic forces to intermediate forces The transpose of the matrix [AA] is used to connect the intermediate element forces to the basic element forces, in order to satisfy the con- ditions of equilibrium at the ends of the element, thus, IR] = [AA] x [P| 2.19) or, in expanded form the equilibrium equation is given as: Lot ul [R Lote [3] =r | xP) (2.20) Ta +. 2.7. Transformation from partial basic forces to partial intermediate forces and partial intermediate displacements Equations (2.19) and (2.20) provide the connection between the element intermediate forces and the element basic forces in absolute terms. It is convenient to develop the partial derivatives of the element intermediate forces with respect to the partial derivatives of the element basic forces and the partial derivatives of the element intermediate displacements, This is achieved by examining the partial derivatives of each term in equation (2.20) in turn, thus:‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES Lot Pu —Pv(L, + u) 5R Iy+e 2 Uoter’? In +e? [3] = x [bP] + = [és] v eI -Polg tu) PL, + uP ov Lo +e. Gtr) +e 2p In matrix form equation (2.21) may be written as [9R] = [AA'] x [8P] + [d] x [3U) 2.22) The above expression can be expanded by substituting for [5P] [SP] = £A/L, x [5E] (2.23) and by substituting for [SE] [SP] = £A/L, x [AA] x [SU] (2.24) Thus, equation (2.22) becomes: (OR] = {[AA'] x EA/L, x [AA] + [d]} x [5U] (2.25) or in expanded form this is given by: Lo tu bR] _ ||L,+e FA, [lore v 6S | I, [Lote L,+e Lote Pi —Pu(L, + wu) Goter’ +e + : al 2.26) bv —Pulg tu) PU, +0)? Gotey 7 Wyte 2.8. Transformation from basic forces to global forces Equation (2.12), which connects the element global forces to the element intermediate forces, is used in conjunction with equation (2.19), which connects element intermediate forces to element basic forces, thus: (H] = [1] x {R]and [R) = (AA!) x [P]ANALYSIS OF GENERAL TWO-DIMENSIONAL CABLE STRUCTURES In expanded form this is written as: FX, bh —h pean Fya| _ |— Mp Ma Io+e mel~ |e aye] e |% [P| (2.28) Py» My Mg Lote Equations (2.11), (2.15) and (2.16) may be combined with equation (2.27) in matrix form to give: {L] = [1] [Aa] x [P, + (BA/L,) x [A] x [F] x [XJ] (2.29) In expanded form, this is written as: Fx -h -h Lo + Fya My, —M, Io+e EA Pall = p+ Pa, hh IX] vo [Xe ta Pvp mM, Mg Loe x[_Vao Fw Fe - 1.) x [-} Mb | x | Ya 2.9. Transformation from partial global displacements to partial global forces Equation (2.7) represents the relationship between global forces and global displacements in absolute terms. It is convenient to develop the partial derivatives of global forces with respect to the partial derivatives of global displacements Because equations (2.10), (2.11), (2.12) and (2.13) connect the global forces to the intermediate forces and the intermediate displacements to the global displacements include only linear expressions, the corre- sponding incremental (or partial) changes in the various terms must equally apply, thus: [80] = [T] x [6x] Q3D and (6L] = [T'] x [6R] (2.32) 7‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES, Equations (2.25) and (2.26) may be expanded by substituting for (5U] and [6R], thus: [6L) = [1] x {[AA'] x BA/L, x [AA] + [d]} x [1] x [5X] (2.33) where the expression given by: [T’] x {{AA’] x EA/Z, x [AA] + [d]} x [7] represents the incremental stiffness matrix [K] 2.10. The incremental stiffness matrix for a two- dimensional cable element The expression given in equation (2.33) which provides the incremental stiffness matrix, [K], for the element, in expanded form is written as: -h -h To + _ | =m, —my Lote MP a] ye My My T,+e Pu —Pv(L, + w) U,+er? Uy +e? —Pudg tu) PUgt uw? +e Cy +e)? x [ab a bm 4 ~My ky Ma —k (2.34) 283 The contribution of individual element stiffnesses to the overall structural stiffness matrix The previous chapter has dealt with the non-linear stiffness formulation for a single planar (two-dimensional) cable element. The purpose of this chapter is to explain both the contribution and location within the overall structural stiffness matrix of the individual element stiffnesses. The procedure for incorporating individual element stiffnesses within the overall structural stiffness matrix has been explained previously by Livesley,'! amongst others. The purpose of providing a clear explanation herein is in order to explain fully the computer software, and also in order that the text is fully complete. The explanation is also equally applicable for three-dimensional cable structures. For any structural model, the members (or elements) and the nodes (or joints) are numbered separately and sequentially. Hence the degrees of freedom of each node within a complete structure, which are repre- sented by the displacements at each node position, are also sequential The overall structural stiffness matrix, for a complete structure, combines the stiffness contributions from individual elements, which are in turn arranged within the overall structural stiffness matrix in an ordered and sequential fashion. For a two-dimensional element, such as a cable element, having two. degrees of freedom at either end, the displacements at either end repre- sent a subset of the overall structural global displacement vector, [X] For a typical element, having ends A and B, the degree’ of freedom at either end are represented by that portion of the global displacement vector given by (2g, Ya, Xp, J»). The stiffness contribution of the element may be divided into two sets, representing the two ends of the element. In the sequential overall node numbering system for the complete struc- ture, the node numbering, representing the ends of a typical element, is invariably non-sequential (unless the structure happens to be a combina- 29‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES tion of single line elements), Thus, the stiffness contributions, repre- senting either end of a typical element, are separated and spaced out within the overall structural stiffness matrix. From the previous notation, the stiffness contributions of a typical element had been given in equation (2.33), in which: [K] = [1] x {(Aa’] x AE/Z, x [AA] + [d]} x [1] eB) represents the stiffness of both ends of the element combined in a single expression, In the above expression it is useful to define: [kl] = {[AA'] x EA/L, x [AA] + [d]} G.2) in which [k] represents the non-linear portion of the element stiffness matrix. Thus, the stiffness contributions of a typical element (to the overall structural stiffness matrix) are given by: (K] = [1] x [k] x [Tr] G3) Previously the element transformation matrix, [T], had been given in terms of the element direction cosines (from equations (2.10) and (2.11)): m-fEoRtg] oe In order to separate the displacements and stiffness contributions at either end of a typical element, it is convenient to separate [T] into two separate groups, each representing either end of the element. Thus: (Mi) = (<2 a 5) and = [Em] m8 The stiffness contribution at the first, end of the element is thus given by (Kas) = (14'] x [i] x [4] B.7) and the stiffness contribution at the second end of the element is given by: (Kaa) = (1 x Uh} x (1) G8) 30INDIVIDUAL ELEMENT STIFFNESSES Additional stiffness terms are also calculated and represent the so- called cross product terms, and represent the influence of one end of the element on the other. The cross product stiffness terms are given by: (Ki) = [1'] x [hk] x [2] BD and [Ka] = [T2'] x [x] x [14] 3.10) in which the cross product stiffness terms, [Ky2] and [Ka], are sym- metrical within the overall structural stiffness matrix, ie. [Kai] = [Ki] BAD ‘The stiffness contributions from either end of the elements [Ky] and [K22], and also the cross product stiffness terms, [Ky] and [K2,], are [KJs = (3.12)‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES. assembled in a sequential fashion within the overall structural stiffness matrix, [K]s, represented in graphical form in equation (3.12). The spacing of the individual element stiffness contributions, [K11], (Ki2], [Kai], and [K,,], within the overall structural stiffness matrix is dependent upon the sequential node number system, and in particular is dependent upon the node numbering adopted at either end of a typical element. For a typical element, the distance, C, given in the overall structural stiffness matrix represented by equation (3.12), represents the number of degrees of freedom in the overall structure which precede those degrees of freedom associated with the node at end (A) (or the first end) of the particular element. Similarly, the distance, D, represents the number of degrees of freedom in the overall structure which precede those degrees of freedom associated with the node at end (B) (or the second end) of the particular element. (Ki), [Kia], [Ker], and [K22] represents sub-matrices of the element stiffness matrix. For a typical element in a two-dimensional structure, each of [Ky], [K12], [Kai], and [K3,] represents 2 x 2 stiffness matrices. The above explanation is equally applicable to three-dimensional cable structures, in which sub-matrices (Ky), [K12], [Key], and [K22] of the element stiffness matrix represent 3 x 3 stiffness matrices As explained previously, the distances or positions within the overall structural stiffness matrix, given by the terms C and D, depend upon the overall element and node numbering system adopted for the structure. It must be noted that the overall structural stiffness matrix, [K]s, is symmetrical about the leading diagonal, even allowing for all the non- linear terms included within the element stiffness sub-matrices, (K]. All terms along the leading diagonal of the overall structural stiffne matrix, [K]s, must be non-zero and positive. For a cable net, or catenary type of structure, the contributions from individual elements [Ky], [Ky2], etc. within the overall structural stiffness matrix should be set to zero if the basic extension of the individual element given by the term, e, previously in equation (2.14) is negative. This is a basic source of non- linearity for these forms of structure, and is due to the fact that individual elements cannot take compressive loading. 324 The method of solution of the non-linear stiffness equations The contribution of individual element stiffnesses, as defined by equa- tions (2.33) and (2.34) (in Chapter 2), into the overall stiffness matrix of the complete structure, (K]s, has been defined with equations (3.1) to G12). Similarly, the relationship between global loads, [L], and global displa- cements, [X], in absolute terms has been described by equations (2.29) and (2.30). In a similar way to that in which the individual element stiff- nesses are combined into the overall structural stiffness matrix, described in Chapter 3, so the contributions of element forces ref enced to the global axis system in equations (2.29) and (2.30) are combined to provide a global vector of the internal system of forces which is applicable to the complete structure. For equilibrium conditions to exist it is necessary that the sum of the element forces referenced to the global axis system, as defined in equa- tion (2.30), for all elements in the structure, must be equal to the externally applied loadings. Any imbalance between the externally applied loadings and the internal system of element forces, as deter- mined by equation (2.29), is referred to as inequilibrium. The aim of this chapter is to explain the method of solution whereby the ‘incremental’ or ‘tangential’ stiffness matrix, as defined by equations (2.33) and (2.34), is used to determine the inequilibrium between the externally applied loads and the internal system of element forces, as defined by equations (2.29) and (2.30), and furthermore to project or determine a more accurate displaced shape of the structure in order to significantly reduce the inequilibrium resulting from the difference between externally applied loads and the internal system of element forces. The method of solution of these sets of equations is based upon the Newton-Raphson Method. This procedure is described by Livesley."" iS im of 33‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES The method is explained with reference to a structure which gets progressively softer with increasing load application, as previously refer- enced in Fig, 1.1, but which is equally applicable to cable net type of structures, which get progressively stiffer with increasing load, as previously shown in Fig. 1.2. The Newton-Raphson Method is an iterative method, and of all possible methods of solution of non-linear equations this method has the most rapid rate of convergence. The method is based upon succes- sively calculating or determining the incremental stiffnesses of individual and of the complete structure, in order to make an accurate forward projection of the displaced configuration of nodes and of indivi- dual elements, and of the complete structure in order to minimise the inequilibrium between the externally applied loads and internal system of element forces. The method is explained with respect to obtaining a solution for a set of equations for one single increment in the overall applied load vector. Although the method is applicable to a multi degree of freedom system, the explanation is simplified and is further explained with reference to a single degree of freedom (such as a single node displacement along a particular global axis). This is shown in Fig. 4.1 For purposes of explanation, it is required to compute the displace- ment vector [X] corresponding with the overall external load vector [L]; with the external load vector, [L], being a single specific increment in the application of the external loading. In this case the initial overall stiff- ness of the structure is represented by [Ko]. This is based upon there being zero displacements of the structure, with the initial stiffness matrix, [Ko], corresponding to the undeformed shape of the structure. The first solution to the equilibrium equations is obtained by combining the equations in the form {{E] - [Lo]} = [Ko] x [6x] aD where [LE] = externally applied load vector [Lo] = the internal system of element forces within the structure (as given by equations (2.29) and (2.30)) For the undeformed shape of the structure the magnitude of the internal system of element forces within the structure, [Lo], is dependent upon any initial state of pre-tension. The expression {(] — {Lol} represents the amount of inequilibrium in the structure (or the imbalance between the externally applied loads and the internal system of element forces). In this case the expression {[I] — (Lo]} represents 34SOLUTION OF NON-LINEAR STIFFNESS EQUATIONS [UJ Loads | V/s | | Xa) Dol Displacements ix} o Fig. 4.1. The Newton-Rapbson Tangential Displacement Method the first increment of load to be applied to the structure. The stiffness matrix, [Ko], and as calculated by equations (2.33) and (2.34), represents the stiffness of the structure in the undeformed state Equation (4.1) is solved, knowing [Ko] and {{L) — [Lo}}, to provide the incremental change in displacements, [5X]. The first set of displacements to be calculated are represented in Fig. 4.1 by [5X] = [Xa] At this point, the structure ‘has adopted a deformed configuration’ represented by the displacements [Xa], and the inequilibrium between the externally applied loads and the internal system of element forces is re-computed. The revised inequilibrium, or new load vector to be applied to the structure, is represented in Fig. 4.1 by {[L] — [La]}. In this case [La] represents the internal system of element forces in the structure given by: [La] = [1] x [aa] x [P] (4.2) which is the same as the previous equations (2.27), (2.29) or (2.30).‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES: Similarly, for the ‘deformed configuration’ of the structure, represented by the displacements [Xa], the revised or re-computed stiffness matrix is, based upon the new deformed shape of the structure, The re-computed stiffness matrix is represented in Fig. 4.1 by the slope of the line given by [Ka] Thus, the revised stiffness matrix and revised inequilibrium vector are combined to give: {{E} — [La]} = [Kal x [5x] 43) The new set of equations are solved to provide the new solution given by [dX] = [Xb], as shown in Fig. 4.1 The process is successively continued by re-computing the new stiff- ness matrix at each stage given by [Kn], and the new inequilibrium load vector, given by {{L] — [Ln}} in order to determine the displaced config- uration of the structure, represented by [X], and which corresponds to the externally applied load vector [E]. The process is continued, with the solution for the displaced shape of the structure progressively converging, and given by: (X] = [Xa] + [Xb] + [Xc] +... + [5x] (4.4) The solution is considered to have converged when either [SX] is small, or the ratio of [5X]/[X] is small. Alternatively, the solution is considered to have converged if the inequilibrium vector, given by {(E] — [Lal}, is also small and insignificant Following the solution of the equations for the particular increment in the external load vector [L], it is usual to increase progressively the magnitude of the external load in stages. For structures which demon- strate large changes in stiffness it is usual to apply the external loadings in small increments; such a procedure avoids the possibility of the solu- tion method from diverging, whereby the iterative procedure, described above, does not converge. Possible divergence is more likely for struc- tures which exhibit a sofiening effect with increasing load. As explained previously, the methods described in this chapter are equally applicable to structures which get stiffer with increasing load, which generally include cable net and catenary structures. 365 Computer program flow charts In order to summarize the work of the preceding chapters, and also to provide the necessary link to the programs, two flow charts are provided. The first flow chart, shown in Fig. 5.1, provides the overall sequence of operations, while the flow chart, shown in Fig. 5.2, provides more detail together with relevant reference points to the locations within the programs. Both flow charts are equally applicable to the two-dimensional program, and also to the three-dimensional program given in Appendix 1 The flow charts are considered to be self explanatory, and are included as an essential means of introduction to the programs.Fig. 5.1 E ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES ! Input joint and element data Calculate member direction cosines i Input load vector (C] Assemble individual element stiffnesses Assemble [T]and [T’] matrices Assemble [AA] and [AA’] matrices Assemble (d] matrix By multiplication and addition, assemble element stifinesses (T] x { [AA’] x EAIL, x [AA] + (d] } x [1] Compute internal system of forces [Ln] = [T"] x [AA’] x [P] { Place individual element stiffnesses in the overall structural stiffness matrix [K], Calculate inequilibrium vector ((L] — [Ln)) Solve for oX: (Gi = [kn = tka x (ox) [oX]islarge [oX]is small Print out solution : [X] = [Xa] + [Xb] +... + [0X] Overall computer program flow chart 38COMPUTER PROGRAM FLOW CHARTS Enter number of joints — NJ Enter number of members — NM Enter number of loaded joints — NLJ Enter number of support joints — NSJ 1 a Input joint co-ordinates 1 ) Input structural connectivity and material properties { 3) Input external load vector (RL t (4) Input boundary conditions t 6) Compute direction cosines } 6) Initialize intermediate displacements u=0,v=0&w=0; Input intial pretension forces and displacement vector DISP = 0 1 ” Compute basic member displacements and basic member forces { @) Print input data 1 @ Initialize stiffness matrix [SK] = 0 for the structure and internal structural Nodal load vector [RLN] = 0 1 (108) Fig. 5.2. More detailed computer program flow chart including program refer- ence potnt locations (part 1) 39‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES Set element | = 1 Compute positions NC & ND for element stiffness sub-matrices in the overall structural stiffness (see eqn. 3.12) { (10b) ‘Assembly of transformation sub-matrices [T1] & [T2] { (100) ‘Assembly of matrix [AA] 1 (100) | ‘Assembly of matrix (D] { (10) Compute element stiffness sub-matrices [$14] [S12] [Sei] & [Sza] and assemble them in the overall structural stiffness [SK] { (101) Compute element nodal load sub-vectors and assemble them in internal structural nodal load vector [RLN] 4 (10g) yes no Fig. 5.2. More detailed computer program flow chart including program refer- ence point locations (part 2) 40COMPUTER PROGRAM FLOW CHARTS ‘Compute structural inequilibrium load vector [UF] = [RL] — [RLN] { (a) Introduce boundary conditions { (12) Solve system equations [SK] x [DELX] = [UF] for incremental displacements { (13) Compute current displacement Vector [DISP] = [DISP] + [DELX] { (14) Compute intermediate displacement u,vaw { (15) ‘Compute basic member displacements and basic member forces [E] & [P] { @) Remove slack elements (16) not converged Check convergence, (17) converged Print results (18) ' Fig. 5.2. More detailed computer program flow chart including program refer- ence point locations (part 3) a6 Analysis of general three-dimensional cable structures The previous chapters have dealt with the non-linear stiffness formula- tion for a single planar (two-dimensional) element together with the methods of smbly of individual member/element stiffnesses within the overall structural stiffness matrix, and the method of solution of the non-linear stiffness equations. This chapter covers the geometrical non-linear stiffness formulation for a single three-dimensional element, consisting of a cable element, rod, or chain link, when subjected to large deformations, and is a direct exten- sion of the procedure described previously in chapter 2 The procedures, described previously, for the assembly of individual element stiffnesses within the overall structural stiffness matrix, together with the method of solution of the non-linear stiffness equations are equally applicable. In order to make the explanation of the stiffness formulation for the three-dimensional element straightforward, a similar format to that in chapter 2 is adopted. 6.1. Global system of co-ordinates and direction cosines Figure 6.1 provides the position of a typical element within the global system of co-ordinates (X-Y-Z). The typical element (A-B) has co-ordi- nates at either end given by Xa, Ya, Za at end A, and Xp, Yp, Zp at end B. ‘The original length of the element, with respect to the global system of co-ordinates is given by: V [Xp — Xa)? + Xp — YQ? + (Zp — Z4)"] A) The member intermediate system of co-ordinates, given by the member axes P, Q, and R, are shown in Fig. 6.2. As previously, the P-axis 43‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES Fig. 6.1. Global system of co-ordinates coincides with the longitudinal axis of the element (in the undeformed state), while the Q-axis is orthogonal to the P-axis, and the R-axis is orthogonal to both the P-axis and the Q-axis. The direction cosines, of the local intermediate axes P, Q, and R, relative to the global co-ordinate system X, Y, and Z, are defined below. For the element P-axis, the direction cosines relative to the global axis system are: fy = (Xp—Xp)/Loi mM = Va—Ya/Lo; Mp = Zp—Zp/Lo 6.2) For the element Q-axis, the direction cosines are: ky = Ko—Xp)/Lo; Mg = Yo-Ya/Los q = (Zo-Za/bo 6.3) In this case the co-ordinates Xe, Yc, Ze refer to the co-ordinates of a convenient point located along the Quaxis at some distance away from end A of the element.‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL CABLE STRUCTURES Fig. 6.2. Member intermediate system of co-ordinates ‘The direction cosines of the third orthogonal R-axis are given by the right hand rule: f= (y+ 1 = thy Mg); Me = (My + by = by + Mads and 1 = (fy Mq— Mp ly) 4) 6.2. Loads and displacements in the global and intermediate co-ordinate systems The load vector, as applicable to the ends of the element (A-B), and referred to in the global system of co-ordinates, is given by: (L] = (Pu, Ma, Fa, FX», Pp, FZ) 6.5) The above system of global forces is shown in Fig. 6.3 45‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES: Fig. 6.3. Global forces at the ends of element (A-B) The corresponding displacement vector as applicable to the ends of the element (A-B) and referred to in the global system of co-ordinates is given by: [X] = [Ras Yar Zar Xb» Yor 2) 6.6) The above system of global displacements is shown in Fig. 6.4 As previously, the connection of the external or global loads to the global displacements of the structure is through the complete (overall) structural stiffness matrix [K] (L] = (K] x (x) 67 As previously, the intermediate co-ordinate systems for each element (P-, Q, and R-axes) are used in order to define a set of so-called inter- mediate forces and intermediate displacements for a typical element 46‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL CABLE STRUCTURES Fig. 6.4. Global displacements at the ends of element A-B (A-B). In this case the load vector as applicable to the ends of the element (A-B), and referred to in the intermediate system of co- ordinates is given by: =[R, 5,7] G8) where R equals the force acting along the element P-axis, Sis the force acting in the direction of the element Q-axis, and Tis the force acting in the direction of the element R-axis. The above system of element inter- mediate forces is shown in Fig. 6.5 ‘The displacement vector as applicable to the typical element (A-B), and referred to in the element intermediate system of co-ordinates is given by: (U) = [x, », wl] 69) a7‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES Fig. 6.5. Element intermediate forces where « equals the displacement acting along the element P-axis, vis the displacement in the direction of the element Q-axis, and w is the displa- cement in the direction of the element R-axis. The above system of element intermediate displacements is shown in Fig. 6.6 6.3. Transformation from intermediate forces and displacements to global forces and displacements The element intermediate displacements are connected to the global displacements through the transformation matrix [I], in which [T] is composed of the element direction cosines, as defined previously in equations 6.2, 6.3, and 6.4. 48‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL CABLE STRUCTURES pte ) / iw et Fig. 6.6. Element intermediate displacements Xa Ja u ah ~My —Mp by My Mp 2 BY = [aly may My fy my My |X | (6.10) w — —m, —n om, 1% %i 2 The above equation satisfies displacement compatibility at the ends of the element and is written in matrix form as: (U) =-(1] x fx] Gav The corresponding global force vector and intermediate force vector are similarly related in order to satisfy conditions of equilibrium at the ends of the element I = f) x {R) (6.12) 49‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES where [T’] is the transpose of matrix [T]. In expanded form, equation (6.12) is written as: Px —h -h -k FY —M, —Mg —M, R Fey} _ | — Mp —Nq —M wel) & &LXTS em Py My Mg My Fr, My gM 6.4. Basic displacements and basic forces The basic element displacement is given by the element extension as measured along the deformed member axis. e= Vit +P +e -L, 14) In matrix form, equation (6.14) may be written as (E] = [A] x [U} 6.15) where [E] = vector of element basic displacements [U] = vector of element intermediate displacements The above system of intermediate and basic element displacements is shown in Fig. 6.7. As previously, the element basic force is given in the form of the element basic displacement and any element pre-tension: P=P,+CA)/L, xe (6.16) 6.5. Transformation from partial basic displacements to partial intermediate displacements As previously, it is convenient to dévelop the partial derivatives of the element basic displacements with respect to the partial derivatives of the element intermediate displacements. This is achieved by examining the partial derivatives of each term in equation (6.14) in turn, thus: bu [6 ote _# _# |. | ae 6.17) T,+e'I,+e' I.+e bw‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL CABLE STRUCTURES Fig. 6.7. Element intermediate and basic displacements In matrix form equation (6.17) may be written as: [SE] = [AA] x [5U] 6.18) 6.6. Transformation from basic forces to intermediate forces The transpose of the matrix [AA] is used to connect the intermediate element forces to the basic element forces, in order to satisfy the condi- tions of equilibrium at the ends of the element IR] = [AA] x P| 6.19)‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES In an expanded form this is written as: Lo tu Lg+e@ R _ Uv sj s = lne|*FI 6.20) w +e 6.7. Transformation from partial basic forces to partial intermediate forces and partial intermediate displacements Equations (6.19) and (6.20) provide the connection between the element intermediate forces and the clement basic forces in absolute terms. As previously, it is convenient to develop the partial derivatives of the element intermediate forces with respect to the partial derivatives of the element basic forces and the partial derivatives of the element inter- mediate displacements. This is achieved by examining the partial deriva- tives of each term in equation (6.20) in turn: OR és| = or a Inte PO? + w*) —PvL, +) Gate" Gtr | Gy +e) =PUL, +u) PUL, + w+ wy —Pow . i Ute * Unter "Uo +e ui —Pw(L, + u) —Pow PULo +? +0") Got er’ (+ ey” Uo + G2 52‘THREE-DIMENSIONAL CABLE STRUCTURES In matrix form equation (6.21) may be written as: (5R] = [AA’] x [6P] + [d] x [SU] (6.22) ‘The above expression can be expanded by substituting for [3P] [oP] = FA/Z, x [5E] (6.23) and also by substituting for [3E] [6P] = EA/T, x [AA] x [6U] (6.24) Thus equation (6.22) becomes [aR] = {[AA’] x (EA/L,) x [AA] + [d]} x [5U] (6.25) or in expanded form this is given by: OR 6s} = oT Lou ite Inte. PO? + w*) —PuL, + w) —Pw(l, + u) ote’ G+er * Uy +e PUL, +) PCL, + uy? + 0) —Pow ou Grey? Utter 7 Un te? ow —PutL, + u) —Pow PU, +o + U,+ey ? (y+ ey" (+e 6.26) 6.8. Transformation from basic forces to‘global forces Equation (6.12), which connects the element global forces to the element intermediate forces, is used in conjunction with equation (6.19), which connects clement intermediate forces to element basic forces.‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES: 1] = [T'] x (R) and [R| = [AA] x [P] (L) = [1] x [Aa’] x (P] 627) In expanded form this is written as: Fy -h hk =k fotu Fy —M, —Mq, —m, Lote F2y 0.003 * 0004 0.0010 o 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Hanger number Hanger number —o— ower cable —+— upper cabie Fig. A2.6. Plots of vertical and horizontal displacements for load case 2 (cable truss) (metres) Results of the change in hanger forces are given in Table A2.4 and Fig. A2.7. Linear Solution Nonlinear Solution Member eee, eee (or hanger no.) Hanger Change in Hanger Change in a) force force force force (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN) Q ) @ 6) 7 0-000 —0-0384 0.0384 0-0000 20 0.0665 0.0211 0.0654 0-0201 23, 0.0498 0.00012 00500 00003 25, 00686 00211 0.0703, 0-0228 27 0.000 —0-0361 0.0361 0:0000 Table A24 Change in tension forces in selected hangers for load case 2 (cable truss) 76NUMERICAL EXAMPLE OF TWO-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURE 10 Hanger force increase (N) o 2 4 6 68 0 12 14 Hanger number Fig. A2.7. Plot of increase in hanger force for load case 2 (cable truss) (Newtons) A2.3. Discussion Even though this type of cable structure is relatively stiff, it is necessary to take into consideration the non-linear effects, especially when the applied loading is irregular, as for load case 2. For example, if the vertical displacement of joint 26 is considered, it is seen that the solution from the non-linear analysis is almost 61% higher than the result of linear analysis. Also it is not realistic to ignore the horizontal displace- ments; for example the horizontal displacement of joint 3 is equal to 34% of the vertical displacement of the same jointAppendix 3 Numerical example of three-dimensional structure (3-D hypar roof) A3.1. General A 3-D hypar roof structure presented in the paper by Krishna and Agarwal,’ was analyzed using the three-dimensional program ‘cable3.x’, which is given in Appendix 1, and is also available in the accompanying diskette. In this example the same system of units has been adopted as was used by the original authors. In the previous paper, experimental and theoretical results were presented. In the previous formulations the authors considered vertical displacements only. The program ‘cable3.x’ gives results from linear and non-linear analyses. Both horizontal and vertical displacements are taken into consideration The structure is 12 x 12 feet square in plan (3-65m x 3-65m). Two opposite comers of the diagonal are elevated by 9 inches (0-228m) from the origin which is located at the centre of the roof surface. The remaining two comers are depressed by 9 inches (0-228m) from the same origin. In this way, a saddle shape is achieved for the resulting cable net, which is anchored along the straight rigid beams represented by the sides of the square, as shown in Fig. A3.1 A3.2. Results Four different load cases were analysed. Results obtained from the program ‘cable3.x’ include both linear and non-linear solutions. The analyses provide global vertical displacements, (Z), and the global hori- zontal displacements, (X and Y), in two orthogonal directions for each joint, as well as final tension force and the change from initial pre- tension force in each cable segment. In order to make comparisons. 9‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES 4 17 feet (5-18 m) Pian : i 75 (0228 17 foot (6-18 m) 075 feet (0228 m) Etevaton Fig. A3.1. 3-D bypar roofNUMERICAL EXAMPLE OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURE results from the paper by Krishna and Agarwal are also given in this appendix. Only two loading cases are summarized in this appendix, but results for all four loading cases are included in the accompanying diskette. Case 1 The first load case considered is for a single vertical load of 0-22 kips (0-98 kN) applied at node 7, as shown in Fig. A3.2 by 2 1 Loaves node Fig. 43.2. Load case 1 (3-D bypar roof) 81‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES Results of the displacements for the first load case are given in Table A3.1. Results from ref, (2) Linear Solution Non-linear Solution Node No. Theor Exper. x Y Zz x Y a) Z Z (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches) Gnches) Cinches) (inches) (inches) (4) 6) (3) M 8) 9) @) @) 3 =0:218 0-198 0-000 9.030 -0.213 0.000 0.034. —0-241 6 0237021701000 0.030 -0-234 0.007 0.035 —0-258 7 = 0-000 0125-0961 0-000 0.139 —0.965 13 0-415 -0:285 0.000 -0.055 -0310 0.000 —0.079 —0.333, 15 0.029 —0.028 0.001 -0-003 -0-029 0.001 =0.003 —0-031 22-0061 -0.058 0000-0013 —0-060 -0-001 -0-016 -0.062 31 0.010 -0-010 0.000 0.028 —0-009 0.000 0-047—-0.007 43-0028 0.031 0-000 0-024 0.027.000 0-041 0.051 44 ool 0.000 -0.008 0.015 -0.000 0.011 0-028, 46 0000 = 0.000 0.000 -0.000 -0-001 0-000 0-001 56 0.027 0-030 0.000 -0.007 0027 -0.000 0-010 0-041 59 0.001 0-000--0.000-0-000 -0-001 =0.001 0-000. —0.002 65 007 0.000 -0-018 0.045.000 0.031.071 or OO11 0-010 0-000 ~0-001 0011-9000 0.002 0-016 79 0.035 0.035 0-000 0-011-032-0000 0.018 0.051 Table A3.1. Displacements for vertical load of 0-22 kips (0-98RN) at node 7, Toad case 1 (3-D hypar roof) 82NUMERICAL EXAMPLE OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURE, Case 2 This load case represents distributed load applied on half of the cable net, while the remaining half is free from loading. The distributed load is represented by nodal loads (0.022 kips) shown in Fig. A3.3 38 [39 }4o [41 Jae [4s faa fas [as jar jaa x ¢—_? $99 —@ = 27 [28 |2a 30 [a1 [oe |33 |aa os 18 |19 [eo Je: foo jos [oa ht fro jis fra fas @ Loaded node 6 |7 |e 3 Fig. A3.3. Load case 2 (3-D hypar roof) 83‘THE ANALYSIS OF CABLE AND CATENARY STRUCTURES Results of the displacements corresponding to the second load case are given in Table 43.2. Results from ref. (2) Linear Solution Non-linear Solution Node ——— _rrrrrn OE No. Theor Exper. x Y Zz x y Zz @ Zz Z (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches) (inches) Ginehes) (4) co) © om @) o @) @) 3 0118 0-126 0.000 0-014 -0:116 0.000 0.015. —0-122 6 0186-0188 0-004. -0-019 -0:184 0.003 -0.021 -0-190 7 — — 0.000 -0-027 -0:254 0.000 -0.029 —0.264 13-0364 -0:382 0.000 0-034 -0:361 0.000 -0.036. —0:370 15-0192 -0-248 -0.007 0-015 -0-191 -0.007 -0-016 —0-192 22, 0391-0357 -0-007 -0.029 -0.389 —0.007 -0.030 —0:390 31 -0-410 -0-452 0.000 0-029 -0-415 0.000 -0.029- —0-409 43-0325 -0-366 0.000 -0.023.-0.325 0-000 -0-023 -0-316 44-0315 -0-350 -0.006. -0-018 -0-313 -0.006 -0.019 0-303 46-0240 -0-240 0.013 -0:005 -0-238 -0.013 —0.005 —0-230 56-0102 -0-089 -0.002 -0.017 -0-101 -0.002 0-018 —0-102 59-0043 -0-047 —0.004 0.001 -0-044 -0-004 -0.001 —0-044 65 0.004 0.004 0.000 -0:022 0-004. 0.000 -0-023 0.001 6 0012-0013 0.000 -0-009 0-000 0-000 -0-010 -0.003 790051 0046 0.000 0.016 0-050 0-000 -0.017 0.049 Table A3.2. Displacements for vertical loads of 0022 kips (0.098 kN) applied to each node over balf of the cable net, load case 2 (3-D hypar roof) A3.3. Discussion When results of linear and non-linear analyses are compared, it is observed that for the distributed load applied over half of the cable net (Case 2), there is little difference between the linear and non-linear results (between 2% and 6%) for the vertical displacements. However, if the case of single point load applied at node 7 is considered (Case 1), then it is observed that for some nodes the difference between the linear and non-linear solution is quite significant. For example, the vertical displacement of node 45 is 0-027 inches (0.000 685 m) from the linear analysis and 0-051 inches (0-00129m) from the non-linear analysis, representing a change of about 89%. Also, if the vertical dis- placement of node 31 is considered, it is observed that while the result from linear analysis gives a downward displacement of 0-009 inches (0-000 228m), the non-linear solution gives an upward displacement of 0-007 inches (0-000 178 m).NUMERICAL EXAMPLE OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL STRUCTURE In addition, the horizontal displacements are seen to be quite signifi- cant relative to the vertical displacements at certain node locations. For instance, for load case 1 of single point load applied at node 7, the hori- zontal displacement at node 31 is almost 670% larger than the respective vertical displacement. These results indicate quite clearly that for these types of structures, it is important when performing the analysis to incorporate non-linear effects due to changes in geometry. Also, it is important that the hori- zontal displacements are included within the theoretical formulation. 85Appendix 4 Contents of the diskette and user guide A4.1. Contents of the diskette The accompanying diskette contains two directories. The first directory, named TWOD, contains a source code for a program for 2-dimensional analysis of cable structures (CABLE2.FOR), an executable program file (CABLE2.EXE), three example input data files (CB21IN, CB22IN and CB23IN) and their corresponding output files which contain the results (OUT21, 0UT22 and OUT23). The results reported in Appendix 2 have been obtained from input files CB21IN and CB22IN, and output files OUT21 and OUT22, respectively. The input file CB23IN contains the information for the same cable truss as in Appendix 2, where in the latter case the load case represents downward vertical point loads with magnitude of 0-138 kN each applied at all the nodes on the bottom cable. The second directory is named THREED and contains a source code for a program for analysis of three-dimensional cable _ structures (CABLE3.FOR), and an executable program file (CABLE3.EXE), together with four example input files (CB31IN, CB32IN, CB33IN and CB34IN) and their corresponding output files which contain the results (OUT31, OUT32, UuT33 and OUT34). The results reported in Appendix 3 have been obtained from input files CBB31IN and CB32IN, and output files OUT31 and OUT32, respectively. The input files CB33IN and CB34IN contain the information for the same hypar roof as in Appendix 3, except that the loading case for input file CB33IN consists of a load of 0-22 kips applied vertically downwards at node 21, while load case for input file CB34IN consists of a load of 0-22 kips applied vertically downward at the central node 43. The corresponding results are in output files OUT33 and OUT34, respectively. 87A4.2 User guide In order to run the programs in the accompanying diskette, type program name CABLE2 or CABLE3, respectively, specifying the required path as necessary. The program will prompt for an input filename which has to be entered by the user. This file must be prepared beforehand as described in Appendix 1, section A1.2 for three-dimensional problems. An input file for two-dimensional problems has a similar format, except that in their case all quantities related to the third co-ordinate axis are left out. Immediately afier entering an input filename and pressing the RETURN key, a prompt requesting an output filename will appear. The user will enter an output filename of his or her choice which will contain the results of the analysis. The source code provided can be modified as desired by the user.