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Refractance Window Dehydration Technology
Refractance Window Dehydration Technology
Department of Food Science & Technology, University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho, USA
Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Washington State University,
Pullman, Washington, USA
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INTRODUCTION
Drying is a unit operation where water is removed from
products through application of heat, the end result being a
solid. The final product may be in the form of sheets,
flakes, film, powder, or granules. The drying process is distinguished from evaporation, where the final product is a
liquid with a high concentration of dissolved solids. These
two dehydration processes are very energy intensive yet
have been used in the food industry for decades to provide
microbial stability, reduce deteriorative chemical reactions,
facilitate storage, and minimize transportation costs. Even
though these objectives of drying as a unit operation are
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dryer.
FIG. 2. Schematic diagram of Refractance Window1 drying system (from Nindo et al.[47]).
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TABLE 1
Comparison of energy consumption of RW with other selected dryers[8,48]
Dryer type
Rotary dryer
Spray dryer
Drum dryer (for pastes)
RW Dryer
3
3
2
2
Typical product
temperature (C)
Thermal
efficiency (%)
About 175
80120
120130
6070
5025
5120
7835
7752
FIG. 7. Carrot flakes obtained from (a) Refractance Window dryer, and
(b) drum dryer.
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FIG. 8. Refractance Window drying of (a) squash, (b) asparagus soup mix, (c) lingonberry, and (d) blueberry.
recently because of consumers demand for more healthpromoting foods. The importance of food quality retention
in drying operations is evident from the increased research
in this area.[50] In 2005, a special issue of Drying Technology (Vol. 23, #4) was dedicated to the subject of food
quality. A compilation of literature that addresses the
retention of nutritional and functionality quality during
drying of fruits and vegetables was also presented recently
to provide guidance to researchers and industry practi-
tioners interested in this crucial area.[51] New dryers targeted for the food industry must go through several
testing and improvement cycles to define some optimized
conditions for retaining most heat labile compounds that
are keys to quality retention in food. Several fruits and
vegetables have been RW dried successfully with very good
retention of quality. These include carrots, squash, asparagus, lingonberries, blueberries, strawberries, mangoes, and
avocadoes, among others (Figs. 7 and 8).
TABLE 2
Color parameters of asparagus dried by five different methods
Drying method
Tray drying
MWSB
RW
Freeze drying
Fresh asparagus
Temp (C)
50
60
50
60
95
20
L
24.8 2.1
14.4 1.7
17.9 3.8
26.8 2.0
18.3 3.4
37.7 4.5
40.2 2.9
a
2.6 0.7
0.6 0.1
3.3 0.7
1.9 0.5
4.5 0.4
4.9 0.7
3.1 0.7
b
20.6 1.4
12.2 1.0
14.7 3.2
17.6 1.8
15.6 1.6
20.7 1.4
11.7 2.6
92.7
92.6
102.8
96.1
106.0
103.4
104.7
20.8
12.2
15.1
17.7
16.2
21.3
12.1
Heating water temperature; Plate temperature; RW: Refractance Window; MWSB: Combined microwave and spouted bed (from
Nindo et al.[45]).
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TABLE 3
Color value L, a , b ; chroma, and hue for carrot puree[46]
L
a
b
54.3 0.8d
67.5 0.6c
72.0 0.3b
77.6 0.4a
28.7 0.2b
20.8 0.4d
34.1 0.5a
27.1 1.2c
44.0 1.0a
39.4 1.7b
45.1 0.8a
44.1 0.4a
56.8b
62.1c
52.8a
58.5b
52.5c
44.6a
56.5d
51.8b
Treatment
Fresh puree
Drum dried
RW dried
Freeze dried
TABLE 4
Color parameters L, a , b , chroma, and hue values for strawberry puree [46]
Treatment
Fresh puree
Spray dried
RW dried
Freeze dried
a
L
d
b
b
45.3 1.6
77.8 0.7a
63.2 0.5c
71.5 0.5b
H
a
27.0 1.7
23.9 0.6c
29.3 0.6a
25.6 0.8b
22.0 1.9
16.8 0.5c
20.2 0.5b
16.6 0.6c
C
a
34.8a
29.2b
35.6a
30.5b
39.2
35.1b
34.6b
33.0c
abcd
TABLE 5
Carotene losses in carrots after drum, Refractance Window, and freeze-drying[46]
Total carotene
Sample
Control
Drum dried
RW dried
Freeze dried
g=g Solid
Loss (%)
a Carotene
g=g Solid
Loss (%)
a
1.77 0.0
0.78 0.1b
1.62 0.3a
1.70 0.0a
56.0 1.2
8.7 2.0
4.0 3.6
0.85 0.04
0.38 0.09b
0.79 0.16a
0.83 0.03a
b Carotene
g=g Solid
Loss (%)
55.0 1.1
7.4 2.2
2.4 3.7
0.92 0.0
0.39 0.0b
0.83 0.1a
0.87 0.0a
57.1 1.3
9.9 1.8
5.4 3.5
TABLE 6
Total antioxidant activities of green asparagus portions after drying by various methods
Asparagus spear portion
Drying method=condition
Temp. (C)
Freeze drying
RWTM
Tray drying
Spouted bed
MWSB
2 W=g
4 W=g
20
95
60
60
(plate)
(water)
(air)
(air)
60 (air)
60 (air)
Tip
Middle
Basal
Whole spear
98.4 3.7a
88.2 6.2a
67.1 4.8b
49.1 2.1c
74.5 4.1a
75.2 2.6a
45.7 3.3b
42.6 1.4b
55.7 3.5a
56.2 1.4a
40.6 1.7b
40.9 2.7b
76.2 3.8a
73.2 3.4a
51.1 3.3b
44.2 2.1d
55.8 4.1bc
56.9 6.1bc
42.4 2.9b
55.2 3.2c
37.1 1.8b
37.5 3.7b
45.1 2.9cd
49.9 4.3bc
Tukey HSD test. Same letter in same column means there is no difference between treatments. The units of antioxidant activity are
in Trolox equivalents, mmol=g (from Nindo et al.[45]).
FIG. 10. Change in hue of spray- (4), freeze- (*), and Refractance
Window- (&) dried aloe powder during 7 weeks of storage at 35C.
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p
FIG. 11. Chroma [ (a 2 b 2)] of spray- (4), freeze- (*), and Refractance Window- (&) dried aloe powder during 7 weeks of storage at 35C.
FIG. 12. Molecular weight distribution of freeze-dried (&) and RWdried (&) aloe.
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TABLE 7
Microbial counts in LogCFU=mL as affected by Refractance Window drying [47]
APC
Control
Treated
Log reduction
Coliforms
Escherichia coli
Listeria innocua
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
7.17
2.54
4.63
0.12
0.26
6.78
< 0.69
6.09
0.09
NA
6.73
< 0.69
6.04
0.14
NA
6.14
< 0.69
5.45
0.11
NA
Process water temperature was 95oC. Data are means of three replicated tests for each group of microorganisms.
Bulk water
Bottom surface of plastic
Plastic-puree interface
Puree surface
Conduction
Convection
Evaporation
Plastic conveyor
Puree
Radiation
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