MAE 3241: AERODYNAMICS AND FLIGHT MECHANICS

Final Exam Review and Closing Comments

Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department

Florida Institute of Technology
D. R. Kirk

OVERVIEW OF ACCOMPLISHMENT

This book is designed for a 1-year course in aerodynamics. Chapters 1 to 6

constitute a solid semester [bold, italics added for emphasis] emphasizing inviscid,
incompressible flow. Chapters 7 to 14 occupy a second semester dealing with
inviscid, compressible flow. John D. Anderson, Jr.

What we did:
Chapters 1-5
Why not Chapter 6? 3-D incompressible flow (sources, doublet, etc.)
Chapters 7-9, 11 and 12
Why not Chapter 10? Fluids II material (nozzles, diffusers, etc.)
Multiple examples of applications to flight and projectile mechanics

What would we do if we had more time:

Viscous flow
Laminar and turbulent boundary layer models for drag prediction
Exact solutions, Faulkner-Skan equations and Thwaites method

OUTLINE
1. Basic Ideas
Can you convey basic ideas in aerodynamics in simple terms: lift, stall,
streamline, Kutta-condition, camber, lifting line, separation, etc.
Explain in words or pictures what complicated equations are trying to say
2. Stream and Potential Functions: Inviscid, Incompressible Flow
What is the point? What is the utility? What is weakness?
How do you set-up and use these simple models?
3. Flow Over Airfoils
Incompressible flow: Theory vs. experiment
Compressible flow (why so complicated?): Theory vs. experiment
Supersonic flow: Why does shape of airfoil want to be so different?
4. Flow Over Wings
Impact of wing tips? How do you model, how do you proceed?
What are implications for design?
5. Flight Mechanics
What do (1)-(4) imply about aerodynamic design and performance impacts?

KEY CONCEPTS: CHAPTERS 1 and 2

Aerodynamic forces and moments (center of pressure)

Where do they come from, why do we care?
Mach and Reynolds number matching guarantee flow similarity
Types of flows
Inviscid vs. Viscous
Incompressible vs. Compressible
Mach number regimes

Fundamentals Principles
1. Conservation of Mass (integral and control volume form)
2. Conservation of Momentum (integral form)
3. Conservation of Energy (algebraic form)
Angular velocity, vorticity and circulation (why do we care about these concepts?)

Stream Function and Velocity Potential (how are these related?)

KET CONCEPTS: CHAPTER 3

Elementary Flows (Building Blocks, why such a name?)

1. Uniform Flow
2. Source / Sink Flow
3. Doublet Flow
4. Vortex Flow
What is the purpose? Simulate real shapes in a simple manner
Combine (1) + (2) flow over half-body or oval
Combine (1) + (3) flow over a cylinder
Combine with (4) flow over a lifting cylinder
Kutta-Joukowski Theorem
Combinations of sources, vortex, uniform flow, tornados, ground effect, etc.
Why can we combine so easily (simply add)?
Know how to set up and for all cases and combined flows (no time to solve)
Know how to get velocity components u and v
How would you model some basic shapes using these tools?

Homework #4 has many practice problems (nothing more difficult than these)

KEY CONCEPTS: CHAPTER 4, 11 and 12

Model an airfoil as a vortex sheet
What does this mean, why can we do this, why would we want to do this?
Thin airfoil theory: Mean camber line is a streamline of the flow
Symmetric vs. Cambered Airfoils
S+C: Lift coefficient: 2a
S+C: Lift slope: 2
S: Moment Coefficient, c/4 = 0
C: Moment Coefficient, c/4 = /4(A2 - A1)

Role of airfoil thickness (incompressible, subsonic, supersonic)

What are added complexities (physics and math) associated with compressibility?
How can we correct for compressibility (what are strengths and weaknesses)?
Also see key concepts/comments for Chapters 7, 8, and 9
Chapter 12: 12.1- 12.3

KEY CONCEPTS: CHAPTER 5

Airfoils vs. Wings

What is different about these situations
Why should we care? When is it important to care?
How do we model a wing? Is it accurate?
What is lifting line theory
Key results
Elliptical Wings
Other Wings
Why do we taper a wing?
Why do we sweep wing?
Why do we vary AR (or span) as designers
Why do modern commercial airplane wings (A320, B757, etc.) look way they do?
Why do modern fighter wings not look like this?

KEY CONCEPTS: CHAPTER 7, 8, and 9

What are isentropic relations?

When can we use them?
Why would we use them? (replace energy equation, simple, algebraic)
When do they break down?

If flow speeds are greater than Mach 1, shock waves are present in the flow
(why?)
How do flow properties across normal and oblique shock waves change?
Is it important to capture these effects?

Expansion processes

Make use of Appendix A, B, and C as well as --M diagram

Dont waste time calculating, but know where these appendicies and figures
come from (what are equations that generate them)

BASIC CONCEPTS
CHAPTERS 1-2

KEY CONCEPTS

Aerodynamic forces and moments (center of pressure)

Where do they come from, why do we care?
Mach and Reynolds number matching guarantee flow similarity
Types of flows
Inviscid vs. Viscous
Incompressible vs. Compressible
Mach number regimes

Fundamentals Principles
1. Conservation of Mass (integral and control volume form)
2. Conservation of Momentum (integral form)
3. Conservation of Energy (algebraic form)
Angular velocity, vorticity and circulation (why do we care about these concepts?)

Stream Function and Velocity Potential (how are these related?)

WHAT DOES EULERS EQUATION TELL US?

dp VdV

Eulers Equation (Differential Equation)

Relates changes in momentum to changes in force (momentum equation)
Relates a change in pressure (dp) to a chance in velocity (dV)
Assumptions:
Steady flow and no friction (inviscid flow), body forces, and external forces

dp and dV are of opposite sign

IF dp increases dV goes down flow slows down
IF dp decreases dV goes up flow speeds up

Incompressible and Compressible flows, Irrotational and Rotational flows

BERNOULLIS EQUATION
2
2

2
1

V
V
p2
p1
2
2
2
V
p
Constant along a streamline
2
If flow is irrotational p+1/2V2 = constant everywhere
Remember:
Bernoullis equation holds only for inviscid (frictionless) and
incompressible (=constant) flows
Relates properties between different points along a streamline or entire
flow field if irrotational
For a compressible flow Eulers equation must be used ( is a variable)
Both Eulers and Bernoullis equations are expressions of F=ma
expressed in a useful form for fluid flows and aerodynamics

WHAT CREATES AERODYNAMIC FORCES?

Aerodynamic forces exerted by airflow comes from only two sources

Pressure, p, distribution on surface
Acts normal to surface

Shear stress, w, (friction) on surface

Acts tangentially to surface

Pressure and shear are in units of force per unit area (N/m 2)
Net unbalance creates an aerodynamic force
No matter how complex the flow field, and no matter how complex the shape of
the body, the only way nature has of communicating an aerodynamic force to a
solid object or surface is through the pressure and shear stress distributions that
exist on the surface.
The pressure and shear stress distributions are the two hands of nature that reach
out and grab the body, exerting a force on the body the aerodynamic force

SOME DEFINITIONS

Relative Wind: Direction of V

We used subscript to indicate far upstream conditions

Angle of Attack, Angle between relative wind (V) and chord line

Total aerodynamic force, R, can be resolved into two force components

Lift, L: Component of aerodynamic force perpendicular to relative wind
Drag, D: Component of aerodynamic force parallel to relative wind

Center of Pressure: It is that point on an airfoil (or body) about which the
aerodynamic moment is zero

Aerodynamic Center: It is that point on an airfoil (or body) about which the
aerodynamically generated moment is independent of angle of attack

SAMPLE DATA TRENDS

Lift coefficient (or lift) linear
variation with angle of attack, a
Cambered airfoils have
positive lift when =0
Symmetric airfoils have
zero lift when =0
At high enough angle of attack,
the performance of the airfoil
rapidly degrades stall

cl

Cambered airfoil has

lift at =0
At negative airfoil
will have zero lift

AIRFOIL DATA (APPENDIX D)

NACA 23012 WING SECTION
Re dependence
at high

Dependent on Re

cl vs.
Independent of Re

cd

cl

cd vs. cl

cm,a.c.

cm,c/4

cm,a.c. vs. cl very flat

cl

HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?

1. Flow velocity over the top of airfoil is faster than over bottom surface
Streamtube A senses upper portion of airfoil as an obstruction
Streamtube A is squashed to smaller cross-sectional area
Mass continuity AV=constant, velocity must increase
Streamtube A is squashed
most in nose region
(ahead of maximum thickness)

A
B

HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?

2. As velocity increases pressure decreases
Incompressible: Bernoullis Equation
Compressible: Eulers Equation
Called Bernoulli Effect

1
V 2 constant
2
dp VdV
p

3. With lower pressure over upper surface and higher pressure over bottom surface,
airfoil feels a net force in upward direction Lift
Most of lift is produced
in first 20-30% of wing
(just downstream of leading edge)

WHY DOES AN AIRFOIL STALL?

Key to understanding
Friction causes flow separation within boundary layer
Separation then creates another form of drag called pressure drag due to
separation

STALL CHARACTER: NACA 4412 VERSUS NACA 4421

Both NACA 4412 and NACA 4421

have same shape of mean camber
line
Thin airfoil theory predict that linear
lift slope and L=0 should be the
same for both
Leading edge stall shows rapid drop
of lift curve near maximum lift
Trailing edge stall shows gradual
bending-over of lift curve at
maximum lift, soft stall
High cl,max for airfoils with leading
edge stall

Flat plate stall exhibits poorest

behavior, early stalling

Thickness has major effect on cl,max

INVISCID, INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW

CHAPTER 3

KET CONCEPTS

Elementary Flows (Building Blocks, why such a name?)

1. Uniform Flow
2. Source / Sink Flow
3. Doublet Flow
4. Vortex Flow
What is the purpose? Simulate real shapes in a simple manner
Combine (1) + (2) flow over half-body or oval
Combine (1) + (3) flow over a cylinder
Combine with (4) flow over a lifting cylinder
Kutta-Joukowski Theorem
Combinations of sources, vortex, uniform flow, tornados, ground effect, etc.
Why can we combine so easily (simply add)?
Know how to set up and for all cases and combined flows (no time to solve)
Know how to get velocity components u and v
How would you model some basic shapes using these tools?

Homework #4 has many practice problems (nothing more difficult than these)

SUMMARY OF STREAM AND POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS

TABLE 3.1

LIFTING FLOW OVER A CYLINDER

R
r
V r sin 1 2
ln
r 2 R

L V Kutta-Joukowski Theorem
2

FLOW OVER AIRFOILS

INCOMPRESSIBLE: CHAPTER 4
COMPRESSIBLE: CHAPTER 11

KEY CONCEPTS
Model an airfoil as a vortex sheet
What does this mean, why can we do this, why would we want to do this?
Thin airfoil theory: Mean camber line is a streamline of the flow

1 d
dz

2 0 x
dx

Symmetric vs. Cambered Airfoils

S+C: Lift coefficient: 2pa
S+C: Lift slope: 2p
S: Moment Coefficient, c/4 = 0
C: Moment Coefficient, c/4 = /4(A2 - A1)
Role of thickness

CENTER OF PRESSURE AND AERODYNAMIC CENTER

Center of Pressure: It is that point on an airfoil (or body) about which the
aerodynamic moment is zero
Thin Airfoil Theory:
c
xcp
Symmetric Airfoil:
4
Cambered Airfoil:

xcp 1 A1 A2
4
cl

Aerodynamic Center: It is that point on an airfoil (or body) about which the
aerodynamically generated moment is independent of angle of attack
Thin Airfoil Theory:
c
x

A.C .
Symmetric Airfoil:
4
Cambered Airfoil:
c
x A.C .
4

PREVIEW: COMPRESSIBILITY CORRECTION

EFFECT OF M ON CP

Cp

C p ,0
1 M 2

Sound
Barrier ?

0.5
1 M 2

For M < 0.3, ~ const

Cp = Cp,0 = 0.5 = const

Effect of compressibility
(M > 0.3) is to increase
absolute magnitude of Cp
and M increases
Called: Prandtl-Glauert Rule

Prandtl-Glauert rule applies for 0.3 < M < 0.7

(Why not M

= 0.99?)

RESULT
Velocity Potential Equation: Nonlinear Equation
Compressible, Steady, Inviscid and Irrotational Flows
Note: This is one equation, with one unknown,
a0 (as well as T0, P0, 0, h0) are known constants of the flow
2
2

1
1 2 2 2

1 2
2
0


1 2
2
2
a x x
a y y
a x y xy

Velocity Potential Equation: Linear Equation

Incompressible, Steady, Inviscid and Irrotational Flows

2 0

RESULT
After order of magnitude analysis, we have
following results

1 M
2

1 M
2

u v

0
x y
2 2
2 0
2
x
y

May also be written in terms of perturbation

velocity potential
Equation is a linear PDE and is rather easy to
solve (see slides 19-22 for technique)
Recall:
Equation is no longer exact
Valid for small perturbations
Slender bodies
Small angles of attack
Subsonic and Supersonic Mach numbers
Keeping in mind these assumptions
equation is good approximation

CRITICAL MACH NUMBER, MCR

As air expands around top surface near leading edge, velocity and M will increase
Local M > M

Flow over airfoil may have

sonic regions even though
freestream M < 1

DESIGN OPTIONS: SWEEP, AERA RULE, SUPERCRITICAL AIRFOILS

Sweep:
Makes airfoil thinner increases critical
Mach number
Sweeping wing usually reduces lift for
subsonic flight

Area Rule: Drag created related to change in

cross-sectional area of vehicle from nose to tail

Supercritical Airfoils: Designed to delay and

reduce transonic drag rise, due to both strong
normal shock and shock-induced boundary
layer separation

FLOW OVER WINGS

CHAPTER 5

KEY CONCEPTS

Airfoils vs. Wings

What is different about these situations
Why should we care? When is it important to care?
How do we model a wing? Is it accurate?
What is lifting line theory
Key results
Elliptical Wings
Other Wings
Why do we taper a wing?
Why do we vary AR (or span) as designers
Why do modern commercial airplane wings (A320, B757, etc.) look the way they
do?
Why do modern fighter wings not look like this?

PHYSICAL INTERPRETATION
: Geometric Angle of Attack
i: Induced Angle of Attack
eff: Effective Angle of Attack
C ho

rd li
n

geometric effective induced

Di L sin i
Di L i

Finite Wing Consequences:

1. Tilted lift vector contributes a drag component, called induced drag (drag due
to lift) CL < cl and CD > cd
2. Lift slope is reduced relative to infinite wing (a < a0)

PRANDTLS LIFTING LINE EQUATION

y0
1
y0
L 0
V c y0
4V

dy dy
y0 y

Fundamental Equation of Prandtls Lifting Line Theory

In Words: Geometric angle of attack is equal to sum of effective angle of
attack plus induced angle of attack
Mathematically: = eff + i
Only unknown is (y)
V, c, , L=0 are known for a finite wing of given design at a given a
Solution gives (y0), where b/2 y0 b/2 along span

KEY RESULT

True for all finite wings in general

Define a span efficiency factor, e (also called span efficiency factor)
Elliptical planforms, e = 1
For all other planforms, e < 1
Arbitrary Finite Wing
0.60 < e < 0.99
2
L
For Elliptical Planforms
D ,i

CL
AR

CL
C L2
Di L i L
q S
AR
AR
Di
C L2

q S AR
C D ,i

C L2

AR

eAR

Span Efficiency Factor

Key Points:
Goes with square of CL
Inversely related to AR
Also called drag due to lift

SUMMARY: TOTAL DRAG ON SUBSONIC WING

Profile Drag
Profile Drag
coefficient relatively
constant with M at
subsonic speeds

Also called drag due to lift

D D friction D pressure Dinduced

D D profile Dinduced
C D cd , profile
Look up
(Infinite Wing)

2
Di
CL

cd , profile
q S
eAR

May be calculated from

Inviscid theory:
Lifting line theory

IMPORTANT STATEMENTS
Fundamental Equation of Thin Airfoil Theory
The camber line is a streamline of the flow
1 d
dz

2 0 x
dx

Fundamental Equation of Prandtls Lifting-Line Theory

The geometric angle of attack is equal to the sum of the effective
angle of attack plus the induced angle of attack
y0
1
y0
L 0 y0
V c y0
4V

dy dy
y0 y

GENERAL LIFT DISTRIBUTION (2/4)

Substitute expression for () and d/dy into fundamental equation of Prandtls
lifting line theory
N

2b
1

A
sin
n

n
0
L 0
0
c 0 n 1

nA

cos n

cos cos
n 1

Last term on the right (integral term) is a standard form and may be simplified as:
N
sin n 0
2b N

0
An sin n 0 L 0 0 nAn

c 0 n 1
sin 0
n 1

Equation is evaluated at a given spanwise location (0), just as fundamental equation

of Prandtls lifting line theory is evaluated at a given spanwise location (y 0)
Only unknowns in equation are Ans
Written at 0 equation is 1 algebraic equation with N unknowns
Write equation at N spanwise locations to obtain a system of N independent algebraic
equations with N unknowns

SUPERSONIC AIRFOILS AND WINGS

REVIEW: CHAPTER 7
SHOCK WAVES / EXPANSIONS:
CHAPTERS 8 AND 9

KEY CONCEPTS

What are isentropic relations?

When can we use them?
Why would we use them? (replace energy equation, simple, algebraic)
When do they break down?

If flow speeds are greater than Mach 1, shock waves are present in the flow
(why?)
How do flow properties across normal and oblique shock waves change?
Is it important to capture these effects?

Expansion processes

Make use of Appendix A, B, and C as well as --M diagram

Dont waste time calculating, but know where these appendicies and figures
come from (what are equations that generate them)

SUMMARY OF NORMAL SHOCK RELATIONS

MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED:
SUPERSONIC FLOW (M > 1)

p02 p02

p1 p2

p2

p1

p02
1 2
1
M2
p2
2

1 2
1
M1
2
M 22
1
M 12
2

p2
2
1
M 12 1
p1
1

p02
1 M

p1 4M 12 2 1

2
1

1 2M 12
1

Rayleigh Pitot Tube Formula

SUMMARY OF SHOCK RELATIONS

M n ,1 M 1 sin
Normal Shocks

M 22

Oblique Shocks

1 M 2

2
1

2
n, 2

1 M 2
2

M n2,1

n ,1

1
2

2
1 M 12

1 2 1 M 12

1 M n2,1
2

1 2 1 M n2,1

p2
2
1

M 12 1
p1
1

p2
2
1
M n2,1 1
p1
1

M2

M n,2

sin

--M RELATION
Strong

Shock Wave Angle,

M2 < 1

Weak
M2 > 1

tac
e
D

,C
d
he

d
e
v
r

ck
o
h

M 12 sin 2 1
tan 2 cot 2
M 1 cos 2 2

Deflection Angle,

SWEPT WINGS: SUPERSONIC FLIGHT

sin
M
1

If leading edge of swept wing is outside Mach cone, component of Mach number normal to
leading edge is supersonic Large Wave Drag
If leading edge of swept wing is inside Mach cone, component of Mach number normal to
leading edge is subsonic Reduced Wave Drag
For supersonic flight, swept wings reduce wave drag

EXAMPLE OF SUPERSONIC AIRFOILS

http://odin.prohosting.com/~evgenik1/wing.htm

FLIGHT MECHANICS

WING LOADING (W/S), SPAN LOADING (W/b) AND ASPECT RATIO (b 2/S)
W W b

b S AR

Span loading (W/b), wing loading (W/S)

and AR (b2/S) are related

D0 q SC D , 0

Zero-lift drag, D0 is proportional to wing area

1
Di
eq

Induced drag, Di, is proportional to square

of span loading

2
Di 1 W
1

D0 eq b q SC D , 0

W
W
W2
S
S

b2
b2S
AR
S
Di
1

D0 eq2 C D , 0

W S
AR

Take ratio of these drags, Di/D0

Re-write W2/(b2S) in terms of AR and substitute into drag
ratio Di/D0
1: For specified W/S (set by take-off or landing
requirements) and CD,0 (airfoil choice), increasing AR
will decrease drag due to lift relative to zero-lift drag
2: AR predominately controls ratio of induced drag to
zero lift drag, whereas span loading controls actual value
of induced drag

FURTHER IMPLICATIONS FOR DESIGN: VMAX

Maximum velocity at a given altitude is important specification for new airplane

To design airplane for given Vmax, what are most important design parameters?

D T q SC D q S

CL

C L2

CD,0
eAR

Steady, level flight: T = D

W
q S

Steady, level flight: L = W

W2
W2
q SC D ,0
T q S C D , 0 2 2
q S eAR
q SeAR

q2 SC D ,0 qT

Vmax

T
A
W

Turn this equation into a quadratic

equation (by multiplying by q)
and rearranging

W
0
SeAR

W W TA

S
S
W

max
C D ,0

Substitute into drag equation

max

4C D , 0

eAR

Solve quadratic equation and set

thrust, T, to maximum available
thrust, TA,max

FURTHER IMPLICATIONS FOR DESIGN: VMAX

T
A
W

Vmax

W W TA

S W
max S
CD ,0

4C D , 0

eAR
max

TA,max does not appear alone, but only in ratio (T A/W)max

S does not appear alone, but only in ratio (W/S)
Vmax does not depend on thrust alone or weight alone, but rather on ratios
(TA/W)max: maximum thrust-to-weight ratio
W/S: wing loading
Vmax also depends on density (altitude), C D,0, eAR
We can increase Vmax by
Increase maximum thrust-to-weight ratio, (T A/W)max
Increasing wing loading, (W/S)
Decreasing zero-lift drag coefficient, C D,0

THRUST REQUIRED VS. FLIGHT VELOCITY

TR D q SC D q S C D , 0 C D ,i
C L2
TR q SC D ,0 q S
eAR
Zero-Lift TR
(Parasitic Drag)

Lift-Induced TR
(Induced Drag)

Zero-Lift TR ~ V2
(Parasitic Drag)
Lift-Induced TR ~ 1/V2
(Induced Drag)

THRUST REQUIRED VS. FLIGHT VELOCITY

W2
TR q SC D , 0
q SeAR
dTR dTR dV

dq dV dq
dTR
W2
SC D , 0 2
0
dq
q SeAR
CD,0

C L2

C D ,i
eAR

Zero-Lift Drag = Induced Drag

At minimum TR and maximum L/D

At point of minimum TR, dTR/dV=0

(or dTR/dq=0)

POWER REQUIRED
PR TRV DV q SC DV q S C D ,0 C D ,i V
C L2
PR q SC D ,0V q SV
eAR
Zero-Lift PR

Lift-Induced PR

Zero-Lift PR ~ V3
Lift-Induced PR ~ 1/V

POWER REQUIRED
2
1
W
PR V3 SC D , 0
1
2
V SeAR
2
dPR 3
1

2
V S C D , 0 C D ,i 0
dV 2
3

At point of minimum PR, PTR/dV=0

CD ,0

1
C D ,i
3

C D , 0 C D ,i