SuttonShelton

NervousSystemReport

Thislabreportisaboutactionpotentialsandtheelectricalactivityinthenormalcellmembrane
environment,environmentsmodifiedbyvarioustoxins,andactionpotentialsobservedinhuman
reflexes.Inresponsetoastimulus,theexcitablecellmembraneofaneuroncellgoesfroma
restingstatetodepolarization,followedbyrepolarizationtotherestingstateagain.
Depolarizationoccurswithinaneuronwheresodiumionsenterthecellandraisethechargefrom
anegativetoapositiveleveladditionally,itisastateofreversaloftherestingpotential.
Repolarizationoccurswhenthemembraneofaneuronbecomesmorepermeable,whichallows
potassiumionstodiffuseoutoftheneuroncausingthemembranetoreturntotherestingstate.
Theperiodwhenaxonscantbestimulatedtogenerateanewactionpotentialiscalledthe
refractoryperiodwhichlimitsimpulsestoanaverageof100persecond.Thefollowingfigures
willaddressactionpotentialandtheactionpotentialdatacollectedfromspecificcranialand
peripheral.

Figure1:Thegraphaboveshowsnerveimpulsesduringnormalactionpotential.
Depolarizationandrepolarizationarepointsshownonthegraphattheirhighestpoints.
Theeffectsofofdifferentamountofvoltageandtheactionpotentialarealsoshown.


Figure2:
Toxins

Effects

Maculotoxin

Blockssodiumchannels.Whenthesodium
channelsdonotenterthemyocytesofthe
heart,theheartcannolongerworklikeitis
supposeto.Whenandifthechannelis
blockedthereisnorelationbetweentheCNS
andthebody

Latrotoxin

Enhancesacetylcholinerelease.Whenthe
latrotoxinisinjectedintothebody,an
extremepainwithovertakethebody.Neither
theamplitudeordurationofactionpotential
isaffected.

Bungarotoxin

Blocksacetylcholine[nicotinic]receptor.
Muscleparalysismaybearesultfrom
bungarotoxin.Bungarotoxinaffectsthenerve
endingsnearthesynapticcleftofthebrain.
Facialmusclemaygettight,unabletospeak,
andrespiratoryparalysisarethecommon
symptoms.

Tetrodotoxin

Blockssodiumchannels.Theflowofsodium
ionsintonervecellsisanecessarystepinthe
conductionofnerveimpulsesinexcitable
nervefibersandalongaxons.Normalaxon
+
cellshavehighconcentrationsofK
ionsand
+
lowconcentrationsofNa
ionsandhavea
negativepotential.

Apamin

Blockspotassiumchannels.Inseverecases
apaminentersthebodyandthetoxinhasthe
abilitytoaffectthebrain'smemoryand
thoughtprocess.Apaminisaneurotoxic
polypeptide

Charybdotoxin

Blockspotassiumreceptors.Charybdotoxinis
aaminoacidpeptidewhichoriginatesfrom
scorpionvenom.Withitsuse,ithasbeen
possibletopurifythehighconductance
Ca(2+)activatedK+channeltohomogeneity
anddeterminethesubunitcomposition.

Conotoxin

Onetypeblocksvoltagesensitivecalcium
channelsoneblocksvoltagesensitivesodium
channelsoneblocksAChreceptors

Mutantgeneforavoltagegatedsodium
channelinnociceptiveneurons

Blocksperceptiveofpain

SyntheticToxindestroysmyelincoveringthe
opticnervesandmotorneurons

Weakenscentralandperipheralnervous
systemandmotorskills

Description:Inthetableabovedescribesthetoxinsandtheireffectonthebody.Eachtoxin
hasadifferenteffectandareallcausedbydifferentlivingthings.Thereactionsvaryfrom
thesourceinwhichthebodyreceivesit.

Figure3:
OpticNerveNames
Type
Function
Olfactory

Sensory

Sensoryfibersconduct
impulsesassociatewiththe
senseofsmell

Optic

Sensory

Sensoryfibersconduct
impulsesassociatedwiththe
senseofvision

Oculomotor

Primarilymotor

Motorfibersconduct
impulsestomusclesthatraise
theeyelids,movetheeyes,
adjusttheamountoflight
enteringtheeyes,andfocus
thelenses.
Somesensoryfibersconduct
impulsesassociatedwith
proprioceptors

Trochlear

Primarilymotor

Motorfibersconduct
impulsestomusclesthe
motortheeyes
Somesensoryfibersconduct
impulsesassociatedwith

proprioceptors
Trigemina

Mixed

Sensoryfibersconduct
impulsesfromthesurfaceof
theeyes,tearglands,scalp,
forehead,anduppereyelids

Abducens

Primarilymotor

Motorfibersconduct
impulsestomusclesthat
movetheeyes
Somesensoryfibersconduct
impulsesassociatedwith
proprioceptors

Facil

Mixed

Sensoryfibersconduct
impulsesassociatedwithtaste
receptorsoftheanterior
tongue.

Vestibulocochlear

Sensory

Associatedwithbalance.It
alsohelpswithhearingand
bringinginformationfromthe
innereartothebrain.

Glossopharyngeal

Mixed

Conductsimpulsesfromthe
pharynx,tonsils,posterior
tongue,andcarotidarteries.
Motorfibersalsoconduct
impulsestosalivaryglands
andtomusclesofthepharynx
usedinswallowing

Vagus

Mixed

Sensoryfibersconduct
impulsesfromthepharynx,
larynx,esophagus,and
visceraofthethoraxand
abdomen
Somaticmotorfibersconduct
impulsestomuscles
associatedwithspeechand
swallowingautonomicmotor
fibersconductimpulsestothe
visceraofthethoraxand
abdomen

Accessory

Primarilymotor

Motorfibersconduct

impulsestomusclesofthe
softpalate,pharynx,and
larynx
Hypoglossal

Primarilymotor

Motofibersconductimpulses
tomusclesthatmovethe
tongue,someproprioceptive
input

Description:Inthetableabovethecranialnervesaredescribedalongwiththeirtypeand
function.Eachindividualnervehasitsownpurposeandmotorfunctiontoallowthebrain
tofunctioninthecorrectway.Eachopticnervehasadifferenttypewhichcouldfallunder
thefollowing:Motor,Sensory,ormixed.

Figure4:

Thepatellarreflexalsoknownarethekneejerkreflex,thekneereflex,orthequadricepsreflex
testL2,L3,andL4tracts.Wefoundthepatellartendonwhichislocatedrightunderthekneecap.

Whenyoustrikethetendonwithareflexmalletsometimesclonusmaybenoticedasanormal
response.Inreactionthesemusclescontractandthecontractionseemstoresultintheleg
straighteningout.Shorttermclonusmaybenormal,butlongtermclonusmaybearesultof
centralnervoussystemdamage.

Thebicepsreflexteststhefunctionsofcervicalnerves5and6.FIndthetendonofthebiceps
brachiimuscleandfollowthemuscledowntotheantecubitalareawhichislocatedinfrontof
theelbow,whenthetendongoesinforreactionmodethebicepbrachiimusclewithflex(viathe
musculocutaneousnerve)andupwardmovementoftheforearmwillbepresent.thestretch
receptorsinsidethebicepsbrachiimusclewhichcommunicatesmainlywiththeC5spinalnerve
andpartiallywiththeC6spinalnervetoinduceareflexcontractionofthebicepsmuscleandjerk
ofthe
forearm
.

Thetricepreflexteststhefunctionofc7andc8.Whenthetricepsbrachiimuscle,thetendon
shouldbelocatedsuperiortotheelbow,isstickedwiththemalletthebrachiimuscle
contracts(viatheradialnerve)
Thereflexistestedtoassessthe
sensory
and
motor
pathwayswithintheC7andC8
spinal
nerves
.

Thebrachioradialisreflexalsotestc5andc6.Thereflexisconcernedwiththebrachioradialis
andsupinatormuscles.Thereflexiscarriedbytheradialnerve.

Theglabellarreflexisdonethroughtheprocedureofacontinuallytappingontheforehead.The
afferentsensorysignalsaretransmittedbythe
trigeminalnerve
,andtheefferentsignalscome
backto
orbicularisoculimuscle
viathe
facialnerve
,whichinturnreflexivelycontractscausing
blinking.

Thehoffmannsreflextestthepyramidaltractlesions.Tocauseareactiontheprocessofflicking
theterminalphalanxorthemiddlefingerwillbenecessary.Apositiveresponseisseenwith
flexionoftheterminalphalanxofthe
thumb
.Verylongnerveaxonswhichoriginateinthepart
ofthebraincalledthecerebralcortextravelthroughthebrainstem,crossoveratthetopofthe
cervicalspineandtraveldowneachsideofthespinalcord.Thisiswhatcausesthereflex.

Theachillesreflextestthes1ands2tracts.Inanormalactionplantarflexionwilloccurbecause
ofcontractionofthesoleusmuscle.Apositiveresultwouldbethejerkingofthefootoutwards.
Beingadeeptendonreflex,itismonosynaptic.Itisalsoastretchreflex.

Thebabinskireflex,alsoknownastheplantarflexionorBabinskisign,isasuperficialreflexthat
liketheAchillesreflex.Ittestthes1ands2tracts.Tosomeextentthel4andl5tractsarealso
involved.Tocauseareactionrunningthemalletlightlyonethesoleofthefootuptothe
tarsalmetatarsaljoints.Theabnormalresponseisdorsiflexionofthegreattoeandspreadingof
theothertoes.Anormalreactionisusuallyindicativeofdamagetothedescendingcorticospinal
tracts.

CrossedextensorreflexesinvolveaprickofthefingerunexpectedlyToproducethisreflex,
branchesofnervefiberscrossfromthestimulatedsideofthebodytotheoppositesideofthe
spinalcord.Forthefingerthatisbeingprickedwillberelaxedandthereactionwillresultwillbe
eitherpullingawayorcontinuingtostaystill.Inanormalresponsethemusclesintheopposite
armwilltendtomovethearmdownwardwhilethemusclesinthearminvolvedwillliftthatarm
upward.

Theabdominalreflexisasuperficialreflexthattestthelowerthoracicspinalnerves.t8,t9,and
t10abovetheumbilicusandt10,1t11,andt12belowtheumbilicus.Inapositivereflexafter
lightlystrokingtheabdominalskin,theabdominalmusclescontractandtheumbilicusmoves
towardthestimulus.Anegativereflexindicatessometypeofdamagetooneormoreofthe
lowerthoracicspinalnerves

Descriptions:Inthepicturesandparagraphsaboveeachreflexisindividuallydescribed
whileincludingthenervesandmuscles.Wewereabletoconductthesereflexesindividually
inclass.Ihavechooseafewpicturestodemonstrateexamples.Eachreactionhascome
fromthenervesandmusclesreactingtothestrikingmotion.Eachindividualwillhave
theirownuniquereaction.