Professional Documents
Culture Documents
AMaster'sGuidetoBerthing2ndedition 2
AMaster'sGuidetoBerthing2ndedition 2
February 2012
Authors
Eric Murdoch BSc, MSc, C.Eng
Chief Surveyor
Charles Taylor & Co. Ltd
Tel:
+44 20 3320 8836
Email: eric.murdoch@ctcplc.com
Dr. Ian W. Dand BSc, PhD, FREng
Director of Hydrodynamics
BMT SeaTech Ltd
Building 114, Haslar Marine Technology Park
Gosport, Portsmouth, Hants
PO12 2AG
Tel:
+44 23 92 335021
Email: ian@bmthaslr.demon.co.uk
Standard House
1213 Essex Street
London WC2R 3AA
Web: www.standard-club.com
The Standard P&I Club has revised the Masters Guide to Berthing and are grateful to Captain David Miller,
Senior Master with P&O Ferries for his assistance.
Chris Spencer
Director of Loss Prevention
February 2012
STANDARD CLUB
contents
PAGE
01 Introduction
02
02
03
03
05
04
10
05
Berthing in wind
14
06
Effect of current
19
07
Hydrodynamic effects
21
08
24
09
27
10
29
11
30
12
Master/pilot relationship
(Incorporating the ICS/Intertanko/OCIMF Guide)
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01
01
introduction
Ship handling is an art rather than a science. However, a ship handler who
knows the science will be better at his art. Knowledge of the science will
enable easy identification of a ships manoeuvring characteristics and quick
evaluation of the skills needed for control. A ship handler needs to understand
what is happening to his ship and, more importantly, what will happen a short
time into the future. This knowledge is essential in a port environment when a
ship encounters close quarter situations, narrow channels and the effects of
cross-winds, tides and currents. The tide of course affects the water flow but
the change in water level can also change the ships side area exposed to the
wind when approaching berths and jetties.
The culmination of any voyage is usually the controlled coming alongside of
the ship to a stationary berth or jetty. Berthing requires precise and gentle
control if the ship is not to damage the berth. Such precise control is
demonstrated every day by ship handlers in ports all over the world. Most
ships dock safely, most of the time a testament to the skill and ability of
pilots, masters, bridge team members, deck and engine personnel but the
outcome of a manoeuvre is not always successful. Ships can, and do, run
aground, demolish jetties, hit the berth and collide with other ships with
alarming frequency, giving rise to loss of life, environmental pollution and
property damage. The master should never rely solely on the pilots actions to
berth his ship. The master must always remain in full control of the operation.
The purpose of this guide is to provide some insight into what can go wrong
and why; why ships are designed the way they are; why they handle the way
they do; and how to berth them. In the final chapter, there is advice on
pilotage. On its own, the guide will not teach you how to become a ship
handler, but it does provide background material to help a good ship handler
become a better one.
Throughout the berthing examples, it has been assumed that the ship has
a single right-handed propeller and that bulk carriers and tankers have their
accommodation aft. The guide is unable to cover all the different ship types.
Masters must become acquainted with their own ship configurations.
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02
GOLDEN RULES
OF BERTHING
There are certain actions that a master should always take before and during berthing.
The most important rules are:
slow speed
controlled approach
planning
team work
checking equipment
Bridge team
the master must ensure that all ships personnel are familiar with the expected approach
to the berth/quay/lock or terminal and what is expected of them. A positive team
approach to the task improves efficiency and communication
Passage planning
always brief the bridge team to ensure the officer of the watch (OOW), helmsman, lookout
and pilot are fully aware of the expected manoeuvres and the likely effects of wind, tide
and current
always passage plan from berth to berth. Pay careful attention to the dangers that are
likely to be encountered during periods under pilotage
always fully brief the pilot, making sure that he understands the ships speed and
manoeuvring characteristics
always ask the pilot to discuss the passage and berthing plan. Ask questions if anything
is unclear
always check with the pilot that the ship will have under-keel clearance at all times
always have your anchors ready to let go and forecastle manned in advance of berthing
Equipment check
ensure main engines and thrusters are fully operational before approaching the berth.
Main engines should be tested before arriving at the pilot station ahead and astern.
Remote controls checked
ensure steering gears fully operational. Both steering motors operating. Hand steering
mode operational
ensure all bridge equipment checked including engine movement recorders, VDR,
radars, course recorders, echo sounders and all remote read outs. Use a bridge
equipment check list
Working with tugs
consider the use of tug assistance, where wind, tide and current or the ships handling
characteristics create difficult berthing conditions
always estimate windage and use this estimate to determine the number of tugs required
when berthing with a bow thruster, a large ship may need a tug to control the ships stern
when estimating the number of tugs consider their bollard pull and propulsion arrangements
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Manoeuvring
avoid high forward speed particularly when working with tugs, when using a bow
thruster, when under-keel clearance is small, when sailing in a narrow channel or when
close to other ships
test astern movement and wait until the ship moves positively astern before stopping
remember that a kick ahead can be used to initiate and maintain a turn when speed
is low
remember that the ships pivot point is forward of amidships when steaming ahead
remember that a ship will want to settle with the pivot point to the windward of, and
in alignment with, the point of influence of wind
remember that the point of influence of wind changes with wind direction and the
ships heading
remember that at low speed, current and wind have a greater effect on manoeuvrability
and that high-sided ships will experience a pronounced effect from leeway
remember draught and trim affect the ships manoeuvring characteristics
Finally
never ring finished with engines until every mooring line has been made fast
always anticipate well ahead and expect the unexpected to occur
always brief the officers in charge of the berthing crew fore and aft of what is expected
and allow them sufficient time to prepare for berthing. The pilot should always be
consulted on the expected tie up and the order of running the mooring lines
Remember:
The first rule of berthing is to approach at a slow and controlled speed. The second
rule is bridge team work and preparation.
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03
DOCK DAMAGE
AND P&I CLAIMS
Since 2000 the club has seen the annual cost of dock damage claims increase from
approximately $3 million to $19 million. During this period, the number of claims handled
by the club has doubled, while the total cost has increased by almost four times. Almost
70% of these claims can be put down to bad ship handling, errors in ship control (too
fast), tug error or pilot error. We have noticed that newer ships are more likely to be
involved in dock damage, which may be a result of berthing without tug assistance.
However, it appears that the majority of incidents are caused by simple mistakes
made by an individual. More often than not speed is the contributing issue.
The case studies that follow briefly report incidents, their causes and how they could
have been avoided.
Struck a navigation mark
The ship was navigating in a buoyed channel steering towards the fairway beacon. It was
the third officers watch. Visibility was good, the sea calm. The master was on the bridge
with the watch officer. They both stood and watched as the ship drove into and demolished
the fairway beacon.
Cause bridge team failure
The masters instruction to the watch officer was that when he, the master, was on the
bridge, he would be in charge. As a result, there was no procedure for handing over
between the watch officer and the master. In this incident, the third officer thought the
master would make the necessary course change to miss the fairway beacon and the
master thought the third officer would change course. However, neither made the
necessary course alteration. Neither knew who was in control. The need for formal
procedures to hand over the watch between the master and watch officer is essential.
The company should insist that there is a formal handover of command on the bridge.
Struck the berth at 90
The ship was to berth without a pilot but with tug assistance. The plan was to approach the
berth head-on, drop the starboard anchor and then turn with tug assistance to berth port
side to the quay. The anchor was dropped as the ship approached the berth at 90 but she
continued on and struck the berth.
Cause operator error
The master sailed directly towards the berth thinking he could drop his anchor to reduce
the ships approach speed rather than stopping some distance from the berth and
approaching with caution at dead slow speed. The speed of approach was excessive and
the ship could not be controlled.
Struck a dock
The master, pilot, watch officer and helmsman were on the bridge. The pilot gave the orders
and the helmsman applied them. The pilot ordered starboard helm, but the helmsman
applied port helm. By the time this error was discovered, the ship was swinging towards
rather than away from the berth.
Cause operator error
It was not the practice to repeat helm orders. The helmsman thought the pilot had ordered
port helm, he did not repeat the order and the pilot did not observe the rudder movement.
Helm orders should always be repeated in a loud and clear voice. It is best practice for the
ships master or watch officer to repeat the helm order from a pilot to the quartermaster
and for the quartermaster to repeat the order back before the manoeuvre is made. The
helmsman should always confirm in a loud and clear voice when the helm manoeuvre is
completed. This also applies to the person activating the engine movements.
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The assisting OOW should also always monitor rudder and engine movements have been
applied as per the pilots or masters commands.
Struck a dock at speed
The ship was approaching the berth without a pilot, with only the master and helmsman
on the bridge. The master gave the helmsman a helm order to turn the ship for its final
approach. The master went to talk to another officer in the chart room returning to the
wheelhouse a few minutes later, by which time the ship was approaching the solid dock.
The master increased the speed of the ship to increase the rate of turn, however the ship
struck the dock at 8 knots causing considerable damage to both ship and dock.
Cause bridge team failure
The master did not have a full bridge team available and was not focused on his prime
duties. Complacency was also evident. Approaching the berth cautiously and at slow
speed is the first rule of berthing.
Ship sped forward and struck the dock
The ship had just berthed and a tug was still attached. The pilot was on the bridge. Forward
spring and headlines were made fast, and stern lines were being attached. Engines,
although still on bridge control, were stopped. It was unlikely that the engines would be
used again so they were set to engine room control. As this happened, the ship sped
forward and although her bow was restrained by the forward spring, she struck the dock.
Cause human error: not knowing your equipment settings
The engine was in operation with the propeller pitch set to zero on the bridge telegraph,
but to 75% forward pitch on the engine telegraph. On transfer to engine control, the pitch
reset to 75% ahead. The engine room pitch control had not been synchronised with the
bridge telegraph.
Telegraph settings should have been checked prior arrival.
Ship sped forward and struck a moored ship
The pilot was on the bridge. Mooring lines had been reduced to one headline and one
spring. The chief engineer started the ships engine and the ship sped forward, broke the
two remaining mooring lines, crossed the basin and collided with a moored ship.
Cause equipment failure
This small chemical tanker was fitted with a medium speed diesel engine and a
controllable pitch propeller. There was a fault with the propeller control equipment and the
propeller pitch had been set to full ahead. This was the fail-safe position. The indicator on
the oil distribution box showed full ahead pitch, but the engineer had not checked this
before starting the engine. He assumed the pitch was zero by looking at the dial in the
engine control room.
Departure checks should require sighting the propeller pitch indicator on the oil distribution
box. All dials and read outs should be synchronised and regularly checked.
Hard landing with a dock
The twin-screw ship was approaching the dock with the master operating the engine
controls. There was no pilot on board because the master held a pilotage certificate.
The master was navigating by visual reference to known way points and navigation marks.
The engine could be controlled from the wheelhouse and from both bridge wings; usually
the master operated the engine from a bridge wing. As the ship approached the berth,
the master became concerned that the ships speed was not reducing as expected.
He adjusted the engine controls to give full stern pitch on both engines with full shaft
power. The ships speed reduced but it was still too great for berthing. A hard landing
could not be avoided.
06 STANDARD CLUB
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07
08 STANDARD CLUB
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09
04
Handling characteristics will vary from ship type to ship type and from ship to ship.
Handling qualities are determined by ship design, which in turn depends on the ships
intended function. Typically, design ratios, such as a ships length to its beam, determine
its willingness to turn. However, desirable handling qualities are achieved only when
there is a balance between directional stability and directional instability.
Underwater hull geometry
Length to beam (L/B), beam to draught (B/T), block coefficient, prismatic coefficient (ratios
of the ships volume of displacement against the volume of a rectangular block or a prism)
and location of longitudinal centre of buoyancy, all give an indication of how a ship will handle.
High values of L/B are associated with good course directional stability. Container ships are
likely to have an L/B ratio of approximately 8, while harbour tugs, which need to be able to
turn quickly and where course stability is not required, have a value of 2.5 to 3.
High values of B/T increase leeway and the tendency for a ship in a beam wind to skate
across the sea surface. A B/T ratio of over 4 is large. Most merchant ships have a B/T ratio
in the range of 2.75 to 3.75. A 22-metre fast motor yacht will have a B/T ratio of about 5.75.
Ships with large block and prismatic coefficients have poor course stability and a readiness
to turn. When turning, they will do so easily. Large tankers have these characteristics.
Ships with a large protruding bulbous bow are likely to have their longitudinal centre of
buoyancy far forward. As a result, the ship will show a tendency to turn.
The pivot point
A ship rotates about a point situated along its length, called the pivot point. When a force is
applied to a ship, which has the result of causing the ship to turn (for example, the rudder),
the ship will turn around a vertical axis which is conveniently referred to as the pivot point.
The position of the pivot point depends on a number of influences. With headway, the pivot
point lies between 1/4 and 1/3 of the ships length from the bow, and with sternway, it lies a
corresponding distance from the stern. In the case of a ship without headway through the
water but turning, its position will depend on the magnitude and position of the applied
force(s), whether resulting from the rudder, thrusters, tug, wind or other influence.
The pivot point traces the path that the ship follows.
Lateral motion
Ships move laterally when turning because the pivot point is not located at the ships centre.
When moving forward and turning to starboard, the ships lateral movement is to port. When
moving astern and turning to starboard, lateral movement is to starboard.
It is important to understand where the pivot point lies and how lateral movement can cause
sideways drift; this knowledge is essential when manoeuvring close to hazards.
Propeller and rudder
The rudder acts as a hydrofoil. By itself, it is a passive instrument and relies on water
passing over it to give it lift to make it more effective. Rudders are placed at the stern of a
ship for this reason and to take advantage of the forward pivot point, which enhances the
effect. Water flow is provided by the ship passing through the water and by the propeller
forcing water over the rudder in the process of driving the ship. The optimum steerage force
is provided by water flow generated by a turning propeller. Water flow is vital in maintaining
control of the ship. While water flow provided by the ships motion alone can be effective,
the effect will diminish as speed is reduced. Obstacles that deflect flow, such as a stopped
propeller in front of the rudder, particularly when the propeller is large, can reduce rudder
effectiveness. Reduced or disturbed flow will result in a poor response to rudder movements.
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Conventional rudders are described as balanced; part of the rudder area is forward of the
pintles to help the rudder turn and to ease the load on the steering motor. This arrangement
provides for better hydrodynamic loading. A flap (Becker rudder) can be fitted to the
rudders trailing edge. The flap works to increase the effective camber of the rudder and to
increase lift.
Rudders can be defined by what is known as the rudder area ratio, which is a ratio of the
surface area of the rudder divided by the ships side area beneath the water level. The rudder
area ratio gives an indication of the likely effectiveness of a rudder. Merchant ship ratios
range from 0.016 to 0.035. The larger the ratio, the greater the effect the rudder will have.
The balance between headway and lift is dependent on how much of the propeller disc is
blanked by the rudder when hard over. This knowledge is important when considering the
effect of a kick ahead. If the optimum rudder angle for a given speed is exceeded the
radius of turn will increase because the rudder will generate more drag than lift.
Thrust vectoring devices Azimuth thrusters
Thrust vectoring devices are fitted as an alternative to a rudder. They operate under the
principle that a rudder is effective because it deflects the propeller slipstream, which
initiates a turn and maintains a state of balance once the turn is established. Consequently,
manoeuvrability is enhanced when all the thrust from a propeller is vectored. Azimuthing
ducted thrusters, cycloidal thrusters and pump jets all operate by directing thrust to initiate
and to maintain the turn.
Azipods are devices where the prime mover is an electric motor, encased in an underwater
streamlined pod, which connects directly to a propeller. Pods are fitted to the outside of a
hull. They can be azimuthing i.e. used as a rotational device or used in a fixed position in a
similar way as a fixed propeller. Propellers attached to them can push or pull. A propulsion
pod acts as both propeller and rudder.
Bow thrusters and their use
Lateral thrusters can be fitted in the bow or the stern.
Bow thrusters
Their objectiveness will depend upon:
the distance between the thrusters and the ships pivot position
the forward draught
the ships speed
Lateral thrusters are most effective when a ship has neither headway nor sternway. They
create a turning effect by providing a side force at their location. Their effectiveness will
depend upon the distance between the thruster and ships pivot point. When berthing a
ship that has a single bow thruster, and no stern thruster, it is important not to become too
focused on the bow, because this can be controlled with the thruster. Plan to get the stern
alongside as a priority. Remember that pure rotation can only be induced by two lateral
thrusters, one forward and one aft, opposing each other, and that a tug may be needed to
control the stern of a large ship.
Bow thrusters are used when it is required to breast on to or off a berth, to move the ships
head from a jetty or to turn the ship in a limited space. Modern ships fitted with a bow
thruster will often berth without tug assistance.
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However, a bow thruster will lose its effectiveness as a ships speed increases. Depending
on the hull and thrust tunnel design, thrust effectiveness can be lost at between 2 and 5
knots. The reason for this is the merging of the slipstream from the thruster with the general
flow around a forward moving hull. When speed increases above 2 knots, local loss of
pressure over the hull, downstream from the thruster, creates a turning moment opposite to
the moment produced by the thruster. The thruster may become ineffective.
Thrusting when stopped When stopped and thrusting, a ships pivot point is likely to be
aft. If a bow thruster is put to starboard on a stopped ship, the ship will turn to starboard.
Thrusting with headway The pivot point will be forward, so thrusting will be ineffective,
especially at high speeds.
Thrusting with sternway The pivot point is aft and when the bow thruster is put to
starboard, the ships bow will swing to starboard. The thruster will be effective, and will act
as a form of rudder.
Rudder response
The time it takes for the rudder to respond to a helm order will determine how rapidly a ship
gets into a turn. The quicker the rudder responds, the sooner the ship will begin to turn.
Single rudders and twin screw ships
Manoeuvring characteristics at low speeds will generally be poor on twin screw ships fitted
with a single centre line rudder. This is because the single centre line rudder may have to be
moved to large angles before any part of it becomes immersed in the slipstream of one of
the propellers. When not immersed, the lift produced by the rudder at low speeds will be
very small, resulting in large turning circles and poor helm response.
Transverse thrust
Transverse thrust is the tendency for a forward or astern running propeller to move the stern
to starboard or port. Transverse thrust is caused by interaction between the hull, propeller
and rudder. The effect of transverse thrust is a slight tendency for the bow to swing to port
on a ship with a right-handed propeller turning ahead.
Transverse thrust is more pronounced when propellers are moving astern.
When moving astern, transverse thrust is caused by water passing through the asternmoving propeller creating high pressure on the starboard quarter of the hull, which
produces a force that pushes the ships stern to port. Rudder angle can influence the
magnitude of this force.
Masters should be aware of the variable effect of transverse thrust. As water flow over a
ships hull changes, so does transverse thrust. The difference is most noticeable in shallow
water. For example, a ship that turns to starboard in deep water may well turn to port in
shallow water. Also, the magnitude of the force will change and, by implication, there will be
a range of water depths for which the bias may be difficult to predict, something that is
especially true when a ship is stopping in water of reducing depth.
Transverse thrust is often used to help bring the ships stern alongside during berthing.
When a propeller is put astern on a ship moving forward at speed, the initial effect of
transverse thrust is slight. However, as the ships forward motion decreases, the effect of
transverse thrust increases.
It is essential for a master to understand just how much effect transverse thrust has on his
particular ship. He should also be aware on how the traverse effect can vary or change due
to its currents and depths of water.
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Approach speed
Many berthing accidents occur because the speed of approach is too high. The master
should advise the pilot of the ships stopping distance and general manoeuvring
characteristics, giving particular emphasis to speed, corresponding engine revolutions and
to the critical range. When close to a dock, speed should be the minimum necessary to
maintain control. Masters should plan ahead with the pilot on if, and how many, tugs are to
be to be used.
Control while slowing
It can be difficult to reduce speed and maintain control. This is because reduction in
propeller speed reduces water flow over the rudder and the rudder becomes less effective.
The normal procedure for stopping is to put engines astern. However, when a propeller
rotates astern, water flow over the rudder is broken and the ship will be less responsive to
helm. In addition, there is the disruptive effect of transverse thrust.
For this reason, it is essential to plan a stop by reducing speed in good time. Also, it should
be appreciated that putting engines to full astern during an emergency could result in a loss
of steerage.
Kick ahead (astern)
The kick ahead is used when a ship is moving forward at very slow speed due to minimal
water flow over the rudder and the ship is not responding to helm. It is also used to initiate a
turn or to maintain a heading. Engines are put ahead for a short burst with the objective of
increasing water flow over the rudder, but without increasing the ships speed. Engine power
is reduced before the ships longitudinal inertia is overcome and she begins to accelerate.
When using the kick ahead, it should be borne in mind that prolonged and frequent kicks
ahead will increase the ships speed; the master should know his ship and how it reacts to
kicks ahead or astern. Note for example that ships with hull growth tend to the slower and
more sluggish at slow speeds. Apply full rudder before initiating the kick ahead to provide
maximum steering force. Anything less than hard over during turning will allow a greater
proportion of the power to drive the ship ahead. It is important to reduce engine power
before reducing helm.
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05
BERTHING IN WIND
14
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Direction of wind
W*CLR*
CLR*W
No turning lever
W and CLR coincide
Direction of wind
W*P*
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15
BERTHING IN WIND
Direction of wind
P*W*
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Berthing in wind
A ship is most vulnerable when presenting its broadside, the area of greatest windage, to
the wind. In strong winds, it may be difficult to counteract the effect without tug assistance
or the use of a thruster. If close to a berth, it is essential that mooring lines are set as quickly
as possible. Ideally, plan the manoeuvring so as to present the minimum profile to the wind,
that is, head to wind, or at least reduce to a minimum the time the wind is at a broad angle
to the ship.
Points to remember:
ensure that conditions are safe and suitable for the envisaged manoeuvre. It will be
cheaper to delay the ship until the wind moderates than to deal with the aftermath
of an accident
wind force acting on a ship increases with the square of the wind speed. Doubling the
wind speed gives four times the force. Sudden gusts of wind are therefore dangerous
if berthing in high winds, take evasive/corrective action early. Attach tugs early and
before they are needed. Bow thrusters effectiveness can be limited
tugs should be of sufficient strength to counteract the effects of wind and to get the
ship to the required destination
the berthing plan should be devised to minimise the adverse effect of wind and to
maximise its assistance
thrusters are more effective at slow speed
a ship is more vulnerable to wind at slow speed. As speed reduces, hydrodynamic
forces reduce, and the effect of wind on heading and leeway increases
take corrective action as soon as it becomes obvious that it is needed. The earlier that
action is taken, the less that needs to be done. The longer things are left, the more
drastic will be the action needed to correct the situation
kicks ahead can be effective in controlling a ship in windy conditions
consider any special circumstances where wind may affect ship handling. Trim,
freeboard and deck cargo can vary the position of W and the force of the wind on the
ship, and change the ships natural tendency in wind. For example, significant trim by
the stern can cause W to move ahead of P. In these circumstances the bow will have
increased windage. Consequently, if the ship is heading into wind, the bow may show a
tendency to blow downwind, even if the ship has headway. This is very noticeable with
small ships in ballast and trimmed by the stern enclosed bridges can lead to a false
impression of wind strength, as opposed to open bridge wings where the wind strength
will be obvious
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17
BERTHING IN WIND
the windage area, and hence the force of the wind on the ship, will vary with the relative
heading to the wind, the maximum force on the ship is when the ship is broadside to
the wind
the windage profile considerably changes when in a loaded or ballast condition. The
windage effect of the bow and forward area can be significant when trimmed well by
the stern
good control is easier to achieve when the ships head is to wind and the ship has
headway. Control is difficult when wind is following
consider that wind speed increases with height above sea level. The speed provided by
the port/terminal control or tugs will be lower than the wind speed recorded on the
ships mast
consider that on high sided ships, 85% of the beam windage can act when the ship is
only 20 off the wind
high freeboard ships are more difficult to berth. When berthing high freeboard ships
such as car carriers, it is essential to pay extra attention in windy conditions
keep spatial awareness of the vicinity including other ships and those moored, shore
cranes and overhead obstructions
apply large passing distances when it is windy. Draught and sea room permitting,
always pass any obstructions downwind or well upwind. Gusts and squalls can arrive
very rapidly and with little warning. When wind has caused a ship to move rapidly to
leeward, it can be difficult to overcome the motion and return to a position of safety
allow plenty of distance from the berth for approach manoeuvrings when wind is
onshore. If berthing in an onshore wind, it is best practice to stop half a ships length
from the berth and then come alongside in a controlled manner. An uncontrolled landing
on a downwind berth can result in damage to both the ship and the berth
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06
EFFECT OF CURRENT
Direction of current
*P
If during berthing the bows angle to the berth is over-corrected then the ship could move
away from the berth as the wedge of water between ship and berth becomes established.
This may cause the ships stern to strike the berth. A controlled and slow speed approach to
the berth allows time to assess if the angle of approach is correct. Consideration should
also be given to the effect of currents on solid quays/berths or open quays. Masters should
be prepared to abort an approach if the ship is incorrectly aligned.
*P
Direction of current
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19
EFFECT OF CURRENT
Once alongside, care must be taken to prevent the ship dropping astern before back
springs and head lines are set.
Points to remember:
in many places a counter current flows in the opposite direction to the main current
close to the bank. Only local knowledge will provide this information
current can vary with depth of water and large deep draught ships can experience
different current effects at differing parts of the hull. Caution is needed
when close to the berth in a head current, there is a danger that flow inshore of the ship
becomes restricted and the ship is subject to interactive forces (see page 26), These
forces can cause the ship to either be sucked towards or pushed away from the berth.
Local knowledge will help anticipate this phenomenon
Direction
of current
as speed is reduced, take care that the increased proportion of the ships vector which
is attributable to current does not set the ship close to obstructions
Direction of current
Obstruction
always make a generous allowance for current. Its effect on the ship increases as the
ships speed reduces. A mistake made during berthing is often difficult to correct.
Remember that current predictions are just predictions and meteorological conditions
may result in a greater or lesser rate than forecast. Local VTS information will normally
advise of any significant anomalies
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07
HYDRODYNAMIC EFFECTS
Water depth
Water depth has a profound effect on manoeuvring. In a harbour, water depth may
vary from deep water to conditions in which there is danger of touching bottom. The
behaviour of the ship changes with changes in water depth. A ships resistance increases
as water depth reduces. The increase becomes significant when the water depth is less
than twice the mean draught. The effect of this increased resistance is a reduction in
speed, unless engine revolutions are increased.
As well as speed, water depth affects manoeuvring, and as depth and under-keel clearance
reduce, turning ability deteriorates, virtual mass increases (increase in a ships mass resulting
from water being dragged along with the ship) and the effect of the propellers transverse
thrust on yaw alters. As a result, a ship can become difficult, if not impossible, to control
during a stopping manoeuvre as the rudder loses the beneficial effects of the propeller
slipstream, and the bias off-course may become more pronounced. The increase in virtual
mass is most noticeable when a ship is breasting on to a quay or jetty. Virtual mass in sway
motion is invariably large, increasing as under-keel clearance reduces. Consequently, any
impact with a quay wall jetty or fender will be much more severe if under-keel clearance
is small. Similarly, when a large ship moored in shallow water is allowed to move, the
momentum can be considerable. Fortunately, the situation is alleviated by the considerably
increased damping of any movement that is a consequence of shallow water and small
under-keel clearance.
Water depth limits a ships speed. There is a maximum speed that a conventional
displacement ship can achieve in shallow water which can be less than the normal service
speed. This is called the limiting speed. Limiting speed needs to be considered during
passage planning. Knowledge of areas where ships speed is limited by water depth is
important because any increase in engine power to overcome the limiting speed will greatly
increase wash. In simple terms, the limiting speed can be calculated from the formula:
Vlim = 4.5 h
where h is the water depth in metres and Vlim is speed in knots.
In shallow water, and because of insufficient engine power, a conventional ship may be
unable to overcome the limiting speed. However, some powerful ships such as fast ferries
can overcome limiting speed but in doing so produce dangerous wash.
Squat
Squat is the increase in draught and trim that occurs when a ship moves on the surface
of the sea. At low speed, a ship sinks bodily and trims by the head. At high speed, a ship
bodily lifts and trims by the stern. At especially high speed, the ship can plane. However,
squat is greatest in shallow water where the resulting increase in draught and trim can
cause grounding.
This, of course, provides a further limit on speed in shallow water, consideration of grounding
due to squat being especially important if the under-keel clearance is 10% or less of the
draught and the speed is 70% or more of the limiting speed.
In shallow water, squat can be estimated by adding 10% to the draught or 0.3 metres for
every 5 knots of speed. High speed in shallow water can also adversely affect a ships
course ability to steer. Squat effect will vary from ship to ship.
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HYDRODYNAMIC EFFECTS
Waterway width
If the waterway is restricted in width as well as depth, this can also have an effect on
performance. If the underwater midship area of the ship is significant compared to that of
the waterway (for example over 20%) then this blockage will further increase resistance,
increase squat and create a backflow of water between the ship and the waterway. This
will cause silt to go into suspension or deposit on the bed of the channel, and may erode
the waterway. It may also cause bank material to be transferred to the bed of the waterway.
A further effect may also occur. If the banks are high relative to the water depth, the ship
may steer away from the bank. This bank effect is due to backflow between the bank and
the ship creating a low-pressure region amidships. This causes the ship to be sucked
towards the bank, and a pressure wave between the bow and the bank (the bow cushion)
pushes the bow away from the bank and the stern is drawn in.
Bank effect increases with increases in speed, blockage (that is when the cross-sectioned
area of the ship is large relative to the cross-sectioned area of the bank) and low under-keel
clearance. If speed is too high, bank effect can be severe and sudden, catching the ship
handler unaware. It is advisable to slow down and to steer towards the bank. By so doing,
it may be possible to strike a balance, with the ship running parallel to the bank. Bank effect
is also felt on bends in a waterway when proximity to the outer bank may help the bow round
a tight bend.
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08
When berthing without tugs, it is essential that the effects of lateral motion are
fully understood.
When a ship moving forward turns by use of engines and rudder alone, the effect of centrifugal
force is to push the ship laterally away from the direction of the turn. When turning by use of
bow thrusters alone, the thruster simply pushes the bow to port or starboard. There is no
centrifugal force or lateral motion.
Port-side berthing
The following sequence assumes a fixed pitch right-handed single screw ship without
tug assistance.
Approach the berth at an angle, because astern thrust will be used to stop the ship and swing
the bow to starboard and the stern to port. This will parallel the ship to the berth. Once
stopped, the ship can be manoeuvred into the final position using astern power, which gives
transverse thrust and kicks ahead with appropriate rudder as required. The actual sequence
will depend on the available berthing space.
Normal port-side berthing with headway lateral motion to port.
*P
*P
If sternway is developed and transverse thrust causes stern to swing to port, lateral motion
will be to starboard and away from the berth. This may be useful if a new approach is required.
If sternway develops lateral motion is to starboard.
*P
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*P
To stop the ship, it will be necessary to put the engine astern. Transverse thrust will probably
push the stern to port and bow to starboard. To correct the effect of the transverse thrust,
initiate a port swing of the bow before applying astern power.
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Direction
of current
Danger of drifting
back to ship astern
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09
Tugs are usually employed according to the practice of the port after taking into account
the capabilities of the available tug types.
Towage has a number of potential hazards, and tug masters will give priority to the safety of
their own tugs in dangerous situations. There are several points to remember, not only with
regard to safety, but also to ensure that tugs are used in the most effective manner.
Berthing with tugs offers greater flexibility to the ship handler.
Factors to take into account when determining the number of tugs to be employed:
practice in the port for the particular size of ship and the designated berth
under-keel clearance
anticipated strength and direction of wind and its likely effect on berthing
windage area of the ship
stopping power and handling characteristics of the ship
state and height of tide
proximity of other ships and quay structures
In general, tugs have difficulty operating at high speed. Interactive forces between the ship
and the tug can become very large. High speed increases the possibility of capsizing a
conventional tug and masters should be aware of this danger.
The effectiveness of a tug is proportional to the distance between its point of contact and
the ships pivot point. For instance, when the ship has headway with two tugs attached, one
forward and one aft, the aft tug will have more effect than the forward one because the
distance from the aft tugs connection to the ships pivot point is greater. If both tugs are
applying the same power, the result will be a swing of the ship in favour of the aft tug.
Points to remember:
when a tug attached by a line leading forward applies a turning force there will also be
a marginal increase in the ships speed
anticipate any changes in tug positioning on the ship and allow sufficient time for the
tugs to reposition and be ready to assist
be aware of any space or other limitations that may give the tug master difficulty in
carrying out the ships requirements
tugs are most effective when the ship is navigating at slow speed. For berthing purposes,
they should not be attached to a ship navigating at a speed of 5 knots or more
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it is important for masters to discuss with a pilot the position where a tug will attach
before the tugs arrive. A tug acting with a long lever from the ships pivot point will be
more effective than a tug with a short lever. The effectiveness of a tug will depend
upon the position where it is attached
propeller wash from tugs operating close to a ship, and pulling, could initially cause a
ships bow or stern to move away from the direction in which the tug is pulling
conventional tugs connected by a line can exert excessive force on a small ship, which
may require corrective action
masters should understand the different performance characteristics of tugs and that
conventional tugs are likely to be less manoeuvrable than water tractor tugs. A ships
master can decide on the number of tugs employed but usually have no influence on
the tug type
conventional tugs are likely to be less manoeuvrable than water tractor or Zpellar tugs
small ships particularly when in ballast or a light condition should be aware that large
tugs can have a dramatic pulling or pushing effect. Tug size should be noted
Port-side berthing
A bow thruster can be used to position the bow with a degree of precision, however, bow
thrust will not help to control the stern. Transverse thrust can be used to bring the stern of
small ships alongside. However, on a larger ship that is not fitted with a stern thruster, a tug
can be secured aft to control the stern while bow thrust is used to control the bow.
The recommended procedure is to stop the ship off the berth and then work her alongside,
using bow thrust and a tug to provide lateral power.
Starboard-side berthing
A bow thruster enables the bow to be positioned with a degree of precision. However,
without tug assistance, the difficulty of getting the stern alongside remains. Consequently,
positioning the stern remains a priority. The use of bow thrust alone to bring the bow
alongside, before the stern, is likely to cause the stern to move away from the berth. This
situation is difficult to remedy. Once the ship is in position, berthing can be completed using
bow thrust until the bow is alongside. When a tug is secured aft, control of the stern is
greatly improved.
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Anchors are an effective berthing aid. Anchors can be used for berthing without tug
assistance on ships without bow thrusters and, in an emergency, to stop any ship.
Dredging anchors (sometimes known as kedging)
A dredging anchor will hold the bow steady while allowing a ship to move forward or aft.
A bow anchor can be dredged from a ship going forward or astern. The advantages of
dredging an anchor when moving forward are principally that the ships pivot point moves
to the position of the hawse pipe and, to overcome the anchors drag, propulsive power is
used giving good steering at low speed. When going forward, corrective action will be
needed to prevent the bow from swinging to port or starboard.
The intention is for the anchor to drag and not to dig in. If the anchor does dig in, it could
cause the ship to stop and necessitate breaking the anchor out again. Digging in can also
damage the ship, anchor or windlass. It is therefore important to use as little cable as
possible; typically a length of cable that is between one and a half and two times the depth
of the water.
Local knowledge regarding the nature and condition of the seabed is important to avoid
dredging in an area where the bottom is foul. Dredging an anchor can be used to control
the bow when manoeuvring into a downwind berth.
Emergency anchoring
In an emergency, anchors can be very effective in stopping a ship, provided the anchor is
lowered to the seabed and the cable progressively paid out. Initially, the anchor should be
allowed to dredge and gradually build up its holding power until its braking effect begins to
reduce the ships speed. This is why only experienced personnel should be posted forward
on stand-by. Care should be taken when trying to stop any ship in this way, especially a
large ship, as the anchor and its equipment may carry away causing damage or injury
particularly if the anchor should snag.
Planning
The key to any port approach is planning and both anchors should be made ready before
a port approach or river transit. A part of the passage plan and/or pilot exchange should be
the use of anchors and where the dangers are in relation to sub-sea pipe lines and cables.
These should be highlighted on the charts. It is too late to check in an emergency.
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11
It is evident from the other chapters of this Masters Guide dealing with the technical
aspects of ship berthing that the effective use of pilotage and towage services is crucial in
avoiding accidents. It is therefore important to reflect briefly on the legal responsibilities
of pilots, those engaged in towage services, and the ships that they assist.
Pilotage
The relationship between the master and the pilot is fraught with potential difficulties and
conflict. The pilot directs the navigation of the ship, but the master still retains overall
command and control. The freedom that the master gives to the pilot varies from master to
master but also depends upon the circumstances in which the pilotage takes place. The
master of a large foreign-going ship entering a difficult channel will tend to adopt a more
passive attitude to the pilot than a coastal master who knows the area intimately.
The way in which the law interprets this relationship, and the rights and responsibilities of
each to the other and to third parties, obviously differs from country to country and the
following is therefore offered as a general overview. In many legal systems, the customary
rules and statutory enactments provide a confused and sometimes contradictory picture,
which tends to the conclusion that a master, when considering how to operate with a pilot,
should be guided more by common sense and self-preservation than by precise legal principles.
The pilot owes a professional duty of care to those whom he serves, which assumes a
knowledge and awareness of local conditions. The pilot is therefore generally liable to the
shipowner, and to third parties, for a failure to exercise such care. In practice, however, such
a responsibility is largely illusory since the pilot, as an individual, has few assets with which
to satisfy any award of damages. Also the extent of his liability is often restricted at law or
limited in amount, although he may also be subject to criminal sanctions under any relevant
legislation as a result of his actions.
Where there is injury or damage to the property of a third party caused by the pilots
negligence, the third party will naturally look to the shipowner for compensation. Commonly,
the pilot is seen as the servant or agent of the master/shipowner. His faults or errors are
therefore taken to be those of the master/shipowner. There may be a possibility of a
recourse action against the harbour authority, port commission or canal company that
employs the negligent pilot. If, however, the relevant body merely acts as a licensing
authority, it will not be liable for pilot error. Pilot associations are also generally immune from
liability for the actions of their members.
Given the lack of practical accountability of the pilot, it is tempting to ignore any detailed
legal analysis of the relationship between the master and the pilot. This would be a mistake
since the principles which have been articulated in various legal jurisdictions provide a well
considered view on the way in which the relationship should operate most effectively. In
terms of engagement, the master is only legally bound to employ a pilot in an area of
compulsory pilotage. However, the master may be found liable for not employing a pilot
where it can be shown that such failure caused or contributed to an accident. Whilst the
pilot may assume control of the navigation of the ship, this does not relieve the master of his
command of the ship. The master therefore retains both the right and the responsibility to
intervene in the actions of the pilot, for example, where he perceives the threat of an
imminent danger to the ship or when the pilot is obviously incapacitated in some way.
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There is therefore a divided authority, with both the master and the pilot continuing to
have active roles that may potentially conflict. The pilot is the servant of the master and is
responsible for giving advice on navigation, speed, course, stopping and reversing. The
ships master is responsible for the ship and the entire operation including difficulties,
monitoring the pilots actions and maintaining a proper lookout. The pilot in turn should
expect a well-regulated and seaworthy ship with competent bridge personnel that provide
him with proper assistance and information.
Towage
Towage has been defined as a service rendered by one vessel to aid the propulsion or
to expedite the movement of another vessel. Towage can take place in many different
circumstances and can be part of salvage or wreck removal operation following a casualty.
It can also occur when a ship is in distress in order to avoid a casualty occurring. In the vast
majority of cases, however, towage is a routine operation, particularly within the confines of
a port. This is referred to as customary towage.
An agent of the ship, or the charterer, usually requests the services of a tug for port towage.
Once engaged, however, the tug may take its orders from any pilot on board the towed ship
and therefore the presence of tugs adds to the complexities of the relationship between the
master and pilot referred to above. The pilot and the master should be fully aware of each
tugs power and handling characteristics but the responsibility for engaging tug assistance,
where required, rests with the ships master, and the ships master may be found negligent
in not engaging a tug to assist where the circumstances warrant it and an accident occurs.
Every shipowner should leave the question of tug assistance to the discretion of the master
who must make a judgement based on the prevailing circumstances.
The rights and responsibilities of the tug and the towed ship, with regards to each other and
in relation to third parties, are generally dealt with in the applicable towage contract. In most
cases, the contract will be based on industry standard terms that lay down clearly the
division of responsibility between the two entities. Specific port user agreements exist, but
standard form contracts, such as the UK Standard Towage Conditions, the Netherlands
Towage Conditions or the Scandinavian Conditions, are used in most cases. These all
favour the tug, although in the USA, the Supreme Court has held that any clauses in a
towage contract purporting to relieve the tug owner of liability for negligence are invalid as
being against public policy. In Japan, the tug owner must exercise due diligence to make the
tug seaworthy at the time she leaves the port and is liable for any damage to the tow caused
by any failure to do so. Generally, in the absence of clear wording to the contrary, a court
will apply as an implied term of the towage contract that the tug owner warrants to exercise
due diligence to make the tug seaworthy at the commencement of the towage.
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12
MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP
The master has the ultimate responsibility for the safe navigation of his ship. He must be
cooperative with the pilot, yet assertive. He must remember that he is in command not
the pilot. He must be confident that the pilot is doing his duties correctly and he must be
ready to take over if the pilot is not fulfilling his duties.
In most occasions, pilotage is compulsory. The majority of accidents during berthing occur
with a pilot on the bridge. No berthing guide would be complete without reference to the
master/pilot relationship. With kind permission of the International Chamber of Shipping,
Intertanko and OCIMF we have reprinted the following text from their guide International
Best Practices for Maritime Pilotage.
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MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP
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MASTER/PILOT RELATIONSHIP
9.2 The master, having the ultimate responsibility for the safe navigation of the ship has
a responsibility to request replacement of the pilot, should he deem it necessary.
10.0 Standard References
IMO Resolution A.485(XII), Annexes I and II and subsequent amendments
Recommendations on Training, Qualifications and Operational Procedures
for Maritime Pilots other than Deep Sea Pilots
IMO Resolution A.893(21) Guidelines for Voyage Planning
IMO Resolution A.889(21) Pilot Transfer Arrangements
SOLAS Chapter V, Regulation 23 Pilot Transfer Arrangements
ICS Bridge Procedures Guide
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