INTRODUCTION (Contd)

Lecture # 01 (b)

FLUID
MECHANICS-I
Engr. Tahir
Rafique
Engr. Tahir Rafique

CONTENTS OF TODAYS LECTURE:

Physical properties of Fluids
Density
Specific Weight
Specific Volume
Specific gravity
Surface tension
Fluid Mechanics-I

Distinction between a Solid

& Fluid
Molecules of solid are usually closer
together than those of a fluid.
The attractive forces between the
molecules of a solid are so large that
a solid tends to retain its shape.
In case of fluids, the attractive forces
between the molecules are smaller.

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Fluid Mechanics-I

Distinction between a Solid

& Fluid
An ideal elastic solid will deform
under load and once load is removed
will return to its original state.
Plastic solids deform under action of
applied loads and deformation
continues as long as load is applied,
The
intermolecular
cohesivedoes
forces
in a fluid
providing
the material
not
are not great enough to hold various
rupture.
elements of fluid together. Hence a fluid will
flow under the action of slightest stress and
flow will continue as the stress is present.
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Fluid Mechanics-I

Distinction between a Gas and a

Liquid
A fluid may be either gas or a liquid. Gas
molecules are much farther than those of
a liquid. Hence a gas is very compressible.
On removal of external pressure, it
expands indefinitely.
A liquid is relatively incompressible. If all
pressure (except that of its vapor
pressure) is removed, it does not expand
but the cohesion holds the molecules
together.
Therefore
a liquid may have FREE SURFACE i.e. a
surface from which all pressure is removed, except that
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Rafique
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ofTahir
its
own vapor.

Distinction between a Gas and a

Liquid
A vapor is a gas whose temperature
and pressure are such that it is very
near the liquid phase.
Thus, steam is considered as a vapor
because its state is not normally far
from
A
Gaswater.
may be defined as:
A highly super-heated vapor, that
is, its state is far removed from a
liquid phase.
Thus, air is a gas.

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Fluid Mechanics-I

Distinction between a Gas and a

Liquid
The volume of gas or liquid is greatly
affected by changes in pressure or
temperature or both.
Whenever significant temperature or
phase changes are involved in dealing with
vapors and gases, the subject is largely
dependent on heat phenomenon
(Thermodynamics).
Thus Fluid mechanics &
Thermodynamics are inter related.
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Fluid Mechanics-I

Distinction between a Solid & Fluid

Free surface

k
k

k
k

(a) Solid

(b) Liquid

(c) Gas

Figure1.1 Comparison Between Solids, Liquids and Gases

For solid, imagine that the molecules can be fictitiously linked to each other
with springs.

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Fluid Mechanics-I

Density and Specific weight

The density (rho) or mass density of a fluid is mass per
unit volume while the specific weight (gamma)is its
weight per unit volume. Specific wt. is the force exerted by
gravity on unit weight of fluid.
Units of Density: Slugs/ft3 (B.G system) and kg/m3 (S.I
system). Also, can be expressed as lb.sec2/ft4 or N.s2/m4
Units of Specific weight: lb/ft3 (B.G system) and N/m3 (S.I
system).
Slightly affected by changes in temperature and pressure.
Typical values:
Water = 1000 kg/m3; Air = 1.23 kg/m3
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Fluid Mechanics-I

Density and Specific weight

Density is absolute, since it depends on
mass, which is independent of location.
Specific weight , on the other hand is
not absolute, since it depends on the
value of g, which varies with location
(primarily latitude & elevation above
mean sea level).
Densities & specific weights of fluids vary
with temperature.
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Fluid Mechanics-I

Density and Specific weight

Density and specific weight of a fluid are
related as:
= ( / g ) or = .g
Physical quantities are dimensionally
homogeneous, the dimensions of density
are:
In B.G System: = /g = (lb/ft3)/(ft/s2) =
lb.sec2/ft4 = mass/Vol. = slugs/cubic feet
In S.I System: = /g = (N/m3)/(m/s2) =
N.s2/m4 = mass/Vol. = kg/cubic meter
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Specific weights of Liquids

The specific weight of liquid depends
on:
Temperature (Inversely related)
Pressure (Directly related)
g value
Presence of dissolved air, salts in
and suspended
Unlesssolutions
otherwise specified
or implied by amatter.
given temperature,
the value
to use for
water
is 62.4 amounts)
lb/ft3 or 9.81 kN/m3.
(Increase
to slight

Under extreme conditions the specific weight of water is quite

different. e.g. at 260 degree celsius and 6000 psi, the of
water is 51 lb/ft3.
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Specific Volume
The volume occupied by a unit mass
of fluid. We commonly apply it to
gases.
= 1/ = 1/Density
Units: In B.G: ft3/slug In S.I: m3/kg
It is reciprocal of density.

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Specific Gravity
Denoted by s, the specific gravity of a
liquid is the dimensionless ratio.
Sliquid = liquid / water at standard temperature
Physiscts use 4 C (39.2 F) as the standard
but engineers often use 15.56 C (60 F).
In metric system, the density of water at 4
C is 1.00 g/cm3 (or 1.00 g/mL3),
equivalent to 1000 kg/m3.
Density of fluid varies with temperature.
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Specific Gravity
The specific gravity (or relative density) can be defined in two ways:
Definition 1: A ratio of the density of a liquid to the density of
pressure (STP)

water at standard temperature and

(20C, 1 atm), or

Definition 2: A ratio of the specific weight of a liquid to the

temperature

and pressure (STP) (20C, 1 atm),

SG

liquid
water @ STP

Unit: dimensionless.

14

liquid
water @ STP

specific weight of water at standard

Example 1.2

A reservoir of oil has a mass of 825 kg. The reservoir has a volume
of 0.917 m3. Compute the density, specific weight, and specific
gravity of the oil.

Solution:

oil
oil

mass
m
825

900kg / m 3
volume 0.917

weight
mg

g 900 x 9.81 8829 N / m 3

volume

SGoil

oil

w @ STP
15

900
0 .9
998

Surface Tension
The intensity of the molecular attraction per unit
length along any line in the surface is called the
surface tension and is designated by the Greek
symbol (sigma).
For a given liquid the surface tension depends on
temperature as well as the other fluid it is in contact
with at the interface.
Its SI unit are N/m.

Surface Tension
Liquids have cohesion and adhesion,
both of which are forms of molecular
attraction.
Cohesion enables a liquid to resist
Tensile stress & adhesion enables it
Itto
is adhere
a liquidtoproperty
virtue of which
another by
body.

force of attraction generates, at interface

between liquid and a gas i.e. liquid surface
and at the interface between two
immiscible (not mixable) liquids, which
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Tahir Rafiquea tension force
Fluid Mechanics-I
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exerts
in the surface.

Surface Tension
The pressure inside a drop of fluid can be calculated using a free-body diagram of a
spherical shape of radius R cut in half, as shown in Fig.1.7, and the force
developed around the edge of the cut sphere is 2R.

This force must be balance with the difference between the internal pressure pi
and the external pressure pe acting on the circular area of the cut. Thus,

2R = pR2
p = pi pe =

2
R

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Surface Tension
When second fluid is not specified at
interface, it is understood that liquid
surface is in contact with air.
The surface tension values for liquids
slightly decreases with increasing
temperature.
Capillarity is the property of
exerting forces on fluids by fine tube
or porous media; it is due to both
cohesion and adhesion.
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Surface Tension
When cohesion is less (than
adhesion), the liquid will wet the
solid surface in contact and rise at
the point of contact.
If cohesion is more, the liquid surface
will
at the point
contact.
For depress
Instance, Capillarity
makes of
water
rise
in the glass tube, while mercury
depresses below the true level.
The curved liquid surface that develops in
a tube is called Meniscus.
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Surface Tension
Capillary effect is the rise or fall of a liquid in a smalldiameter tube inserted into the liquid. Such narrow tubes or
confined flow channels are called capillaries.
The rise of kerosene through a cotton wick inserted into the
reservoir of a kerosene lamp is due to this effect.
The strength of the capillary effect is quantified by the contact
(or wetting) angle f, defined as the angle that the tangent to
the liquid surface makes with the solid surface at the point of
contact. The surface tension force acts along this tangent line
toward the solid surface. A liquid is said to wet the surface
when < 90 and not to wet the surface when > 90.

 Capillarities are of two types

Capillarity rise
Capillarity fall

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A cross section in capillary rise in a

tube looks like as shown in the figure.
From Free body considerations,
equating the lifting forces created by
surface tension to gravity force.

Lifting forces = Gravity forces

2rcos = r2h

Meniscu
s

Capillary Rise

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h = (2cos) / (.r)
Where;
= Surface tension (sigma) in units of
force / L
= Wetting angle
= Specific weight of liquid
r = Radius of tube
h = Capillary rise

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Surface Tension
The expression h = (2cos) / (.r) can be
used to compute the approximate capillary
rise or depression in the tube.
If the tube is clean, = 0 degree for water
and about 140 degrees for mercury.
The equation overestimates the amount of
capillary rise or depression, particularly for
larger diameter tubes.
For tube diameters larger than 0.5 inch,
capillary effects are negligible.
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Surface Tension
These effects are also important in
hydraulic model studies when the
model is small, in the break up of
liquid jets, and in the formation of
drops and bubbles.
The formation of drops is extremely
complex to analyze but is, for
example, of critical concern in the
design of inkjet printers, a multibillion-dollar business.
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SURFACE
TENSION

SURFACE
TENSION

Whats going on
at the surface
of a liquid?

Whats going on
at the surface
of a liquid?
Lets take
a look!

Particles that make up a liquid

are in constant random motion;
hey are randomly arranged.

ou might expect the particles at the surface,

t the micro level, to form a random surface,
s shown below.

But how do intermolecular forces

nfluence the surface?

=
intermolecu
lar
attractions

Under the surface,

= intermolecular
intermolecular attractions pull onattractions

individual molecules in all directions

=
intermolecu
lar
attractions

=
intermolecu
lar
attractions

e surface,
n the molecules is laterally and downward;
is negligible intermolecular attractions
the molecules (from the medium above, such
he net force on surface molecules is downward

Surface molecules also form a

much smoother surface than
one would expect from randomly
moving molecules.

his explains the characteristic rounded

hape that liquids form when dropping
hrough the air: The molecules are all
eing pulled toward the center.

This explains the characteristic

rounded shape that liquids form when
dropping through the air :

The molecules are all being pulled

toward the center.

Water in particular has a very

high surface tension.

What property does water have

that would give it such a strong
surface tension?

This is the water strider insect. Have you seen one

How is this possible?

Vapor Pressures of Liquids

Vapor pressure is the partial pressure produced by fluid vapor
in an open or a closed container, which reaches its saturated
condition or the transfer of fluid molecules is at equilibrium
along its free surface.
In a closed container, the vapor pressure is solely dependent
on temperature.
In a saturated condition, any further
reduction in temperature or atmospheric pressure below its
dew point will lead to the formation of water droplets.
On the other hand, boiling occurs when the absolute fluid
pressure is reduced until it is lower than the vapor pressure
of the fluid at that temperature.
For a network of pipes, the pressure at a point can be lower
than the vapour pressure, for example, at the suction
section of a pump. Otherwise, vapor bubbles will start to
form and this phenomenon is termed as cavitation.
The very low vapor pressure of mercury
makes it
56
particularly suitable for use in Barometers.

Thank You.
Engr. Tahir Rafique

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