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Dynamics of Mechanical Systems by Janusz Krodkiewski-2
Dynamics of Mechanical Systems by Janusz Krodkiewski-2
UNIT 2
DYNAMICS
OF
MECHANICAL SYSTEMS
J. M. KRODKIEWSKI
2008
CONTENTS
I
MODELLING
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36
36
40
42
46
46
47
47
50
75
75
75
78
81
109
109
112
114
118
CONTENTS
II
ANALYSIS.
149
151
151
152
153
154
157
158
161
161
161
162
163
164
164
165
III
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS.
166
170
VELOC186
. . . . . 186
. . . . . 187
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. . . . . 190
. . . . . 190
. . . . . 191
CONTENTS
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192
197
197
197
199
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION.
The purpose of this text is to provide the students with the theoretical background of the three dimensional mechanics of rigid body and its applications to engineering problems existing in mechanical systems. As most of the engineering subjects
this part of mechanics is presented in three parts: Modelling, Analysis and Experimental Investigations (see Fig. 1).
D
Y
N
A
M
I
C
S
O
F
M
A
C
H
I
N
E
S
MACHINE
DYNAMIC PROBLEM
ASSUMPTIONS
PHYSICS
PHYSICAL MODEL
MECHANICS
MATHEMATICAL MODEL
A
N
A
L
Y
S
I
S
ANALYTICAL
ANALYSIS
NUMERICAL
ANALYSIS
SOLUTION
STABILITY ANALYSIS
SOLUTION OF THE DYNAMIC PROBLEM
E
X
P
E
R
I
M
E
N
T
A
L
I
N
V
E
S
T
I
G
A
T
I
O
N
MATHEMATICS
COMPUTATIONAL
MECHANICS
THEORY
OF
STABILITY
DESIGN
TECHNOLOGY
ASSESSEMENT OF ASSUMPTIONS
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
MACHINE
DYNAMIC PROBLEM
Figure 1
Development of the physical and the mathematical model of the dynamic
problem is the main aim of the first part. In the scope of this text it is assumed that
the dynamic problems exist in machines which can be approximated by a chain of rigid
bodies connecting to each other by means of kinematic constraints. This kinematic
constraints restrict the relative motion of the connecting links. This chain of rigid
bodies (the mechanical system) performs general motion in the three-dimensional
inertial space. The process of creation of the mathematical model (a set of dierential
equation) is based upon the Euler and Lagrange Equations.
Solution of the mathematical model and its analysis is the aim of part two.
It allows to predict motion of the mechanical system if the forces acting on the
system are known. If the motion of the system can be assumed known, analysis of
the mathematical model yields driving forces which are necessary to maintain the
assumed motion. The stability analysis provides informations about feasibility of the
solution obtained.
CONTENTS
Part I
MODELLING
INTRODUCTION.
In many applications we deal with a number of rigid bodies connected to each
other in some manner.. These connections, called constrains, impose additional conditions on the relative motion of one body with respect to another. Such a constrained
set of rigid bodies forms a mechanical system.
This part is concerned with creation of mathematical models of mechanical
systems.
Chapter 1
MODELLING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS BY MEANS OF
EULER EQUATIONS
1.1
1.1.1 Constraints
The unconstrained rigid body j has six degrees of freedom. Therefore, its relative position with respect to another body i can be uniquely determined by six independent
coordinates. Usually the six coordinates xi , yi , zi , x , y , z are chosen as shown in
Fig. 1
zj
j
zi
Oj
xj
yj
i
zi
yi
Oi
xi
xi
yi
Figure 1
zi
zj
xi
M zij
R zij
Oj
Oi
yi
M xij
11
R xij
yi
yj
xj
Figure 2
If the body is connected to another, the six coordinates are not independent
and we can produce a number of analytical relationships between them. These analytical relationships are called constraint equations. For example, if the two bodies
i and j are connected as shown in Fig. 2, one may produce the following constraint
equations
xi
zi
z
y
=
=
=
=
0
0
x
0
(1.1)
(1.2)
Figures 3 to 6 provide more examples of possible constraints, their constraint equations and class. Figures 2 to 6 show the scalar components of the resultant force Rij
and moment Mij of interaction between those two bodies. By inspection of those
diagrams one can notice that their number r is
r = 6 c = 6 (6 NCE) = NCE
(1.3)
zi
12
zj
M zij
R zij
xi
yi
Oj
Oi
yi =a
M xij
R yij
yj
x R xij
xj
zi
zj
R zij
O i Oj
xj
R yij
yi
y
x
xi
R xij
yi
zi
13
zj
yj
R zij
OOii
yi
Oj
y
xi
xj
R xij
yj
zj
zi
j
R zij
Oj
xj
xi
Oi
yi
zi
xi
yj
yi
i
Figure 6 Constraint equations: zi = a Number of constraint equations: NCE = 1;
Class: c = 6 1 = 5.
14
zj
zi
Rzij
yi
Oj
xj
xi
Oi
yi xi
zi
xi
yj
yi
R yij
i
R xij
Figure 7
To show dierence between holonomic and nonholonomic system let us consider constraint shown in Fig. 7. If we assume that there is no friction between surface
of the plane and sphere, we can produce only one constraint equation, namely
(1.4)
zi = a
ii
ji
ki
=0
(1.5)
15
(1.6)
(1.7)
(1.8)
16
z2
q5
q3
z1
r2
Z
x1
o2
x2
q4
r1
q2
O
q1
y2
ro
o1
y1
Figure 8
The system is assembled of n = 2 moving links connected by p = 2 constraints.
There is one constraint of class 2 (p2 = 1) and one constraint of class 3 (p3 = 1).
Hence, its mobility according to Eq. 1.8 is
MO = 6 2 4 1 3 1 = 5
The mobility MO is equal to number of independent coordinates which must be introduced to determine uniquely a position of the system considered in the inertial
space. These independent coordinates are called generalized coordinates.
DEFINITION: Independent coordinates which uniquely determine position of a mechanical system with respect to the inertial space are called
generalized coordinates.
Figure 8 shows one of the possible introductions of the five generalized coordinates q1 ,
q2 , q3 , q4 , q5 . Kinematics provides methods which allow position vector of any point
of mechanical system to be expressed in terms of the MO generalized coordinates.
r = r(q1 , q2 , .....qMO )
1.3
(1.9)
In some practical applications, often we need to assume that motion along some of
the generalized coordinates is given as an explicit function of time. Let L < MO be
number of coordinates along which motion of the system is known. In this case the
number of degree of freedom of the system is reduced by L. Hence, the actual number
of degree of freedom is
M = MO L
(1.10)
EQUATIONS OF MOTION.
17
The above assumption requires introduction of L independent forces which assure the
assumed motion along the L coordinates. These unknown forces are called driving
forces. In the considered case, each position vector can be expressed by M generalized
coordinates and time t.
r = r(q1 , q2 , qM , t)
(1.11)
DEFINITION: If all possible points of a mechanical system have positions
vector of form 1.9, the system is called scleronomic.
DEFINITION: If at least one point of a mechanical system has position
vector of form 1.11, the system is called rheonomic.
1.4
EQUATIONS OF MOTION.
The carried out in the previous section discussion leads to conclusion that for any
mechanical system assembled of n rigid bodies we deal with
M unknown functions representing a motion along M generalized coordinates qm ,
L P
unknown driving forces Fd ,
r = 5i=1 pi (6 i) number of unknown scalar components at p constraints.
Hence, the total number of all unknowns is
T NU = M + L +
5
X
i=1
pi (6 i)
(1.12)
EQUATIONS OF MOTION.
18
R 12z
z1
R 10z
M 10z R
10y
M 10y
R 12y
y1
R 12x
vG
m1g
x1
Figure 9
Always we are able to produce for each body involved six equations having
the following form
m(v Gx + vGz y vGy z ) = Fx
m(v Gy + vGx z vGz x ) = Fy
m(v Gz + vGy x vGx y ) = Fz
IGx x + (IGz IGy ) z y = MGz
IGy y + (IGx IGz ) x z = MGy
IGz z + (IGy IGx ) y x = MGz
(1.14)
(1.15)
(1.16)
PROBLEMS.
1.5
19
PROBLEMS.
Problem 1
z2
A
Z z1
y1
l
y2
G
Md
Figure 10
A uniform and rigid rod 2 of length l and mass m is hinged at A to the link 1
as shown in the figure 10. The link 1, which can be considered as massless is driven
by a motor. Its driving moment depend on angular speed of the link 1 and can be
approximated by the following function
Md = Mo M
(1.17)
Derive equations of motion of the system and solve them for the following initial
conditions
(0) = 0,
(0)
= 0,
(0) = 0
(1.18)
PROBLEMS.
20
Solution.
KINEMATIC ANALYSIS.
O
y1
Y
x1
Z z1
z2
A
j1 a
y1
rG
- k2 l
2
y2
Figure 11
The system considered has two degrees of freedom. Its instantaneous position
can be uniquely determined by two independent coordinates and ( see Fig. 11).
Angular velocity of the system of coordinates x1 y1 z1
1 = k1
(1.19)
(1.20)
(1.21)
(1.22)
PROBLEMS.
21
(1.23)
= j2 (a sin ) + k2 (a cos ) +
i2
j2
k2
sin
cos
0 a cos a sin 12 l
+ k2 (0)
= i2 (a 2l sin ) + j2 ( 2l )
(1.24)
vGz2 = 0
(1.25)
KINETIC ANALYSIS.
The link 2 performs a general motion. Hence, its motion is governed by
unmodified Eulers equations.
m(v Gx2 + vGz2 y2 vGy2 z2 ) = F2x2
m(v Gy2 + vGx2 z2 vGz2 x2 ) = F2y2
m(v Gz2 + vGy2 x2 vGx2 y2 ) = F2z2
Ix2 x2 + (Iz2 Iy2 )y2 z2 = M2x2
Iy2 y2 + (Ix2 Iz2 ) x2 z2 = M2y2
Iz2 z2 + (Iy2 Ix2 )x2 y2 = M2z2
(1.26)
(1.27)
Since,
Ix2 = Iy2 = I = ml2 /12 and Iz2 = 0
(1.28)
(1.29)
PROBLEMS.
22
Components of the resultant force and the resultant moment can be obtained
from the free body diagram of the body 2 shown in Fig. 12
z2
MA z
R Az
MA y
R Ax
R Ay
M A x=0
2
y2
mg
2
Figure 12
According to Fig. 12 the components of resultant force are
F2x2 = RAx2
F2y2 = RAy2 mg sin
F2z2 = RAz2 mg cos
(1.30)
(1.31)
(1.32)
(1.33)
(1.34)
(1.35)
The link 1 (see Fig. 13) is considered as massless (I1z = 0), therefore the component
of resultant moment along axis z1 M1z1 must be equal to zero (see free body diagram
in Fig. 1d).
M1z1 = Md MAz2 cos MAy2 sin + RAx2 a = 0
(1.36)
The last equation yields an expression for MAy2 .
MAy2 = Md / sin MAz2 cot + RAx2 a/ sin
(1.37)
Upon introducing Eqs. 1.30, 1.35 and 1.37 into Eq. 1.34 one can obtain
M2y2 = F2x2 (l/2 + a/ sin ) M2z2 cot + Md / sin
(1.38)
PROBLEMS.
23
z2 R A x
2
A MA =0
x
Z z1
y1
MA y
Md
MCz=0 R Cz
1
R Ay
R Az
MA z
y2
C
R Cx
MCx1
R Cy
M Cy
Figure 13
Introduction of Eq. 1.31 into Eq. 1.33 yields
M2x2 = F2y2 (l/2) mg(l/2) sin
(1.39)
Introduction of Eqs. 1.21 and 1.25 into Eqs. 1.26 and 1.29 yields
F2x2 = m(a
(l/2)
sin l cos )
2 cos (l/2)( 2 ) sin cos )
F2y2 = m((l/2) a()
2 + a()
2 sin + (l/2)()
2 sin2 )
F2z2 = m((l/2)()
(1.40)
M2x2 = I( ()
2 sin cos )
sin + 2 cos )
M2y2 = I(
M2z2 = 0
(1.41)
Introduction of Eqs. 1.40, 1.41 and 1.17 into Eqs. 1.38 and 1.39 yields the wanted
equations of motion in the following form.
0 = (ma2 )
+ (I + m(l/2)2 )
sin2 + mal
sin
2
(1.42)
Since the above equations do not depend on it is easy to lower their order by
introduction of and instead of and
respectively.
0 = (ma2 ) + (I + m(l/2)2 ) sin2 + mal sin
+(2I + m(l2 /2)) sin cos + mla cos (Mo M)
0 = (I + m(l/2)2 ) (I + m(l/2)2 )2 sin cos
ma(l/2) 2 cos + mg(l/2) sin
(1.43)
PROBLEMS.
24
Solution of equations 1.43 yields motion of the system. The equations 1.43 were
numerically integrated for m = 5kg, a = 0.2m, l = 0.4m, Mo = 1Nm and M =
0.2Nms. The time diagrams of the angular displacement of the arm 2 and the
centrifuge angular velocity is shown in Fig. 14 and Fig. 15 respectively. The system
tends to an equilibrium position ( o = 0.75rad and o = 5rad/s). This equilibrium
position can be alternatively obtained by solution of Eq. 1.43 for = o =constant
and = o =constant.
2
(I + m(l/2)
) 2o
sin o cos o
ma(l/2) 2o
(Mo Mo ) = 0
cos o + mg(l/2) sin o = 0
(1.44)
1.6
1.2
0.8
[rad]
0.4
0.0
-0.4
0.0
12
16
20
12
16
20
t[sec]
Figure 14
10
8.0
6.0
[rad/s]
4.0
2.0
0.0
0.0
8
t[sec]
Figure 15
PROBLEMS.
25
Problem 2
z1
z2
y2
y1
3
b
2
l
Figure 16
The wheel 3 of mass m rotates with a constant relative angular velocity
about axis z2 . The massless axle BG is hinged at B to a vertical shaft 1 which
rotates with a constant angular speed . Determine equilibrium position o of the
axle BG.
Given are: , , b, l, m, r
PROBLEMS.
26
Solution.
x1
Y
t
y1
O
3
2
Z z1
z2
y2
y1
B3
mg
l
Figure 17
It is easy to notice that the point B3 which belong to the link 3 is motionless
with respect to the inertial frame XY Z. Hence, motion of the link 3 may be considered as the rotational one about point B (see Fig. 17). Because z2 is the axis of
symmetry of this link, the modified Eulers equation can be applied.
.
(1.45)
In the case considered the relative angular velocity of the body 3 with respect to the
rotating system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is
(1.46)
= k2
Angular velocity of the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is
2 = 1 + 21 = k1 + i1 = i2 + j2 sin + k2 cos
(1.47)
mr2
2
1
r2
+ b2 + l2 )
4
12
1
r2
+ b2 ) + ml2
4
12
(1.48)
PROBLEMS.
27
z1
z1
z2
y2
M32y2
M32z2
R 32y2
B3
y1
R32z
x1
R32x2 M32x2
mg
x2
Figure 18
z1
z2
M21z1
y2
z1
M21z1
R 21z1
y1 M21y1
B
R32z
M32z2
R 21x1
M32x2 R32x2
R 21y1
R 32y2
M32y2
Figure 19
x1
x2
PROBLEMS.
28
Components of the resultant moment due to external forces acting on the link 3,
according to the free body diagram shown in Fig. 18 are
Mx2 = M32x2 + mgl sin
My2 = M32y2
Mz2 = M32z2
(1.49)
The free body diagram of the link 2, shown in Fig. 19, yields the following relationships.
M32x2 = 0
M32y2 = M21y1 cos + M21z1 sin
M32z2 = M21y1 sin + M21z1 cos
(1.50)
(1.51)
Introduction of Eqs. 1.47, 1.48 and 1.51 into the Eulers equation 1.45 yields
(1.52)
I + (Iz2 I) 2 sin cos + Iz2 sin = mgl sin
(1.55)
o = 180o ,
o = arccos
mgl Iz2
(Iz2 I)2
(1.56)
Equations 1.53 and 1.54 determine the interaction moments (M21y1 , M21z1 ) between
the link 2 and 1 as functions of time. Then, the equations 1.50 allow the interaction
moments (M32y1 , M32z1 ) between link 3 and 2 to be determined. Moments M21z1
and M32z1 are the driving moments which one has to apply to the link 1 and 3 to
keep them going with the assumed velocities and respectively.
PROBLEMS.
29
Problem 3
z
y
G
2
3
b
Figure 20
To test the gyroscope which is commonly used for the stabilization of the
operating theatre of a hospital ship, it was mounted on a rigid foundation as shown
in Fig. 20. The gyroscope 1 rotates with a constant rotating speed relative to
the housing 2, and the housing 2 is driven by the electric motor 3. Determine the
reaction at bearing A if the motor turns the housing 2 with the constant angular
speed . The centre of gravity the gyroscope are at their axes of rotation as shown
in the Fig. 20. The housing 2 may be considered as massless.
Given are:
= 1000rad/s,
= 1rad/s,
a = 1m,
b = 2m,
R = 0.8m
Iz = 100kgm2 , Ix = Iy = 70kgm2 principal moments of inertia of the
gyroscope about axes through its centre of gravity,
= 45o .
PROBLEMS.
30
Problem 4
C
1
A
21 l
Figure 21
A uniform and thin bar 2 of mass m and length l is hinged to link 1 at A.
The link 1 rotates with a constant angular acceleration . The relative angular speed
of the link 2 with respect to the link 1 is constant and is equal to 21 . Determine
reactions at the hinge A and C as well as the necessary driving moments.
PROBLEMS.
31
Problem 5
y1
Z, z1
x1
z2
Z, z1
A
y1
x1
z1
A
l
1
2
x2
Figure 22
Fig. 22 shows a mechanical system. Its link 1 is free to rotate about the
vertical axis Z of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. Moment of inertia of the
link 1 about axis Z is I1Z . The link 2 of the system is hinged to the link 1 at the
point A as shown in Fig. 22. Distance between the point A and axis of rotation
Z is a. Distance between the centre of gravity G and the point A is equal to l.
Axes x2 , y2 , z2 are principal axis of inertia of the link 2 and the principal moments of
inertia about these axes are respectively I2x2 , I2y2 , I2z2 . Mass of the link 2 is equal to
m. Derive equations of motion of the system assuming that the angles and are
the generalized coordinates.
PROBLEMS.
32
Problem 6
Z
z
c
3
1
2
A
d
G
v
Y
4
a
b
Figure 23
The anti-pollution bus 3, shown in Fig. 23, moves in the vertical plane Y Z of
the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. The rear wheels 2 of the bus 3 are driven
with the constant linear velocity v by the flywheel 1. When this bus is moving over
the hump 4 its angular velocity about axis x is
v sin
=
l cos( )
The angular velocity of the gyroscope 1 about axis z is variable. At the position
Mass of the gyroscope is
its magnitude is equal to and its time derivative is .
m and its principal moments of inertia about system of coordinates xyz through its
centre of gravity are Ix = Iy = I and Iz respectively.
1. Determine interaction forces between the gyroscope 1 and the bus at the
constraints A and B as a function of .
2. Prove that the angular velocity of the bus is determined by the above
formula.
PROBLEMS.
33
Problem 7
X
G
x
Y
Z
y
a
R
2
Figure 24
The arm 1 of the crane shown in Fig. 24 rotates with the angular velocity
about the inertial axis Z. In the same time the carriage 2 moves along the arm 1
and its relative motion is determined by the position vectors S and L. The electrical
motor 4 drives the drum 3. The driving force produced by this motor is F. The drum
may be considered as a symmetric rigid body of mass m and the principal moments
of inertia along the system of coordinates xyz are respectively Ix = Iy = I. Iz .
Produce:
1. equation of motion of the drum
2. expressions for the interaction forces between the drum and the carriage
Given are: S, L(t), (t), m, I, , F, a, R, a, b
PROBLEMS.
34
Problem 8
Z
z1 z2
2
G2
1
A
l
x1
Figure 25
The massless link 1 of the mechanical system shown in Fig. 25 can rotate
about the horizontal axis Y of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z only. Its
motion is determined by the following function
= a sin t
The system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is attached to the link 1. The link 2 possesses mass
m and its principal moments of inertia about the axes through its centre of gravity
G2 are Ix2 = Iyy2 = I and Iz2 . The relative angular velocity of the link 2 with respect
to the link 1 is determined by the following function
= 0 sin W t
Produce:
1. the expression for the interaction forces at the constraint A.
Answer: Forces and moments acting on the base.
RAx1 = a 2 lm sin t mg sin
RAy1 = 0
RAz1 = a2 2 lm cos2 t + mg sin
MAx1 = Iz2 0 a sin W t cos t
MAz1 = Iz2 (W cos W t)
2. the expression for the driving moment that must be applied the link 1
MAy1 = MAY = (I + ml2 )a 2 sin t + mgl sin
PROBLEMS.
35
Problem 9
O
z 11
y 11
X x 11
x 12
a
G2
z 12
z 11
Md
Figure 26
The housing of the ventilator shown in Fig. 26 is fixed to its base at the
constant angle to form one rigid body 1. The instantaneous position of the body 1
with respect to the inertial system of coordinates XY Z is determined by the angular
displacement .
= A sin t
(1.57)
The rotor 2 of this ventilator rotates with respect to its housing with the constant
angular velocity .
Given are:
I1 - moment of inertia of the body 1 about axis X.
Ix = Iy = I, Iz - the principal moments of inertia of the rotor 2
m - mass of the rotor 2
a, A, , , - given constant parameters
Produce the expression for the driving moment Md that must be applied to the base
1 to assure its motion according to the equation 1.57.
Answer:
Md = I1 (A 2 sin t) IA 2 sin t cos2 Iz A2 sin t sin2
Chapter 2
MODELLING OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS BY MEANS OF
LAGRANGE EQUATIONS.
In the previous chapter it has been shown that dynamic problems can be solved
by decomposition of a mechanical system into individual rigid bodies and then by
application of equations of motion corresponding to each body, equations of motion
of the whole system may be formulated. Such a treatment of mechanical systems is
called Eulers approach.
Equations of motion of mechanical system, in many cases, can be formulated
without the need of decomposition of the system considered. They can be derived
from expressions for the kinetic energy function of the system, its potential energy
function and the virtual work performed by external forces acting on it. Such an
approach is called Lagranges approach.
2.1
VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENT.
(2.1)
Infinitesimal displacement drn of the particle n, corresponding to infinitesimal increment of time dt can be calculated according to the total dierential formula.
M
X
rn
drn =
dqm
q
m
m=1
(2.2)
VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENT.
37
z2
n
q5
q3
z1
r2
Z
x1
o2
x2
rn
q4
r1
q2
O
q1
y2
ro
o1
y1
Figure 1
Such infinitesimal increments of generalized coordinates are called virtual displacements and are denoted by qm to distinguish them from the true ones dqm .
Hence, the virtual displacement of the particle n may be expressed as follows
M
X
rn
rn =
qm
q
m
m=1
(2.4)
The virtual displacement is calculated under additional assumption that at the instant
considered motion determined as explicit function of time along coordinates ql (t) is
ceased. Hence,
rn
dt = 0
(2.6)
t
and the virtual displacement is determined by formula (2.4)
rn =
PM
rn
m=1 qm qm
(2.7)
Figure 2 presents a simple system which configuration is determined by two generalized coordinates q1 and q2 . If both coordinates are independent, the system is
scleronomic and virtual displacement of point P is shown in Fig. 3.If, for example, q1
is determined in time (q1 = q1 (t)) the system is rheonomic. Figure 4. gives graphical
interpretation of virtual displacement for that case.
VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENT.
38
q2
z
Z
x
rn
O
o
q1
X
Y
y
Figure 2
q2
z
q2
rn q
1
q1
rn
x
rn
O
q1
X
q1
Y
y
Figure 3
rn q
2
q2
VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENT.
39
q2
Z
rn
q = rn
q2 2
x
rn
O
q1 (t)
Y
y
Figure 4
2.2
40
Consider a mechanical system shown in Fig. 5. Let us assume that the system has
M degree of freedom and its motions is caused by a set of forces F1 , F2 , ..Fn ..FN . Let
rn be the position vector of the point of application of the force Fn in the inertial
system of coordinates XY Z.
Fn
Fn
z2
n
q3
Fn X
Z
x1
o2
x2
rn
z1
r2
r1
rn
rn
q2
O
q1
q5
Fn Y
ro
rn
o1
q4
Z
y2
y1
Figure 5
(2.8)
N
X
n=1
Wn =
N
X
n=1
Fn rn
(2.9)
41
M
X
rn
qm
q
m
m=1
(2.11)
the expression for the virtual work 2.9 may by rewritten in form
N
X
M
X
rn
W =
Fn (
qm )
qm
n=1
m=1
=
=
N X
M
X
n=1 m=1
N
M X
X
m=1 n=1
M
X
Fn
rn
qm
qm
Fn
rn
qm
qm
N
X
rn
=
qm (
Fn
)
qm
m=1
n=1
M X
N
X
rn
=
(
Fn
)qm
q
m
m=1 n=1
(2.12)
P
rn
DEFINITION: The expression N
n=1 Fn qm ( in the equation 2.12 it is inside
the bracket ) is called generalized force.
The generalised force is usually denoted by Qm .
Qm =
PN
n=1
Fn
rn
qm
(2.13)
Decomposition of the force Fn and the position vector rn along axes of the system of
coordinates XY Z yields
rn = IrnX + JrnY + KrnZ
(2.14)
Fn = IFnX + JFnY + KFnZ
(2.15)
Introducing Eqs. 2.14) and 2.15 into Eq. 2.13 one may obtain
Qm =
PN
rnX
n=1 (FnX qm
nY
nZ
+ FnY r
+ FnZ r
)
qm
qm
(2.16)
As can be seen from the above expression, the generalized force is a scalar magnitude.
The product Qm qm represents the virtual work done by all forces acting on the system
on displacements corresponding to qm 6= 0 on assumption that all the others virtual
displacements are equal to 0.)
2.3
42
For further analysis it is convenient to distinguish forces that produce the virtual
work equal to zero from forces that produce the virtual force not equal to zero.
DEFINITION: Forces that produce the virtual work equal to zero are
called constraint forces and will be denoted by R.
DEFINITION: Forces that, in general, produce non-zero virtual work are
called impressed forces and will be denoted by F.
It will be shown that the following forces produce the virtual work equal to
zero.
1. interaction forces between the particles the individual links are made of
2. interaction forces between individual links
3. driving forces
1. The virtual work produced by the interaction forces between the
particles the individual links are made of
Z
O
X
ri
rj
ri Fij
rij
rij
j
Figure 6
Let us calculate the virtual work produced by the interaction forces between
particles which belong to the same link. Particle i (see Fig. 6) interacts with all the
other particles the body is made of. Therefore the virtual work done by forces acting
on the particle i is
N
X
Fij ri
(2.17)
Wi =
j=1
The virtual work done by forces acting on all N particles the body is made of can be
expressed by the following formula.
W =
N
N X
X
i=1 j=1
Fij ri
(2.18)
43
To show that the virtual work W is equal to 0, let us consider the virtual work done
by interaction forces between the particle i and the particle j.
Wij =
=
=
=
Fij
Fij
Fij
Fij
ri + Fji rj
ri Fij rj
(ri rj )
rij = 0
(2.19)
Since rij has a constant length, the vector rij is always perpendicular to the vector
Fij . Hence, because the expression 2.18 is assembled of terms 2.19, one may conclude
that
W = 0
(2.20)
2.The virtual force produced by the interaction forces between individual
links.
i
RAi
j
rA
j
A
rA
rAij
i
rA
R Aj
Y
X
Figure 7
Now let us calculate the virtual work performed by constraint forces between
two links i and j shown in Fig. 7. If friction between those two links is neglected,
direction of a constraint force RiA , representing reaction of the link j on the link i,
is always perpendicular to the slide i. Let riA be virtual displacement of the link i
at point of application A of the force RiA . Hence the virtual work performed by this
force is
W i = RiA riA
(2.21)
Similarly, the virtual work performed by RjA is
W j = RjA rjA
(2.22)
44
W i + W j
RiA riA + RjA rjA
RiA (riA rjA )
RiA rij
A
(2.23)
A
Z
(2.24)
rAj
R Aj
rA
Y
Figure 8
When rheonomic system is considered, some of its links has motion assumed to
be known. Let us assume that link i has motion determined by an explicit function of
time (see Fig. 8). Because the virtual displacements are calculated under assumption
that motion given by explicit functions of time is ceased, the virtual displacement of
the point of application of reaction RjA is always tangential to the slide i. Hence the
virtual work performed by that reaction must be equal to zero.
W j = RjA rjA = 0
3. The virtual work produced by the driving forces
(2.25)
z
Z
45
F dj
F di
z
rA
rA
j=
i
rA
X
Figure 9
Let us assume that the relative motion between the link i and the link j along
the axis z is by assumption known. Hence we have to apply to the link i and the link
j two driving forces Fid and Fjd (see Fig 9). The virtual work produced by these two
forces is
W = Fid riA + Fjd rjA
(2.26)
Since the virtual displacements correspond to the frozen links,
riA = rjA
Therefore
(2.27)
2.4
46
mn
n
Rn
Fn
rn
Y
O
X
Figure 10
If a mechanical system is in an equilibrium, each of particle the system is made up
fulfills its equilibrium conditions (see Fig. 10).
Rn + Fn = 0
n = 1, 2, ......N
(2.28)
(2.29)
Hence, virtual work performed by all forces acting on the system must be 0 as well.
W =
N
X
n=1
Rn rn +
N
X
n=1
Fn rn = 0
(2.30)
But, the virtual work performed the constraint forces is equal to zero
N
X
n=1
Rn rn = 0
(2.31)
N
X
n=1
Fn rn = 0
(2.32)
47
M
X
m=1
Qm qm = 0
(2.33)
m = 1, 2, ......M
(2.34)
Upon solving the above equations with respect to M unknown generalized coordinates
qm one may always obtain all possible systems equilibrium positions.
2.4.2 Principle of virtual work for a system in motion.
If a mechanical system is not stationary, each of its particles has to be obey to
Newtons law.
mn
rn = Rn + Fn
n = 1, 2, N
(2.35)
Repetition of consideration carried out in the previous paragraph lead to equation
N
X
W =
(Fn mn
rn ) rn = 0
(2.36)
n=1
48
mn
Gn
rn
rG
G
O
X
Figure 11
Let us calculate the virtual work performed by gravity forces acting on a link
of a mechanical system. According to the above formula, the virtual work performed
by the gravity forces acting on all particles the body is made of, may be adopted in
the following form.
N
X
Gn rn
(2.37)
WG =
n=1
PM
rn
m=1 qm qm
N
X
M
X
rn
=
Gn
qm
q
m
n=1
m=1
=
=
M
N X
X
n=1 m=1
M X
N
X
m=1 n=1
Gn
rn
qm
qm
Gn
rn
qm
qm
(2.38)
On the other hand, the virtual displacement of the centre of gravity of the body
considered is
M
X
rG
rG =
qm
(2.39)
qm
m=1
Implementation to the above formula definition of position of the centre of gravity
yields
M
N
X
1 X
(
rn mn )qm
(2.40)
rG =
q
m
m
m=1
n=1
49
Since, qm does not depends on index of summation n, the formula 2.40 may be
transformed as follow
M X
N
X
rn
mn qm
(2.41)
rG m =
q
m
m=1 n=1
After multiplication of both sides of the above equation by Kg one can obtain
G rG =
N
M X
X
m=1 n=1
Gn
rn
qm
qm
(2.42)
Since right hand sides of equations 2.42 and 2.38 are the same, their left hand sides
mast be equal. Hence
WG = G rG
(2.43)
PROBLEMS
2.6
50
PROBLEMS
Problem 10
A
2l
l
2l
k
C1
C2
l
Figure 12
Two thin and uniform bars, each of mass m and length 2l, are hinged at A
and supported at B and C as shown in Fig. 12. The centres of gravity of these bars
C1 and C2 are connected by a spring of length l and stiness k. Upon assuming that
all constraints have no friction and the whole assembly can move only in the vertical
plane, determine the stiness k to ensure an equilibrium position of the system at
= 45o . Use the principle of virtual work.
Given are:
= 45o
m = 10kg
l = 1m.
AC1 = BC1
AC2 = CC2
PROBLEMS
51
Solution.
y
A
2l
F2
F1
C1
r1
2l
G1
r2
C2
l
G2
x
Figure 13
The only impressed forces acting on the system considered are.
F1 = ik(2l cos l) = ilk(2 cos 1)
(2.44)
F2 = ilk(2 cos 1)
(2.45)
G1 = jmg
(2.46)
G2 = jmg
(2.47)
r1 = il cos + jl sin
(2.48)
(2.49)
r2
= (i3l sin + jl cos )
r2 =
(2.50)
(2.51)
W = F1 r1 + G1 r1 + F2 r2 +G2 r2
= (l2 k sin (2 cos 1) mgl cos + 3kl2 sin (2 cos 1) lmg cos )
(2.52)
= (2kl2 sin (2 cos 1) 2mgl cos ) = 0
(2.53)
mg cos
mg
10 9.81
=
=
= 236.8 N/m
l sin (2 cos 1)
l(2 cos 1) tan
1(2 cos 45o 1) tan 45o
(2.54)
PROBLEMS
52
Problem 11
1
2
l
3
A
l
Figure 14
Three uniform and rigid bars 1, 2, and 3 (see Fig. 14), are hinged together at
point A. Each of them has the same length l and mass m. The bar 1 can slide along
a vertical axis y. The bars 2 and 3 are resting on a cylinder of radius r. Find the
angle when the system is in an equilibrium. Use the principle of virtual work.
PROBLEMS
53
Solution.
y
C1
r1
A
l/2
l
C2
G
1
l
C3
r3
r2
G2
x
G3
Figure 15
The system has one degree of freedom and can be considered as the generalized coordinate. Impressed forces G1 , G2 and G3 are shown in Fig. 15.
G1 = G2 = G3 = jmg
(2.55)
(2.56)
(2.57)
(2.58)
sin2
cos
r2
= i((l/2) cos ) + j(r
=
+ (l/2) sin )
sin2
cos
r3
= i((l/2) cos ) + j(r
=
+ (l/2) sin )
sin2
r1 =
(2.59)
r2
(2.60)
r3
(2.61)
For the system in an equilibrium position the virtual work have to be equal to O.
W = r1 G1 + r2 G2 + r3 G3
cos
cos
= (mg(r 2 ) 2mg(r 2 + (l/2) sin )) = 0
sin
sin
(2.62)
PROBLEMS
54
cos
cos
2(r 2 + (l/2) sin ) = 0
2
sin
sin
(2.63)
(2.64)
The above equation can be solved numerically and its roots represents the equilibrium
positions of the system considered.
PROBLEMS
55
Problem 12
x
O
l1
A
l2
P
B
Figure 16
Two uniform bars of the length l1, l2 and mass m1 , m2 respectively are joint
together to form a double pendulum in the vertical plane. There is force P applied
at the point B. Determine the system equilibrium position.
PROBLEMS
56
Solution.
x
0
_l1
2
C1
C1
l_2
2
G1
A
q1
q2
C2
C2
P
G2
y
Figure 17
The system has two degree of freedom. Its position can be uniquely determined
by two generalized coordinates q1 and q2 (see Fig. 17). There are three impressed
forces acting on the system.
G1 = jm1 g = jG1
G2 = jm2 g = jG2
P = iP
(2.65)
Position vectors of the points of application of the above forces as functions of the
generalized coordinates
rC1 = i(rC1x ) + j(rC1y ) = i((l1 /2) sin q1 ) + j((l1 /2) cos q1 )
rC2 = i(rC2x ) + j(rC2y ) = i(l1 sin q1 + (l2 /2) sin q2 ) + j(l1 cos q1 + (l2 /2) cos q2 )
(2.66)
rB = i(rBx ) + j(rBy ) = i(l1 sin q1 + l2 sin q2 ) + j(l1 cos q1 + l2 cos q2 )
PROBLEMS
57
(2.67)
(2.68)
(2.69)
Since virtual work for system in an equilibrium has to be equal 0 and the virtual
displacements along the generalized coordinates can not be equal 0, the last equation
PROBLEMS
58
(2.70)
=
=
=
=
q10
q20
q10 + 180o
q20 + 180o
(2.71)
where
2P
G1 + 2G2
2P
= arccot
G2
q10 = arccot
q20
(2.72)
P
x
x
x
P
y
a)
Figure 18 a) q1 = q11 ,
q1 = q12 , q2 = q22
b)
q2 = q21
b) q1 = q11 ,
c)
q2 = q22
d)
c) q1 = q12 ,
q2 = q21
d)
PROBLEMS
59
Problem 13
A2
q2
k
A1
q1
Figure 19
Two identical uniform rods, each of mass m and length l, are joined together
to form an inverse double pendulum (see Fig. 19). The pendulum is supported by
four springs, all of stiness k, in such way that its vertical position (q1 = 0 and q2 = 0)
is its equilibrium position. Using the principle of virtual work derive equations which
determine the other possible equilibrium positions.
Given are: l, m, k,
PROBLEMS
60
Solution
x
A2
F2
rF2
rG2
q2
G2
F1
A1
q1
rF1
rG1
G1
y
Figure 20
The interaction forces between the springs and the individual links of the
system shown in Fig. 20 are represented by the vectors F1 and F2 .
F1 = j(2kl sin q1 ) = jF1
F2 = j(2kl sin q1 + 2kl sin q2 ) = jF2
(2.73)
The vectors G1 and G2 represent the gravity forces acting on the link 1 and 2 respectively.
G1 = img = iG1
G2 = img = iG2
(2.74)
(2.75)
PROBLEMS
61
The virtual work performed by all the impressed forces acting on the system is
W = F1 rF 1 + F2 rF 2 + G1 rG1 + G2 rG2 =
(ixF 1 + jyF 1 )
(ixF 1 + jyF 1 )
q1 +
q2 +
= jF1
q1
q2
(ixF 2 + jyF 2 )
(ixF 2 + jyF 2 )
q1 +
q2 +
jF2
q1
q2
(ixG1 + jyG1 )
(ixG1 + jyG1 )
iG1
q1 +
q2 +
q1
q2
(ixG2 + jyG2 )
(ixG2 + jyG2 )
q1 +
q2
iG2
q1
q2
(2.76)
Hence, simplifying the above expression one can get the following scalar expression
for the virtual work.
yF 1
yF 2
yF 1
yF 2
W = F1
q1 +
q2 F2
q1 +
q2 +
q1
q2
q1
q2
xG1
xG2
xG1
xG2
G1
q1 +
q2 G2
q1 +
q2
q1
q2
q1
q2
Collecting terms in front of q1 and q2 we have
yF 1
yF 2
xG1
xG2
q1 +
F2
G1
G2
W =
F1
q1
q1
q1
q1
yF 1
yF 2
xG1
xG2
q2
F2
G1
G2
+ F1
q2
q2
q2
q2
(2.77)
(2.78)
Since q1 and q2 can not be equal to zero, the virtual work become zero if
yF 1
yF 2
xG1
xG2
F2
G1
G2
= 0
q1
q1
q1
q1
yF 1
yF 2
xG1
xG2
F2
G1
G2
= 0
F1
q2
q2
q2
q2
F1
(2.79)
yF 1
= l cos q1
q1
1
xG1
= l sin q1
q1
2
yF 1
=0
q2
xG1
=0
q2
xG2
= l sin q1
q1
yF 2
= l cos q2
q2
xG2
1
= l sin q2
q2
2
(2.80)
PROBLEMS
62
Introduction of equations 2.73, 2.74 and 2.80 into equation 2.79 yields
1
2kl2 sin q1 cos q1 + (2kl sin q1 + 2kl sin q2 )(l cos q1 ) mgl sin q1 mgl sin q1 = 0
2
1
(2kl sin q1 + 2kl sin q2 )(l cos q2 ) mgl sin q2 = 0
2
(2.81)
or after simplification
8kl sin q1 cos q1 + 4kl sin q2 cos q1 3mg sin q1 = 0
4kl sin q1 cos q2 + 4kl sin q2 cos q2 mg sin q2 = 0
(2.82)
(2.83)
These functions are shown in Fig. 21. Their zero point are presented in Fig. 22. The
continuous line represents zero points of the function f1 (q1 , q2 ) and the dotted one
zero points of the function f2 (q1 , q2 ). The intersection points of those two lines oers
the wanted solutions of the set of equations 2.82. The geometrical interpretation of
these solution is given in Fig. 23b),c),d) and e).
PROBLEMS
63
f (q ,q )
1 1
20
10
-10
q2
-20
f (q ,q )
20
2 1
10
-10
q2
-20
Figure 21
q1
Figure 22
q2
PROBLEMS
64
( , )
( , )
( ,0) ( , )
( ,0) ( , )
a)
(0,0)
( 0, )
( 0, )
( 40 o ,-60 )
( 85 ,87 )
b)
c)
d)
Figure 23
e)
PROBLEMS
65
Problem 14
a
A
q
l
B
l
X
Figure 24
Two uniform bars, each of mass m and length l, are joint as is shown in Fig.
24 to form a planar system. The point A is stationary whereas the point B can moves
along the vertical plane which is apart from A by distance a < 2l. Find angle q which
determines the equilibrium position of the system. Use principle of the virtual work.
Answer
Solution of the followinga equation
sin q
=0
32 sin q 12 cos q t a 2l a
1( l ) +2 l sin qsin2 q
PROBLEMS
66
Problem 15
l
l
x
Figure 25
Five uniform and rigid bars each of mass m and length l are joined together
as shown in Fig. 25. Find equilibrium position by means of the principle of virtual
work.
PROBLEMS
67
Problem 16
x
l
C
l
y
B
A
G
l
Figure 26
Fig 26 shows the kinematic scheme of a mechanism. The link AB can be
considered as an uniform rod of mass m and length l. The link BC is massless and
its length is l. Both links can move only in the vertical plane xy. At point A the
horizontal force F is applied. The distance between point C and the line of action of
the force F is equal to l. By means of the virtual work principle determine the angle
which corresponds to the system equilibrium position .
Given are: l, F, m
Answer:
Solution of the
following equation
) sin
1
- 2 Gl sin + F l cos + (1cos
=0
2 cos cos2
PROBLEMS
68
Problem 17
l
G
l/2
c
Figure 27
A uniform and rigid bar of mass m and length l is supported as shown in Fig.
27. Upon neglecting friction at the supports, determine the equilibrium position by
means of principle of the virtual work.
Given are: l, c, m
Answer:
Solution of the following equation
cos3 = 2 cl
PROBLEMS
69
Problem 18
y
G
mg
x
l
Figure 28
A thin and uniform bar of the length l and mass m shown in Fig. 28 is placed
into a smooth bowl of radius R. Applying the principle of the virtual work determine
the equilibrium position of the bar.
PROBLEMS
70
Problem 19
2l
2l
Figure 29
Figure 30
Two uniform bars each of mass m and length 2l were welded together to form
the rigid body shown in Fig. 29). Two such rigid bodies were joined by means of
hinge A and suspended in the vertical plane xz as shown in Fig. 30). The generalized coordinates and determine uniquely position of this system. Upon taking
advantage of the principle of the virtual work, produce magnitudes of the generalized
coordinates corresponding to the system equilibrium position.
PROBLEMS
71
Problem 20
2
3
D
k
1
H
C
B
r
G
l
Figure 31
The mechanism shown in Fig. 31 can move in the vertical plane XY of an
inertial system of coordinates. The links 2 and 3 are massless. The link 1 can be
considered as a uniform rod of mass m and length l. The uncompressed length of
the uncompressed spring 4 is lo and its stiness is k. By means of the virtual work
principle, determine the angle corresponding to the equilibrium position of this
mechanism.
Answer:
Solution of the following equation
l
k(lo H + x sin )
(L sin2 sin r2 L2 cos2 ) + (mg)
( 2 sin ) = 0
2
2
2
where
x = L sin r L cos
PROBLEMS
72
Problem 21
b
O
B
1
X
r=0
2
Y
Figure 32
The uniform beam 1 (see Fig. 39) of mass m and length a is hinged at the
point O to the ground. Its end A is suspended on the massless rope 3. The rope is
loaded by the block 2 of mass M. By means of the virtual work principle determine
the angle which corresponds to the system equilibrium position.
PROBLEMS
73
Problem 22
l
1
2
R
3
b)
a)
Figure 33
The arm 1 of the balance shown in Fig. 33 can roll over the cylinder 2 without
slipping. If this balance is not loaded, its arm remains in the horizontal position as is
shown in Fig. 33a). By means of the virtual work principle determine the relationship
between the weight 3 and the angular position of the arm 1 (Fig. 33b)).
Given are:
R, l - distances shown in Fig. 33
M - mass of the unloaded arm 1
m - mass of the weight 3
Answer:
ml
= R(M+m)
PROBLEMS
74
Problem 23
X
1
3
2
90
A
z
a
Figure 34
Two massless rods, each of length a, were joint together at the point A to
form the rigid body 1 (see Fig. 34). This body is free to rotate about the horizontal
axis Z of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. The body 2 which can be treated
as a particle of mass m can slide along the arm AB. It is supported by the spring 3
of stiness k. The uncompressed length of this spring is equal to a/2. The system
has two degrees of freedom and the two generalized coordinates and z determine
its position with respect to the inertial system of coordinates XY Z.
By means of the virtual work principle produce equations that determine the
coordinates and z corresponding to the system equilibrium position.
Answer:
a sin z cos = 0
Mg sin + ka
kz = 0
2
2.7
75
(2.84)
Since the generalized coordinates qm are themselves functions of time, the first derivative of the position vector with respect to time is
r n =
rn
rn
rn
rn
q1 + ...
qm + ...
qM +
q1
qm
qM
t
(2.85)
The functions qm are called generalized velocities. Since all position vectors do
rn
not depend on qm , the partial derivative q
do not depend on qm either. Hence,
m
rn
(
)=0
qm qm
(2.86)
(2.87)
(2.88)
(2.89)
The right hand sides of equation 2.88 and 2.89 are the same. Therefore we can
conclude that
d rn
r n
( )= q
(2.90)
dt qm
m
The equalities 2.87 and 2.90 are to be used in the next paragraph.
2.7.2 Lagranges equations general case.
According to the principle of the virtual work, for any particle of a holonomic system
with perfect constraints, we have.
N
X
(Fn mn
rn ) rn = 0
n = 1, 2, .....N
(2.91)
n=1
76
(2.92)
N
M
X
X
rn
(Fn mn
rn )
qm = 0
q
m
n=1
m=1
(2.93)
Since generalized coordinates are independent, the above equation has to be fulfilled
for any combination of the virtual displacements along these generalized coordinates.
In particular, it has to be fulfilled for
q1 = 0,
q2 = 0, ......qm 6= 0, ........qM1 = 0,
Hence
qM = 0
N
X
rn
(Fn mn
rn )
qm = 0
qm
n=1
or
N
X
n=1
X
rn
rn
=
Fn
qm n=1
qm
(2.94)
(2.95)
mn
rn
(2.96)
Right hand side of the above equation represent generalized force along m th coordinate.
N
X
rn
Qm =
Fn
(2.97)
qm
n=1
Now, let us manipulate on the left hand side of equation 2.96.
L=
N
X
n=1
X
rn
d
rn
=
mn ( r n ) (
)
qm n=1
dt
qm
N
mn
rn
(2.98)
d
rn
d
rn
d
rn
L=
mn ( r n ) (
) + (rn
) (rn
)
dt
qm
dt
qm
dt
qm
n=1
N
X
(2.99)
d
rn
d
rn
d
rn
d rn
L=
mn ( r n ) (
) + (rn
) ( r n ) (
) r n (
)
dt
qm
dt
qm
dt
qm
dt qm
n=1
(2.100)
Reduction of the same terms yields
N
X
L=
N
X
n=1
mn
d
rn
d rn
) r n (
)
(rn
dt
qm
dt qm
(2.101)
77
N
X
d
r n
r n
(rn
mn
) r n (
)
L=
dt
qm
qm
n=1
(2.102)
Now, it will be shown that the first term in Eq. 2.102 may by replaced by dtd ( qm T )
and the second one by qm T where T is the kinetic energy of the system considered
T =
N
X
mn (rn )2
n=1
(2.103)
Indeed
d
d X mn (rn )2
(
(
)
T) =
dt qm
dt qm n=1
2
N
N
X
d mn (rn )2
=
(
)
dt
2
m
n=1
=
=
=
N
X
n=1
N
X
n=1
N
X
mn
d (rn )2
(
)
dt qm 2
mn
d 1
r n
( 2rn
)
dt 2
qm
mn
d
r n
(rn
)
dt
qm
n=1
(2.104)
and
X mn (rn )2
T =
qm
qm n=1
2
N
N
X
mn (rn )2
=
qm
2
n=1
=
=
=
N
X
n=1
N
X
mn
(rn )2
qm 2
1
r n
mn ( 2rn
)
2
q
m
n=1
N
X
n=1
mn (rn
r n
)
qm
(2.105)
(
T)
T
dt qm
qm
(2.106)
78
Introduction of Eqs. 2.106 and 2.97 into Eq. 2.96 gives the following final form of
Lagranges equations.
d
( T)
dt qm
T
qm
= Qm
m = 1, 2, ....M
(2.107)
According to the presented derivation, T refers to kinetic energy of the whole system
(links which motion is determined as explicit function of time do not have to be
included). In a general case of a system with n links, its kinetic energy is determined
by formula
n
I
I
v
I
Gxi
xi
xiyi
xizi
xi
X 1
mi [vGxi , vGyi , vGzi ] vGyi + 1 [xi , yi , zi ] Iyixi Iyi Iyizi yi
T =
2
2
i=1
vGzi
Izixi Iziyi Izi
zi
(2.108)
where
vGxi , vGyi , vGzi are components of absolute velocity of centre of gravity of the i th
link vGi along a body system of coordinates xi yi zi through the centre of gravity.
xi , yi , zi are components of absolute angular velocity i along the xi yi zi system
of coordinates.
[I ] matrix of inertia about the xi yi zi system of coordinates.
mi mass of the body.
If on the system considered acts a set of L impressed forces Fl , the generalized
force Qm may be obtained from the formula 2.16.
Qm =
L
X
rnX
rnY
rnZ
(FlX
+ FlY
+ FlZ
)
q
q
q
m
m
m
l=1
(2.109)
where
FlX , FlY , FlZ are components of l th force along an inertial system of coordinates
XY Z.
rlX , rlY , rlZ are components of the absolute position vector of a point of application
of that force along the inertial system of coordinates XY Z.
2.7.3 Lagranges equations for conservative forces.
All impressed forces can be divided into two categories: conservative forces C and
non-conservative forces F.
DEFINITION: If there exists such a function V , called potential energy function, that its partial derivatives with respect to the coordinates of the point
of application of an impressed force taken with sign - are equal to the
component of the impressed force along these coordinates, the impressed
force is called conservative.
DEFINITION: Forces for which the potential energy function does not
exists are called non-conservative.
Hence, if V is a potential energy function corresponding to a set of the conservative
79
forces C1 , C2 , ...Ck , ...CK , and rkX , rkY , rkZ are coordinates of point of application of
a conservative force Ck , its components are
V
rkX
V
=
rkY
V
=
rkZ
CkX =
CkY
CkZ
(2.110)
K
X
k=1
K
X
k=1
CkX
rkX
rkY
rkZ
+ CkY
+ CkZ
qm
qm
qm
V rkX
V rkY
V rkZ
rkX qm
rkY qm
rkZ qm
(2.111)
T
qm
V
qm
= Qm
m = 1, 2, ....M
(2.112)
V
(
T)
T+
=0
dt qm
qm
qm
m = 1, 2, ....M
(2.113)
(2.114)
and taking into account that potential energy function does not depend on qm , the
equation 2.113 can be rewritten in form 2.115.
d
L)
L=0
(
dt qm
qm
m = 1, 2, ....M
(2.115)
If apart of conservative forces there are non-conservative forces involved, the Lagrange
equations takes form
d
( L)
dt qm
L
qm
= Qm
m = 1, 2, ....M
(2.116)
80
i
Gi
rGiZ
rG i
O
X
Figure 35
s
B
rA
rB
O
X
Figure 36
The only conservative forces which can be encountered in a mechanical system
are caused by gravity and springs connecting its links. Potential energy function for
the gravity force of the link i shown in Fig. 35 is
(2.117)
Vi = mi grGiZ
Potential energy for forces at A and B caused by a spring s of stiness ks and length
ls (see Fig. 36) is
1
(2.118)
Vs = ks (|rA rB | ls )2
2
Potential energy function for all conservative forces acting on the system is
V =
I
X
i=1
Vi +
S
X
s=1
Vs
(2.119)
PROBLEMS
2.8
81
PROBLEMS
Problem 24
1
A
l
B
Figure 37
An uniform and thin bar 2 of mass m and length l is hinged to link 1 which
rotates with a constant angular speed . Derive the dierential equation of motion of
link 2 by means of Lagrange equations. Assume that is the generalized coordinate.
PROBLEMS
82
z2
Z z1
y2
y1
o
l/2
G
B
Figure 38
Solution.
Angular velocity of the link 2 is a sum of the absolute angular velocity of the
link 1 and the relative velocity of the link 2 with respect to the link 1.
2 = + i2 = k1 + i2
(2.120)
k1 = j2 sin + k2 cos
(2.121)
Since
the absolute angular velocity of the link 2 is
2 = i2 + j2 sin + k2 cos
Its components are
2x =
2y = sin
2z = cos
(2.122)
The link 2 performs rotational motion about point O. Hence, its total kinetic energy
is.
I 0 0
2x
1
[ 2x , 2y , 2z ] 0 I 0 2y
T =
2
2z
0 0 0
1
1
2
(2.123)
I(22x + 22y ) = I( + 2 sin2 )
=
2
2
The potential energy function may be expressed as follow.
l
V = mgl cos
2
(2.124)
PROBLEMS
83
Since all impressed forces are conservative ,motion of the system considered is governed by Lagrange equations of the following form.
d T
T
V
+
=0
(2.125)
dt
where
d
dt
T
= I
T
= I 2 sin cos
1
V
=
mgl sin
(2.126)
(2.127)
(2.128)
PROBLEMS
84
Problem 25
Z
R
2
1
Figure 39
The bead 1 which can be considered as a particle of mass m, may slides
without any friction along the slide 2. The slide 2 rotates with the constant angular
velocity about the vertical axis Z ( see Fig. 39). The angle can be considered
as the generalized coordinate. By means of Lagranges equations derive equation of
motion of the bead 1 and determine all possible equilibrium positions.
Given are : m = 1 kg, R = .25 m, = 10 rad/s.
PROBLEMS
85
Solution.
O,o
t
X
Z ,z
O,o
Figure 40
In Fig. 40 the inertial system of coordinates is denoted by XY Z. System of
coordinates xyz is rigidly attached to the slide and rotates with the angular velocity
about axis Z. Vector of the absolute position vector of the bead 1 is
(2.129)
i
j
k
0
0
(2.130)
Hence
v 2 = 2 R2 + 2 R2 sin2
(2.131)
All forces acting on the system considered are conservative, therefore Lagranges
equations may be taken in the following form.
d T
T
V
+
=0
(2.132)
dt
PROBLEMS
86
where
mv 2
1
= m( 2 R2 + 2 R2 sin2 )
2
2
= mgRcos
T =
(2.133)
(2.134)
Hence
T
d T
dt
T
= mR2
= mR2
(2.135)
(2.136)
9.81
g
= arccos 2
= 66.89o
2
R
10 0.25
(2.137)
PROBLEMS
87
Problem 26
Z
Y
1
r
2
z2
C
21
y2
Figure 41
A block 2 of mass m has the following matrix of inertia about axes x2 , y, z2
through the body centre of gravity C as shown in Fig. 41.
0
0
Ix2
Iy2
Iy2z2
[I2 ] = 0
where Iy2z2 = Iz2y2
0 Iz2y2
Iz2
The block rotates about the axle 1 with a constant relative angular velocity 21 . The
axle 1 is free to rotate about a horizontal axis Y which is fixed in the inertial space
XY Z. Centre of gravity C of the block 2 is on the axis of relative rotation at the
known distance r from axis Y . Use Lagranges approach to derive equation of motion
of the block 2.
PROBLEMS
88
Solution.
o1 o2
x1
21 t
y2
x2
y1 Y
z2 z1
21
X
O,o1
x1
C,o2
mg
Figure 42
The kinetic energy of the body considered is
T = TT + TR
0
0
x2
Ix2
1 2 1
Iy2
Iy2z2 y2
=
mv + [ x2 , y2 , z2 ] 0
2 C 2
0 Iz2y2
Iz2
z2
(2.138)
(2.139)
The body considered rotates with respect to the system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 with
angular velocity 21
21 = k2 21
(2.140)
Hence,its absolute angular velocity is
2 = 1 + 21 = i2 sin 21 t + j2 cos 21 t + k2 21
(2.141)
PROBLEMS
89
0
0
sin 21 t
Ix2
1
Iy2
Iy2z2 cos 21 t
TR =
[ sin 21 t cos 21 t 21 ] 0
2
21
0 Iz2y2
Iz2
1
(Ix2 2 sin2 21 t 2Iy2z2 21 cos 21 t + Iy2 2 cos2 21 t + Iz2 221 ) (2.142)
=
2
The position vector of centre of gravity C is
r = k1 r
(2.143)
i1 j1 k1
r = vC = r0 + 1 r = 0 0 = i1 r
0 0 r
(2.144)
1
TT = m 2 r2
2
(2.145)
It follows that expression for the total kinetic energy has form.
1
T = (m 2 r2 +Ix2 2 sin2 21 t2Iy2z2 21 cos 21 t+Iy2 2 cos2 21 t+Iz2 221 ) (2.146)
2
The potential energy function for the considered case is
V = mgr cos )
(2.147)
Since the conservative forces are involved only, the following form of Lagranges equation may be used.
T
V
d T
+
=0
(2.148)
dt
where
d
dt
1
(2mr2 + 2Ix2 sin2 21 t 2Iy2z2 cos 21 t + 2Iy2 cos2 21 t)
2
(2.149)
= mr2 + Ix2 sin2 21 t Iy2z2 21 cos 21 t + Iy2 cos2 21 t
= mr2
+ Ix2
sin2 21 t + Ix2 2
sin 21 t( 21 cos 21 t) + Iy2z2 221 sin 21 t
cos2 21 t Iy2 2
cos 21 t( 21 sin 21 t)
+Iy2
2
2
=
(mr + Ix2 sin 21 t + Iy2 cos2 21 t)
+(I
x2 21 sin 2 21 t Iy2 21 sin 2 21 t) + Iy2z2 221 sin 21 t
(2.150)
PROBLEMS
90
T
=0
(2.151)
V
= mgr sin
(2.152)
Introduction of expressions. 2.149, 2.150, 2.151 and 2.152 into Eq. 2.148 yields the
equation of motion in form
21 sin 221 t(Ix2 Iy2 ) + mgr sin
PROBLEMS
91
Problem 27
y
O1
M1
a1
G1
l1
O2
a2 2
G2
l2
x
Figure 43
Fig. 43 shows an arm of a robot operating in the horizontal plane. Motion of
the arm is controlled by two actuators installed at joints O1 and O2 . The actuators
produce moments which are functions of the angular position of the link 1 and 2. The
moment M1 is a function of the angular displacement 1 and the moment M2 is a
function of the relative angular displacement of the link 2 with respect to 1 (2 1 ).
Derive dierential equations of motion of the robots arm.
Given are:
I1 - moment of inertia of the link 1 about a vertical axis through its centre of gravity
G1 .
I2 - moment of inertia of the link 2 about a vertical axis through its centre of gravity
G2 .
m1 , m2 - masses of the link 1 and 2 respectively.
a1 , a2 , l1 , l2 - dimensions shown in Fig. 43
PROBLEMS
92
Solution.
y
O1
a1
G1
l1
1
O2
rG2
a2 2
G2
l2
x
Figure 44
The system considered has 2 degree of freedom and the angles 1 and 2 may
be considered as the generalized coordinates. Hence, Lagrange equations for this case
can be adopted in the following form.
d T
T
= Q1
dt 1
1
d T
T
= Q2
(2.154)
dt 2
2
The kinetic energy T is a sum of kinetic energy of the link 1 (T1 ) and kinetic energy
of the link 2 (T2 ).
1
T1 = (I1 + m1 a21 ) 21
(2.155)
2
1
T2 = (m2 r 2G2 + I2 22 )
(2.156)
2
where
r G2 - is the absolute velocity of the centre of gravity G2 .
The position vector of centre of gravity G2 is
rG2 = i(l1 cos 1 + a2 cos 2 ) + j(l1 sin 1 + a2 sin 2 )
(2.157)
(2.158)
PROBLEMS
93
(2.160)
(2.161)
Since the robot operates in the horizontal plane, the only non-conservative forces
acting on the system are the driving moments shown in Fig. 45.
y
O1
M1
M12
O2
M21
x
Figure 45
The virtual work produced by these forces is
W = kM1 k1 + kM12 k1 + kM21 k2
(2.162)
Since
M12 = M2
and
M21 = M2
(2.163)
PROBLEMS
94
the expression for the virtual force takes the following form
W = (M1 + M2 )1 M2 2
(2.164)
(2.165)
PROBLEMS
95
Problem 28
1
y
A
= t
z
2
Figure 46
Link 1 of the mechanical system shown in Fig. 46 rotates about the horizontal
axis z with the constant angular speed . The link 2 is hinged to the link 1 at point
A. The system has one degree of freedom and the generalized coordinate determines
the absolute angular position of the link 2. The link 2 comprises the massless rod
AB and a particle of mass m attached at its end B. Apply the Lagrange approach to
derive the dierential equation of the system motion.
Given are:
m - mass of the particle
L - length of the link 2
R - distance between the axis of rotation z and the hinge A
- angular speed of the link 1.
PROBLEMS
96
Problem 29
X
x
Y,y
Figure 47
The circular slide 1 of radius R is free to rotate about the horizontal axis Y
of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. Its moment of inertia about that axis is
I. The body 2, which can be considered as a particle of mass m, can move along
the slide without friction. System of coordinates xyz, shown in Fig. 47, is rigidly
attached to the slide 1.
By means of Lagrange equations derive the dierential equations of motion of the
system along the generalized coordinates and .
Answer:
I + mR2 sin2
+ 2mR2 sin cos mgR sin sin = 0
mR2 mR2 2 sin cos + mgR cos cos = 0
PROBLEMS
97
Problem 30
z1
z2
y2
y1
2
l
A
Figure 48
The wheel 3 of mass m (see Fig. 48)) rotates with a constant angular velocity
about axis of the body 2 system of coordinates . The massless axle BC is hinged
to the vertical shaft 1 which rotates with a constant angular velocity . The system
has one degree of freedom, therefore the angle determines uniquely its position.
Given are: , , m, b, l, r
Take advantage of Lagranges approach to produce the equation of motion of the
system.
Answer:
PROBLEMS
98
Problem 31
1
A
k 3
4
2
Figure 49
The link 1 of a mass m1 , shown in Fig. 49), can move along the horizontal
slide and is supported by two springs 3 each of stiness k. The ball 2 of mass m2
and a radius r is hinged to the link 1 at the point A by means of the massless and
rigid rod 4. All motion is in the vertical plane. Use Lagranges approach to derive
equations of motion of the system.
Given are:
m1 , m2 , r, R, k, I = 25 m2 r2 - moment of inertia of the ball about axes through its
centre of gravity G2 .
Answer:
(m1 + m2 )
x + m2 R
cos m2 R 2 sin + 2kx = 0
(m2 R2 + I)
+ m2 R
x cos + m2 gR sin = 0
x - linear displacement of the block 1, - angular displacement of the link 2-4
PROBLEMS
99
Problem 32
O
E
B
l
l
l
l
D
Figure 50
Fig. 50 shows a mechanical system. Link 1 of the system moves along the
vertical axis X and its motion is governed by the following equation
x = xo sint
The links 2 and 3 are hinged to the link 1 at the point D. The links 4 and 5 join the
links 2 and 3 with the collar 6 as is shown in Fig. 50. The spring 7 has a stiness k
and its length (when the spring is not compressed) is equal to 2l. The system has one
degree of freedom and its position may be determined by one generalized coordinate
. The links 4 5 and 6 are assumed to be massless. The links 2 and 3 can be treated
as thin and uniform bars each of length 2l and mass m.
Derive equations of motion of the system.
PROBLEMS
100
Problem 33
2
1
L
G
Figure 51
Fig. 51 shows the physical model of a centrifugal hammer. Its member 1
rotates in the vertical plane with a constant angular velocity . The member 2 has
mass m and moment of inertia I about its centre of gravity G. Applying Lagrange
approach derive dierential equations governing motion of the member 2.
Given are: , L, l, a, m, I.
PROBLEMS
101
Problem 34
Z,z 1
4
r
C
a
B
k
A
r
y1
Figure 52
Fig. 52 presents a physical model of Watts regulator. The link 1 performs
rotational motion about the vertical axis Z with a constant velocity . The link 2 is
hinged at A to the link 1. The link 2 is composed of a massless and rigid rod and
a ball of mass m which may be considered as a particle. The spring 5 has stiness
k. Length of the not compressed spring is equal to 2r. Links 3 and 4 are rigid and
massless. Due to the imposed constraints, point A, B,C and G stay always in plane
y1 z1 which rotates with the angular speed . Derive equation of motion of the system
by means of Lagranges equations. Choose angular displacement q as the generalized
coordinate.
Given are:
m mass of the link 2 concentrated at the point G,
angular speed of the link 1,
lAB = lBC = r,
lAG = l,
a - distance of point A and C from axis Z,
k stiness of the spring 5,
lo = 2r length of the not compressed spring 5
PROBLEMS
102
Problem 35
l0
O
q1
k1
k2
q2
l 1, m 1
l 2, m 2
Figure 53
Produce equations of motion of the system shown in Fig. 53. Each link may be
considered as a uniform rod. Their mass and length is m1 , l1 and m2 , l2 respectively.
The links can move in a vertical plane of the inertial space only. Length of the not
compressed springs is lo and their stiness is k1 and k2 . In Fig. 53, q1 and q2 stand
for the generalized coordinates. Take advantage of the Lagrange equations.
PROBLEMS
103
Problem 36
Z
1
2
O
o
r
Figure 54
The cylinder 2 may rolls over the stationary cylindrical surface 1 without
slipping. Taking advantage of the Lagranges equations produce equation of this
rolling motion. The angular displacement may be considered as the generalized
coordinate. R and r stand for radius of the cylindrical surface and radius of the
cylinder respectively. Axis Z is the vertical axis an inertial system of coordinates.
Mass of the cylinder 2 is m and its moment of inertia about its axis of symmetry is
I.
Answer:
PROBLEMS
104
Problem 37
4R
3
G
R
Figure 55
The semi-cylinder of mass m and radius R shown in Fig. 55 is free to roll over
the horizontal plane XY without slipping. The instantaneous angular position of this
semi-cylinder is determined by the angular displacement . Produce the equation of
oscillations of the semi-cylinder.
Answer:
16
8
4
R2
IG + mR2 1 + 9
cos
+
m
sin
2 + 43 R mg sin = 0
2
3
3
2
where IG = 12 mR2 m 43 R
PROBLEMS
105
Problem 38
o1
x1
z1
Y
y1
y2
3
l
G
4
A
x2
C
o1 O
x1
Figure 56
The slide 1 of the mechanical system shown in Fig.56 rotates about the vertical
axis Y of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z with a constant angular velocity .
The system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is rigidly attached to the slide 1. The two sliders
3 and 4 are massless. They are joined together by the link 2. The link 2 can be
considered as a uniform rod of mass m and length l. The system is of one degree
of freedom and the only one generalized coordinate is denoted by . The spring 5
possesses stiness k. The length of the uncompressed spring is lo . Its left hand side
end is attached to the axle of the joint A and its right hand side end is attached to
the slide 1 at the point C. Produce:
1.
the kinetic energy function of the system
Answer:
1
T = 6 ml2 ( 2 cos2 + 2 )
2.
the potential energy function of the system
1
V = 2 lmg sin + 12 k(lo l cos )2
3.
the dierential equation of motion of the system
1
1
2
2 2
ml
+
ml
cos sin + 12 mgl cos + kllo sin kl2 cos sin = 0
3
3
4.
the equation for the angle that defines the steady-state motion of the
system (=constant)
( 13 ml2 2 kl2 ) cos sin + 12 mgl cos + kllo sin = 0
PROBLEMS
106
Problem 39
q1
Y
l
a
k
A
c
q2
G
3
1
2
4
X
Figure 57
The angle locates the angular position of the stationary slide 4 with respect
to the vertical plane XY of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. The massless
link 1 is free to move along this slide and is supported by the spring 3 of stiness k.
The length of the uncompressed spring is l. The link 2 is hinged to the link 1 at the
point A. The distance c locates the position of the centre of gravity G of the link 2.
The link 2 possesses mass m and its moment of inertia about axis through the centre
of gravity G is I. This system possesses two degrees of freedom and q1 and q2 stand
for the generalized independent coordinates.
1.
Produce the kinetic energy function of the system
2.
Produce the potential energy function of the system
3.
Produce the equations of motion of the system (take advantage of the
Lagranges equations of motion)
4.
Produce the expressions for the generalized coordinates corresponding
to the possible equilibrium positions of the system.
PROBLEMS
107
Solution
1. Since the link 1 is massless the total kinetic energy of the system is associated with the link 2 only. The link 2 performs a general plane motion hence its
kinetic energy is.
1 2 1 2
T = mvG
+ I q2
(2.166)
2
2
where vG stands for the absolute linear velocity of the centre of gravity G of
the link 2 and q2 is its absolute angular velocity.
The velocity vG can be produced by dierentiation of the following absolute position
vector
rG = I(q1 cos + a sin + c cos q2 ) + J(q1 sin a cos + c sin q2 )
(2.167)
(2.168)
Introduction of the expression 2.167 and 2.168 into 2.168 yields the wanted kinetic
energy function
1
1
T =
m (q1 cos cq22 sin q2 )2 + (q1 sin a cos + c sin q2 )2 + I q22 =
2
2
1 2 2 1 2
1 2
(2.169)
=
mq + mcq1 q2 sin( q2 ) + mc q2 + I q2
2 1
2
2
2. The potential energy function due to gravitation is
Vg = mgrGX = mg(q1 cos + a sin + c cos q2 )
(2.170)
(2.171)
1
V = Vg + Vs = mg(q1 cos + a sin + c cos q2 ) kq12
(2.172)
2
3. Since the system is of two degree of freedom and the generalized coordinates
are q1 and q2 and all the impressed forces are conservative one can take advantage of
the following Lagranges equations
d T
T
V
+
= 0
dt q1 q1 q1
d T
T
V
+
= 0
dt q2 q2 q2
(2.173)
(2.174)
PROBLEMS
108
4. The above set of equations allows the equilibrium position of the system to
be determined. If q1 and q2 are constant
mg cos + kq1 = 0
mgc sin q2 = 0
Hence
q1 =
mg cos
k
q2 = 0
(2.175)
(2.176)
Chapter 3
MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF COLLISIONS.
3.1
Let us assume, that two bodies 1 and 2 (see Fig. 1a) collide each other at a instant
ta .
a2
2
UF
O
X
C
a
vG1
ra
G1 G
1
rC1G1
x2
Y
z1
F
a
s
rG2
= rG2
y1
O
X
s2
a
s
rG1
= rG1
vG2
G1
1
s1
vG1
t=t a
1
G1
UF
a1
rC2G2
vG2
2
G2
G2
a
rG2
y2
z2
G2
x1
t <t<t s
t=t s
Figure 1
The instant ta is called instant of approach. Formulated in previous paragraphs
equations of motion allow us to assume that the linear and angular velocities of the
a
a
two bodies are known at the instant ta . Let vG1
, vG2
, a1 , a2 be the linear velocities
of their centres of gravity and angular velocities respectively at the instant ta . For
further considerations we assume that the surface in the vicinity of the contact point
C is perfectly smooth. Hence, the contact force F is normal to the surface of the
body 1 and 2 at the contact point C (see Fig. 1b). If F represents reaction of the
body 2 on body 1, reaction of the body 1 on 2 can be represented by reaction F.
Let us introduce the body system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 and x2 y2 z2 in such a
way that axis x1 and x2 are parallel to the line of action of the contact force F. After
a short period of time t, at the instant ts = ta + t called instant of separation,
the two bodies are separated. Then, they continue their motion due to external
forces and the initial conditions corresponding to the instant ts (see Fig. 1c). the
s
s
, vG2
, s1 , s2 , called velocities of separation, are to be obtained on
initial velocities vG1
bases of the following analysis. To simplify this analysis we introduce the following
additional assumptions:
110
(3.1)
hG = UMG
(3.2)
hG = rC1G1 UF1
(3.3)
where
UF1 = i1 UF
rC1G1 UF
UF2 = UF1 = i2 UF
(3.4)
i1
j
k
1
1
(3.5)
Introduction of Eqs. 3.4 and 3.5 into Eqs. 3.2 and 3.3 produces six scalar equations.
I1x I1xy
I1yx I1y
I1zx I1zy
s
a
vG1x
) =
m1 (vG1x
s
a
m1 (vG1y vG1y ) =
s
a
vG1z
) =
m1 (vG1z
s
1x a1x
I1xz
I1yz s1y a1y
I1z
s1z a1z
UF
0
0
(3.6)
0
= rC1G1z UF
rC1G1y UF
(3.7)
I2x I2xy
I2yx I2y
I2zx I2zy
s
a
vG2x
) = UF
m2 (vG2x
s
a
m2 (vG2y vG2y ) = 0
s
a
vG2z
) = 0
m2 (vG2z
s
2x a2x
I2xz
0
I2yz s2y a2y = rC2G2z UF
I2z
rC2G2y UF
s2z a2z
(3.8)
(3.9)
111
according to this principle, kinetic energy of the two bodies at instant ta and ts must
be the same.
Ta = Ts
(3.10)
It is easy to show (proof is enclosed in Appendix 3), that the equation 3.10 is equivalent to
s
vs vC2x
C1x
=1
(3.11)
a
a
vC1x
vC2x
s
s
a
a
where vC1x
vC2x
, vC1x
vC2x
are normal components of relative velocity of body 1
and 2 at contact point C at the instant of separation and approach respectively (see
Fig. 2).
vC2
y2
z2
G2
s
vC1x- vC2x
vC1 - vC2
vC1
s
s
vC1x - vC2x
vC1
z1
x2
vC1 - vC2
y1
G1
a
vC2
x1
Figure 2
On the other hand if the bodies involved in the collision are perfectly plastic
they stick to each other and travel after the collision together. Hence their relative
s
s
= vC2x
). Therefore
velocity of separation is equal to zero (vC1x
s
s
vC2x
vC1x
=0
a
a
vC1x
vC2x
(3.12)
s
s
vC2x
vC1x
=e
a
a
vC1x
vC2x
0<e<1
(3.13)
112
elastic materials
1
real materials
plastic materials
|vC1x- vC2x |
Figure 3
Let us consider system shown in Fig. 4 and let us assume that its body i and j collide
each other at C. The system, before and after collision, has mobility MO Analysis so
far, allows to assume that all velocities of approach are known.
113
j
C
Figure 4
During collision ,similarly to consideration in the previous section, we will
assume that all the driving forces are small as compare with the forces of interaction
in constraints. Hence, all driving forces during the time of collision can be neglected.
It follows that during the very short time of collision assumption that we know motion
of system along some of the generalized coordinates is not acceptable. Therefore,
number of degree of freedom during collision is always equal to its mobility.
M = MO
(3.14)
Hence, during the collision, there is M unknown parameters which determine velocities of separation,r unknown components of impulses at constraints and 1 unknown
impulse at collision point C. Therefore, a total number of unknown T NU is
T NU = M + r + 1
(3.15)
(3.16)
(3.17)
(3.18)
On the other hand, for each body involved, we can produce 6 equations reflecting
impulse momentum principle of form
s
a
mi (vGix
vGix
) = UF ix
s
a
m1 (vGiy vGiy ) = UF iy
s
a
m1 (vGiz
vGiz
) = UFiz
(3.19)
CENTRE OF PERCUSSION.
114
O
rG
rC
G1
2
1
Figure 5
s
ix aix
Iix Iixy Iixz
UMGix
Iiyx Iiy Iiyz siy aiy = UMGiy
Iizx Iizy Iiz
UMGiz
siz aiz
(3.20)
where
i = 1, 2, ....n
UF i , UMG i are resultant impulse and angular impulse of all impulses acting on i th
body respectively.
The lacking equation is oered by Newtons hypothesis
s
s
vC2x
vC1x
=e
a
a
vC1x vC2x
0<e<1
(3.21)
CENTRE OF PERCUSSION.
To introduce notion of centre of percussion let us consider the system shown in Fig.
5 The stationary pendulum 1 is hit at C by the bullet 2 travelling horizontally with
the velocity of approach v.
CENTRE OF PERCUSSION.
115
y1
UOy
UOx
O
y2
rG
rC
G1
x1
UC
UC
x2
2
1
Figure 6
The system has three degree of freedom hence its position can determined by
three independent coordinates , x2 and y2 (see Fig. 6). At the instant of approach
a = 0,
a = a1 = 0,
xa2 = 0,
x a2 = v2a = v,
y2a = 0 y2a = 0
(3.22)
(3.23)
(3.24)
(3.25)
where
m1 mass of the pendulum
IO moment of inertia of the pendulum about point O
UC -Impulse at contact point C
UOx1 , UOy1 Components of impulse at constraint O
Impulse momentum principle applied to the bullet yields
s
a
v2y2
) = 0
m2 (v2y2
s
a
v2x2
) = UC
m2 (v2x2
(3.26)
(3.27)
where
m2 mass of the bullet
Newtons hypothesis for the case considered can be written as follows
s
s
vC2x2
vC1x1
=e
a
a
vC1x1
vC2x2
(3.28)
CENTRE OF PERCUSSION.
116
s
a
a
Since vG1y1
= 0 and vG1y1
= 0, equation 3.23 yields UOy1 = 0. Since v2y2
= 0,
s
according to 3.26 the component y of the bullet velocity of separation v2y2 = 0.
Taking into consideration that
s
vG1x1 = s rG
a
vG1x1
=0
s1 = s
a1 = 0
v2s = x s2
v2a = v
s
vC1x1
= s rC
s
vC2x2
= x s2
a
vC1x1
=0
a
vC2x2 = v
the equations 3.24, 3.25, 3.27 and 3.28 take form
m1 ( s rG ) = UC + UOx
IO ( s ) = UC rC
m2 (x s2 v) = UC
s rC x s2
e =
v
(3.29)
(3.30)
(3.31)
(3.32)
The above equations are linear with respect to unknown s , x s2 , UOx , and UC . Their
solution is
m2 vrC (1 + e)
IOx + m2 rC2
v(m2 rC2 eIO )
=
IOx + m2 rC2
m2 vIO (1 + e)
=
IOx + m2 rC2
m2 v(1 + e)
=
(m1 rC rG IO )
IOx + m2 rC2
s =
(3.33)
x s2
(3.34)
UC
UOx
(3.35)
(3.36)
The last equation allows to find position of the point of contact C having such a
peculiarity that any impact at that point produce no impulse at O. Indeed, for
rC =
IOx
m1 rG
(3.37)
UOx is always zero. Point of contact, fulfilling the formula 3.37 is called centre of
percussion.
Motion of the system after the instance of separation will be controlled by
CENTRE OF PERCUSSION.
117
=
=
=
=
=
=
a = 0
s
xa2
x s2
y2a = 0
y2s = 0
PROBLEMS
3.4
118
PROBLEMS
Problem 40
2
1
C
L
Figure 7
The motion of the shuttle 1 of a loom is initiated by an impact given by
hammer 2. The hammer 2 may be considered as a rigid and uniform bar of length
L and a mass M. The shuttle 1 has mass m and may be considered as a particle.
The point of contact C is at distance l from hinge A. At the instant of approach the
angular velocity of the hammer 2 is and the shuttle 1 is motionless. Derive an
expression for velocity of the shuttle at the instant of separation and the impulse of
reaction at A if the coecient of restitution is e.
PROBLEMS
119
Solution.
2
z
U
C
L
l
a=
x
UA
A
Figure 8
(3.38)
(3.39)
vs s l
vs s l
=
0 l
l
(3.40)
Upon introducing of Eq. 3.39 into Eq. 3.38 one may obtain.
Is I = mlv s
(3.41)
vs = el + s l
(3.42)
(3.43)
I ml2 e
I + ml2
(3.44)
Introduction of Eq. 3.44 into Eq. 3.42 yields velocity of separation of the shuttle.
vs =
(3.45)
PROBLEMS
120
L
L
) = U + UA
2
2
(3.46)
(3.47)
Upon introducing Eqs. 3.44 and 3.45 into Eq. 3.47 one may obtain the impulse UA
in its final form.
ml(e + 1)(I M L2 l)
UA =
(3.48)
I + ml2
PROBLEMS
121
Problem 41
Figure 9
Two thin uniform bars, each of mass m and length l, are connected by a
pin joint to form a double pendulum. Initially the bars are hanging vertically and
are motionless. Then, a particle of mass mo traveling horizontally with a constant
velocity v strikes the joint between the bars. Upon assumption that the collision is
plastic one ( the coecient of restitution e = 0) solve this problem for the angular
velocity of each bar immediately after the impact.
PROBLEMS
122
Solution.
O
3
1
v
2
C
Figure 10
Collision of two mechanical systems is considered. First system is assembled
of the particle 1 ( see Fig. 10). Second system is assembled of three bodies denoted
in Fig. 10 by 2, 3, 4. The collision, between the body 1 and 2, takes place at the
point C. Upon taking into account Newtons hypothesis one may write the following
relationship.
s
v s vC2x
e = C1x
=0
(3.49)
a
a
vC1x
vC2x
Hence,
s
s
vC1x
= vC2x
= s3 l
(3.50)
(3.51)
Angular impulse - momentum principle about the point of rotation O applied to the
link 3 ( Fig. 12) yields.
ml2 s
( 3 0) = U3 l
(3.52)
3
Link 4 performs a general motion ( Fig. 13.). It is possible to formulate two equation.
First, reflected the impulse - momentum principle
s
a
m(vG4x
vG4x
) = m(s3 l + s4 (l/2) 0) = U4
(3.53)
PROBLEMS
123
Figure 11
y
UO
O
3
3
U3
Figure 12
y
U4
l/2
G
4
Figure 13
y
2
U3
U
C
U4
Figure 14
PROBLEMS
124
and second, reflected the angular impulse - momentum principle about the centre of
gravity G.
ml2 s
l
( 4 0) = U4 ( )
(3.54)
12
2
Since the link 2 is considered as massless, it has to fulfill equilibrium conditions ( Fig.
14.)
U = U3 + U4
(3.55)
So far, we have produce 6 independent equations 3.50 to 3.55 with 6 unknown (U ,
s
U3 , U4 , s3 , s4 , vC1x
). Since this is a set of linear equations, it can be easily solved
for the unknown angular velocities s3 and 24 .
v
7m
1(1 + 12m
)
o
3v
=
7m
1(1 + 12m
)
o
s3 =
s4
(3.56)
PROBLEMS
125
Problem 42
O
rG
rC
G
C
2
Figure 15
To assess muzzle velocity of a bullet, it was fired to strike a stationary pendulum at a point C ( Fig. 15). After the collision the maximum swing of the pendulum
2 was observed to be . Upon assuming that velocity of the bullet at the instant of
approach is horizontal and coecient of restitution is equal to zero, derive a formula
for the muzzle velocity of the bullet.
Given are:
m - mass of the bullet
IO - moment of inertia of the pendulum about the point O
M - mass of the pendulum.
rG - distance between axis of rotation of the pendulum and its centre of gravity.
rC - distance between axis of rotation of the pendulum and the point of collision C.
- maximum swing of the pendulum.
PROBLEMS
126
Solution
y2
Uoy 2
Uox 2
O
rG
y1
x2
G
U
x1
Figure 16
Angular momentum impulse principle applied to the pendulum yields.
IO s2 = UrC
(3.57)
Since the collision is plastic, from Newtons hypothesis one can see that the velocity
s
is
of separation of the bullet v1x1
s
= s2 rC
v1x1
(3.58)
The momentum impulse principle applied to the bullet can be written as follows
m( s2 rC v) = U
(3.59)
Implementation of Eq. 3.59 into 3.57 allows the velocity of the bullet to be expressed
as function of angular velocity of separation.
IO s2 = mrC ( s2 rC v)
Hence
v=
Io + mrC2 s
2
mrC
(3.60)
(3.61)
(3.62)
PROBLEMS
127
(3.63)
(3.64)
PROBLEMS
128
Problem 43
yp
xp
G
C
r
Figure 17
A football of mass m and principal moments of inertia Ixp , Iyp , Izp falls down
vertically and hits the ground at the angle with velocity v and the angular velocity
= 0. Find the equations of motion of the ball after the impact. Dimensions h and
r locate the position of the centre of gravity G at the instant of impact.
Answer:
PROBLEMS
129
Problem 44
m
v
G
Figure 18
A rectangular block, resting vertically as shown in Fig. 18, is struck at point
C by a bullet of mass m traveling with a constant velocity v. Assuming that the
impact is inelastic (the coecient of restitution e = 0) determine the smallest velocity
v which is needed to overturn the block.
Given are:
m mass of the bullet
M mass of the block
Ix , Iy , Iz - principal moments of inertia of the block about axes through its centre of
gravity G
a, b, c, dimensions of the block
PROBLEMS
130
Problem 45
l
2
b
A
a
Figure 19
The mast 1, which can by considered as an uniform beam of mass m and
length l, is released from its vertical position without any initial velocity. The mast
pivots about point A to strike the wall 2. Assuming that the coecient of restitution
is e determine the angular velocity of the mast immediately after the impact with the
wall.
Given are:
m = 200kg
l = 10m
a = 2m
b = 3m
e = 0.5
PROBLEMS
131
Problem 46
p
v
=45o
2
C
Figure 20
The body 1, which can be considered as a particle of mass m, is travelling
with the constant velocity v along path p to strike the block 2 of mass M at the
point of collision C. The block 2 is supported by spring 3 of stiness k and before
the collision is motionless. The coecient of restitution is e.
Produce the expression for:
1. velocity of separation of the particle 1
Answer:
q
2
1
v1s = v 12 (mMe)
2 + 2
(M+m)
2. velocity of separation of the block 2
Answer:
m
s
v2 = 22 v M+m
(1 + e)
3. impulse of force during collision at the point C
Answer:
mM
U = 22 v M+m
(1 + e)
4. amplitude
of
oscillation of the block 2 after collision.
q
A=
2
2
M
v m
k M+m
(1 + e)
PROBLEMS
132
Problem 47
R
G
3
G
Figure 21
The pendulum, shown in Fig. 21, is assembled of the ball 1 of radius r and the
massless and rigid rod 2. Mass of the pendulum is m and its moment of inertia about
its centre of gravity is G is I. The pendulum was release from position determined
by angle with initial velocity equal to zero to collide the vertical wall 3. Determine
the angular velocity of separation of the pendulum, impulse of force at the point of
collision C and impulse of force at the constraint O.
PROBLEMS
133
Problem 48
3
R
G
Figure 22
The cylinder 1 of mass m and radius R rolls without slipping over the horizontal floor 2 to eventually collide with the wall 3 (see Fig. 22). The angular velocity
of approach of the cylinder is . Produce expression for the angular velocity of the
cylinder and the linear velocity of its centre of gravity G at the time of separation if
the coecient of restitution is e.
Answer:
s
s
vGx1 = Re sin
vGy1
= R cos
s =
PROBLEMS
134
Problem 49
yp
xp
v
G
b
a
zp
Figure 23
A rectangular block which sides are equal to a, b and c translates in the
horizontal plane with the constant velocity v to strike the vertical wall (see Fig. 23).
Direction of motion of the block with respect to the wall is determined by the angle
. The principal moments of inertia of the block about its principal axis xp , yp , zp
through the centre of gravity G are Ixp , Iyp , Izp respectively and its mass is equal to
m.
Derive expression for the linear and angular velocity of the block immediately after
the collision.
PROBLEMS
135
Problem 50
v1
G1
v2
G2
Figure 24
The ship 1 and 2 are traveling with constant velocities v1 and v2 to collide
each other at point C as shown in Fig. 24. Upon assuming that the coecient of
restitution is equal to 0, produce equations of motion of these ships after collision
and formulate the initial conditions. Friction between water and the ships can be
neglected.
Given are:
m1 , m2 - mass of the ship 1 and 2 respectively
I1 , I2 - moment of inertia of the ship 1 and 2 about the vertical axis through
their centers of gravity G1 , G2 respectively
v1 , v2 - velocity of the ship 1 and 2 respectively
e = 0 - coecient of restitution
a - the distance shown in Fig. 24
PROBLEMS
136
Problem 51
1
O
a
b
H
B
L
Figure 25
The tennis racket 2 (see Fig. 25rotates about the point O with the constant
angular velocity . The tennis ball 1, that can be considered as a particle of mass
m, is released from the position A with the initial velocity equal to zero. The ball
collides with the racket at the point C. At the instant of approach the racket makes
angle with horizon. The coecient of restitution is e. After the collision the ball
hits the ground at the point B.
Given are:
m - mass of the ball 1
M, I - mass and the moment of inertia of the racket 2 about its centre of
gravity G respectively
e - coecient of restitution
h, H, a, b - given distances
- angular position of the racket at the instance of approach
- angular velocity of the racket at the instance of approach.
Produce the expression for the horizontal distance L between the point C and the
point B.
Answer:
q
gH
vX
L = vY g 1 + 1 + v2
X
where
s
s
s
s
cos vy1
sin vY =
vx1
sin + vy1
vX = vx1
cos
2
1
mb
s
s
vx1 = mb2
2gh cos Io + e + b (1 + e)
vy1
= 2gh sin
1+
Io
PROBLEMS
137
Problem 52
position 1
2
a
position 2
C
position 3
c
Figure 26
A spherical object 1 of mass m and the principal moment of inertia I is released
from position 1 with the initial linear and angular velocity equal to zero (see Fig. 26).
This object collides with the wall 2 at position 2. The slope of the wall at the point
of collision C is equal to . After separation, this object collides with the horizontal
wall at position 3.
Determine coecient of restitution e at the point of collision C.
Given are:
a, b, c - dimensions shown in Fig. 26
m, I - mass an the principal moment of inertia of the object 1 respectively
- slope of the wall
PROBLEMS
138
Problem 53
b1
a1
b1
a1
G1
1
2
v1
v2
a2
G2
a2
b2
b2
Figure 27
The two cars shown in Fig. 27, 1 and 2, collide each other at the point of
collision C. Their masses are m1 and m2 respectively. The moments of inertia of
the cars about the axes through the centre of gravity G1 and G2 are I1 and I2 . At
the instant of approach the linear velocity of their centers of gravity were v1 and v2
respectively and their angular velocities were equal to zero. Upon assuming that the
coecient of restitution is equal to zero, produce:
1. the equations which allow the kinematic parameters of separation to be determined
Answer:
Solution of the following set of equations
s
m1 (vG1x1
v1 sin ) = U
s
m1 (vG1y1 v1 cos ) = 0
I1 (s1 0) = U(b1 cos a1 sin )
s
m2 (vG2x2
0) = U
s
m2 (vG2y2 v2 ) = 0
I2 (s2 0) = 0
s
s
vG1x1
s1 (+b1 cos a1 sin ) vG2x2
=0
2. the expression for the energy dissipated during the collision
1Answer
E = 2 m1 v12 + 12 m2 v22
s 2 1
s 2 1
2
2
1
1
s
s 2
s
s 2
2 m1 (vG1x1 ) + vG1y1
+ 2 I1 (1 ) + 2 m2 (vG2x2 ) + vG2y2
+ 2 I2 ( 2 )
PROBLEMS
139
Problem 54
G1
C
a
G3
A
G2
Figure 28
The two cars shown in Fig.28, 1 and 2, collide with each other at the point of
collision C. At the instant of approach the car 1 was translating with velocity v. The
second car at the instant of approach was stationary. The passenger 3 of the second
car is modeled as a rigid body hinged to the car at the point A. Its mass is m3 and
its moment of inertia about the center of gravity G3 is I. The distance a determines
the position of the center of gravity G3 at the instant of approach. The mass of the
car 1 is m1 and the mass of the car 2 without the passenger is m2 .
Assuming that the coecient of restitution is equal to e, produce:
1. the relative angular velocity of the passenger 3 at the instant of separation
2. the expression for the energy dissipated during the collision
PROBLEMS
140
Answer:
Question 1
UA
y1
y2
UAy
G1
x1
C1
C2
UC UC
K
x2
G2
UAx
UM
UN
UL
3
y3
G3
a
A
x3
UAx
UAy
Figure 29
The relative angular velocity of the passenger s3 is the solulution of the following set of equations
s
m1 (vG1x1
v) = UC
s
m2 (vG2x2 0) = +UC + UAx
s
m3 (vG2x2
s3 a 0) = UAx
I( s3 0) = aUAx
vs
vs
e = G1x1v0G2x2
Question 2
s
s
s
T = T a T s = 12 m1 v 2 ( 12 m1 (vG1x1
)2 + 12 m2 (vG2x2
)2 + 12 m3 (vG2x2
s3 a)2 + 12 I ( s3 )2 )
PROBLEMS
141
Problem 55
1
Figure 30
The carriage 1 (see Fig.30) ) moves with a constant velocity v to collide with
the two stationary carriages 2 and 3. The carriages 2 and 3 are unconstrained (there
is a negligible gap between them). Mass of each carriage is identical and it is equal
to m. The coecient of restitution e is the same for each point of collision.
1.
Produce the equations for the velocity of separation of individual carriages and the impulses between the carriages.
2.
Solve the equations for the coecient of restitution e = 1 and e < 1
3.
Produce the expression for the energy lost due to the collision if e < 1.
PROBLEMS
142
Solution.
Collision 1.
y1
x1
v1a1=v
v2a1=0
U11
U11
y2 2
x2
C1
C2
Figure 31
At the time of approach ta1 the carriage 1 collides with the carriage 2 at the
point of collision C1 (see Fig. 31). Since the carriage 2 and 3 are unconstrained (there
is a gap between them) and during the collision carriages 1 and 2 are stationary, the
impulse at the point C2 is equal to zero. Hence one can write the following equations
reflecting the linear impulse-linear momentum principle applied to the carriage 1 and
the carriage 2.
m(v1s1 v) = U11
(3.65)
m(v2s1 0) = +U11
(3.66)
v1s1 v2s1
v1s1 v2s1
=
v1a1 v2a1
v
(3.67)
(1 e)v
2
(3.68)
(1 + e)v
(3.69)
2
(1 + e)v
U11 = m
(3.70)
2
Since the carriage 2 after collision possesses positive velocity of separation it will
collide with the carriage 3. Taking into account that the gap between the carriage
2 and 3 is negligible, one can assume that the velocity of separation v2s1 is equal to
velocity of approach v2a2 for the second collision
v2s1 =
v2a2 = v2s1
Collision 2
(3.71)
PROBLEMS
143
v1s1
y2 2
v2a2
x2
C1
v3a2= 0
U22
U22
y 3
3
x3
C2
Figure 32
(3.73)
v2s2 v3s2
v2s2 v3s2
=
v2a2 v3a2
v2s1
(3.74)
(1 + e)v
2
(1 e) (1 + e)v
(1 e2 )v
(1 e)v2s1
=
=
2
2
2
4
(3.75)
(1 + e)v2s1
(1 + e) (1 + e)v
(1 + e)2 v
=
=
(3.76)
2
2
2
4
(1 + e) (1 + e)v
(1 + e)2 v
(1 + e)v2s1
U22 = m
=m
=m
(3.77)
2
2
2
4
According to the consideration so far after the second collision:
the first carriage possesses velocity v1s1 = (1e)v
2
2
the second carriage possesses velocity v2s2 = (1e4 )v
2v
the third carriage possesses velocity v3s2 = (1+e)
4
If the coecient of restitution is equal to one (perfectly elastic collision) the situation
is clear:
the first carriage possesses velocity v1s1 = 0
the second carriage possesses velocity v2s2 = 0
the third carriage possesses velocity v3s2 = v
It means that the carriage 1 and 2 are stationary after collision and the carriage 3
moves with the velocity v. Such a behaviour of the unconstrained bodies is often
referred to as "Newtons cradle".
v3s2 =
PROBLEMS
144
(1 e)v
(1 e2 )v
> v2s2 =
2
4
2 > (1 + e)
Therefore immediately after the second collision mast taken place third collision between the first and second carriage.
The velocity of approach of the first carriage is
v1a3 = v1s1 =
(1 e)v
2
(3.78)
(1 e2 )v
4
(3.79)
Collision 3.
v1a3
y1
x1
y2 2
v2a3
x2
U13
U13
v3s2
C1
C2
Figure 33
The free body diagram shown in Fig.33 allows the following set of equations
to be formulated.
(3.80)
m(v1s3 v1a3 ) = U13
m(v2s3 v2a3 ) = U13
e=
v1s3 v2s3
v1a3 v2a3
Its solution yields the wanted velocities of separation after the collision 3.
1
1
1
2
s3
a3
a3
(1 e) v1 + (1 + e) v2 = (1 e)
(1 e) + (1 + e) v
v1 =
2
4
8
1
1
1
2
s3
a3
a3
v2 =
(1 + e) v1 + (1 e) v2 = (1 + e)
(1 e) + (1 e) v
2
4
8
(3.81)
(3.82)
(3.83)
(3.84)
PROBLEMS
145
Since the third carriage does not take part in this collision its velocity is
1
v3s3 = v3s2 = (1 + e)2 v
4
(3.85)
The results shown below was computed for the coecient of restitution e = 0.5
After the first collision the velocities of the individual carriages are:
v1s1 = (1e)
v = (10.5)
v = 0.25v
2
2
(1+e)
(1+0.5)
s1
v2 = 2 v = 2 v = 0.75v
v3s1 = 0
The energy lost due to the first collision
T = T0 T1 = 12 mv 2 12 m (0.25v)2 12 m (0.75v)2 = 12 mv 2 (1(0.25)2 (0.75)2 )
= 12 mv 2 (0.375)
After the second collision the velocities of the individual carriages are
v1s2 = v1s1 = 0.25v
2)
2)
v2s2 = (1e
v = (10.5
v = 0.187 5
4
4
2
2
(1+e)
(1+0.5)
v = 0.562 5
v3s2 = 4 v =
4
The energy lost due to both collisions is
T = T0 T12 = 12 mv 2 (1 (0.25)2 (0.1875)2 (0.562 5)2 )
= 12 mv 2 (0.585 94)
After the third collision the velocities of the individual carriages are
v1s3 = (1 0.5) 14 (1 0.5) + 18 (1 + 0.5)2 v = 0.203 13v
PROBLEMS
146
Problem 56
Figure 34
The carriage 1 (see Fig.34) ) moves with a constant velocity v to collide with
the two stationary carriages 2 and 3. The carriages 2 and 3 are constrained by means
of a hinge. Mass of each carriage is identical and it is equal to m. The coecient of
restitution at the point of collision is e.
1.
Produce the equations for the velocity of separation of individual carriages and the impulses between the carriages.
2.
Solve the equations
3.
Produce the expression for the energy lost due to the collision for e = 1,
e = 0.5 and e = 0.
PROBLEMS
147
Solution
1
v1a=v
y1
x1
v2a= v3a =0
y2
x2
U1
x3
U2
U1
C1
U2
C2
Figure 35
If the carriges 2 and 3 are constrained the collision at the point C1 causes the
inpulse U1 at the point of collision and the impulse U2 at the constrain C2 . Therefore
one may produce the following three equations reflected the linear impulse linear
momentum principle.
m(v1s v1a ) = U1
m(v2s v2a ) = +U1 U2
(3.86)
v1a = v
v2a = 0
v3a = 0
(3.87)
(3.88)
(3.89)
s
v1s v23
v1s v2s
=
v1a v2a
v
(3.90)
v1s =
s
v23
(3.91)
and
2(1 + e)
mv
3
1+e
mv
=
3
U1 =
U2
(3.92)
PROBLEMS
148
Part II
ANALYSIS.
149
150
INTRODUCTION.
This part provides bases for the analytical solution and analysis of the mathematical model developed in the previous part. It allows to predict motion of the
mechanical system if the forces acting on the system are known. If the motion of
the system can be assumed known, analysis of the mathematical model yields driving
forces which are necessary to maintain the assumed motion. The stability analysis
provides informations about feasibility of the solution obtained.
Chapter 4
ANALYTICAL SOLUTIONS AND THEIR STABILITY.
4.1
Consideration carried out in the previous part leads to conclusion that motion of
any dynamic system of N degree of freedom, can be described by a set of N ordinary
dierential equations of second order. These equations may be written in the following
matrix form.
[M]{
q } = {g(q1 , q2 ..qn ...qN , q1 , q2 ..qn ..qN , t)}
n = 1, 2.....N
(4.1)
Since the equations 4.1 are always linear with respect to the second derivatives of the
generalize coordinates qn , it follows that
(q
,
q
..q
..q
,
q
,
q
..
q
..
q
,
t)
1
2
n
N
1
2
n
N
1
.
1
(4.2)
{
q } = [M] {g} =
.
n = 1, 2..N
(4.3)
Functions n are nonlinear and because of that, a general solution can not be effectively obtained by means of analytical manipulations. However, same particular
solutions, which represent usually so called steady state motion, may by predicted.
Each set of function {qn (t)} which fulfill the equation 4.3 may be considered as its
particular solution.
Relatively easy is to obtain particular solution if the equation 4.3 does not
contain time in explicit form. Such a systems are called autonomous systems and
corresponding equations take form.
qn = n (q1 , q2 ..qn ..qN , q1 , q2 ..qn ..qN )
n = 1, 2..N
(4.4)
n = 1, 2..N
(4.5)
152
qn = xn
qn = xN +n
Dierentiation of Eq. 4.6 with respect to time yields
(4.8)
qn = x n
According to 4.8, the Eq. 4.7 may be rewritten as follow
(4.9)
x n = xN+n
Introduction of Eqs. 4.7 and 4.8 into Eq. 4.3 yields
x N+n = n (x1 , x2 ..xn ..xN , xN+1 , xN+2 ..xN+n ..x2N , t)
(4.10)
The equations 4.9 and 4.10 form one set of dierential equation of first order, which
may be written in the following form.
x k = fk (x1 , x2 ..xk ..xK , t)
(4.11)
K = 2N
(4.12)
where
The coordinates xk are called state - space coordinates and the vector
{x} = {x1 , x2 ..xk ..xK }T
(4.13)
for
K
2
(4.14)
EQUATIONS OF PERTURBATIONS.
153
xk = qk K
2
k>
K
2
(4.15)
The equations 4.11 represents equations of motion of the system considered in 2N dimensional Euclidean space called state - space.
4.3
EQUATIONS OF PERTURBATIONS.
(4.16)
k = 1, 2, ..K
The solution 4.16 is called nominal motion or undisturbed motion. All other solutions
are called perturbed motion or disturbed motion.
Let us consider the perturbed motion
xk
(4.18)
k = 1, 2, ..K
(4.19)
k = 1, 2, ..K
(4.20)
k = 1, 2, ..K
xk
xk
x ok
x~k x k
~x ok
t
Figure 1
The geometrical interpretation of the introduced motions is given in Fig. 1
154
xk +x k = fk (
x1 + x1 , x2 + x2 , ..
xk + xk ..
xK + xK , t)
(4.21)
xk = fk (
x1 , x2 ..
xk ..
xK , t).
(4.22)
(4.23)
The right hand side of equation 4.21 may be developed into Taylors series in a vicinity
of the nominal motion xk
fk (
x1 + x1 , x2 + x2 , ..
xk + xk ..
xK + xK , t)
!
i=K
X fk
x1 , x2 ..
xk ..
xK , t) +
(
x1 , x2 , .., xK , t) xi + h
= fk (
x
i
i=1
(4.24)
Since the perturbations xi are small, h which contains term of second order and
higher may be neglected. Introduction of Eq. 4.24 into Eq. 4.23 yields equations of
perturbations.
i=K
X
fk
x k =
(
x1 , x2 , .., xK , t) xi
(4.25)
x
i
i=1
Upon adopting notation
fk
(
x1 , x2 , .., xK , t)
xi
the equation of perturbations takes form
Ak,i =
x k =
i=K
X
i=1
Ak,i xi
k = 1, 2, ....., K
(4.26)
(4.27)
From Eq. 4.27 one can see that perturbations are determined by a set of linear
dierential equations of first order.
4.4
Let
1. x k = fk (x1 , x2 ..xk ..xK , t) k = 1, 2, ..K be equations of motion of a mechanical
system,
2. xk be its nominal solution,
3. x k = Ak,i xi be equations of perturbations corresponding to the nominal solution xk ,
155
p
4. kxk = x21 + x22 + .. + x2k + .. + x2K be a norm in the K dimensional
Euclidean space.
DEFINITION: The nominal motion xk is stable in the Lapunovs sense if for
every > 0, there exists a > 0, where depends on and to only, such that
kx(to )k implies kx(t)k for t > to .
DEFINITION: The nominal motion xk is asymptotically stable if it is stable
and limt kxk = 0
DEFINITION: The nominal motion xk is unstable if there exists > 0 such
that for any > 0, where depends on and to only, there exists such a
time t > to that kx(to )k implies kx(t)k > .
The following figures give geometrical interpretation of stable, asymptotically stable
and unstable solutions respectively.
156
x2 =q
|| x(t)||= x1(t) + x2(t) <
2
x2(to )
x1(to )
x2(t)
x1(t)
t>to
to
x1 =q
Figure 2
~
x
x2 =q
|| x(t)||= x1(t) + x2(t) <
2
x2(to )
x1(to )
lim || x(t)||=0
x2(t)
x1(t)
t>to
to
x1 =q
Figure 3
~
x
x2 =q
x2(to )
x1(to )
x2(t)
x1(t)
t>to
to
x1 =q
Figure 4
4.5
157
In a case of autonomous system always exists a particular solution which does not
depends time
{qno }
(4.28)
Such a solution presents equilibrium position of the system considered. Equations of
perturbations for equilibrium position has form 4.25, but the elements Ak,i are time
independent.
K
X
x k =
Ak,i xk k = 1, 2, ....., K
(4.29)
i=1
A11 r
A12
A13 .....
A1K
A21
A
r
A
.....
A24
22
23
.....
.....
..... .....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
.....
AK1
AK2
AK3 ..... AKK r
=0
(4.31)
The following criteria, which permit any equilibrium position {qno } to be classified as
stable or unstable, are formulated in terms of roots ri .
STATEMENT: If all roots of the characteristic equation 4.31 has negative
real part, the nominal motion {qno } is asymptotically stable.
STATEMENT: If at least one of roots of the characteristic equation 4.31
has positive real part, the nominal motion is unstable.
STATEMENT: If one root of the characteristic equation 4.31 has real part
equal 0 and all the other have negative real part, the nominal motion is
stable.
STATEMENT: If more then one root of the characteristic equation 4.31
has real part equal to 0 and all other have negative real part, stability of the
nominal motion can not be determined in terms of roots of characteristic
equation only.
PROBLEMS.
4.6
158
PROBLEMS.
Problem 57
Motion of a mechanical system of one degree of freedom is governed by the
following equation.
q + (1 + cos2 q)q 2 q + q3 = 0
(4.32)
In the above equation q is the generalized coordinate. Find possible equilibrium
positions of the system and determine their stability.
Solution.
STATE - SPACE FORMULATION OF EQUATIONS OF MOTION AND THE
SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM POSITIONS.
Let us denote the generalised displacement q by x1 and the generalised velocity
q by x2 .
q = x1
q = x2
(4.33)
Introduction of the above notations into the equation 4.32 results in the following
state-space equation of motion of the system considered.
x 1 = x2 = f1
x 2 = (1 + cos2 x1 )x2 + 2 x1 x31 = f2
(4.34)
For x 1 = 0, and x 2 = 0 the above equations yields equations which allow the equilibrium positions of the system to be determined.
0 = x2
0 = (1 + cos2 x1 )x2 + 2 x1 x31
(4.35)
(4.36)
x21 =
x22 = 0
(4.37)
x31 =
x32 = 0
(4.38)
PROBLEMS.
159
A11 =
=0
A12
=1
A21
A22
(4.39)
r
1
2
2 r
= 0
r2 + 2r 2 = 0
(4.41)
4 + 42
= 1 + 1 + 2 > 0
=
2
2 4 + 4 2
= 1 1 + 2 < 0
=
2
2 +
(4.42)
r
1
2 2 2 r
= 0
r2 + 2r + 2 2 = 0
(4.44)
4 82
=
= 1 + 1 2 2 = 1 + i 2 2 1
2
2 4 + 42
= 1 1 + 2 = 1 i 2 2 1
=
2
2 +
(4.45)
PROBLEMS.
160
Since both roots have negative real parts this equilibrium position is stable.
Stability analysis of solution 4.38
For x11 = and x12 = 0 the above partial derivatives have the following
magnitudes
A111 = 0 A112 = 1 A121 = 22 A122 = 2
(4.46)
Therefore the characteristic equation is
r
1
2 2 2 r
= 0
r2 + 2r + 2 2 = 0
(4.47)
4 82
= 1 + 1 2 2 = 1 + i 2 2 1
=
2
2 4 + 42
= 1 1 + 2 = 1 i 2 2 1
=
2
2 +
Since both roots have negative real parts this equilibrium position is stable.
(4.48)
Chapter 5
MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF A CENTRIFUGE.
5.1
MODELLING
Figure 1
To separate heavier fractions from lighter ones, the fluid containing them is subjected
to high acceleration. The high acceleration is produced by installations called centrifuges. The kinematic scheme of a centrifuge is shown in Fig. 1. Container with
the fluid is attached to the whirling arm 2 which is hinged to the rotating with high
speed column 1. Due to centrifugal acceleration the heavier fractions concentrates at
the bottom of the container whereas the lighter ones are still inside the fluid.
MODELLING
162
O
y1
Y
x1
z2
A
Z z1
j1 a
y1
rG
- k2 l
y2
Figure 2
Let XY Z be the inertial system of coordinates. The column 1 is considered as a
rigid body of moment of inertia I1 about axis Z. System of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is
fixed to the body 1. Its instantaneous position with respect to the inertial system of
coordinates XY Z is determined by angle . The column 1 is driven by a DC electric
motor which characteristic can be approximated by the following relationship.
M = Mo + M
(5.1)
MODELLING
163
1 = k1
Angular velocity of the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is
2 = 1 + 21 = k1 + i2
(5.3)
(5.4)
rG = j1 ak2 l
Its components along system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 are
rGx2 = rG i2 = j1 i2 a k2 i2 l = 0
rGy2 = rG j2 = j1 j2 a k2 j2 l = a cos
rGz2 = rG k2 = j1 k2 a k2 k2 l = a sin l
(5.6)
= j2 (a sin ) + k2 (a cos ) +
= i2 (a l sin ) + j2 l + k2 (0)
i2
j2
k2
sin
cos
0 a cos a sin l
(5.7)
(5.8)
KINETICS.
Motion of the system considered is governed by Lagranges equations.
d T
( )
dt
d T
( )
dt
T
V
+
V
T
+
= Q
= Q
(5.9)
ANALYSIS
164
Kinetic energy function T is assembled of kinetic energy of the link 1 (T1 ) and kinetic
energy of the link 2 (T2 ).
T = T1 + T2
(5.10)
where
T1 = 0.5I1 2
T2
(5.11)
0
2x2
I2x 0
2
2
2
= 0.5m(vGx2
+ vGy2
+ vGz2
) + 0.5[ 2x2 , 2y2 , 2z2 ] 0 I2y 0 2y2
0
0 I2z
2z2
(5.12)
There is only one conservative force G. The corresponding potential energy function
is
V
(5.13)
(5.14)
Q = M
Q = 0
(5.15)
Introduction of Eqs. 5.12, 5.13, 5.15 and 5.1 into Eq. 5.9 yields the following equation
of motion.
+
[(I1 + ma2 ) + (I2y + ml2 ) sin2 + 2mal sin + I2z cos2 ]
+[2(I2y I2z + ml2 ) sin cos + 2mal cos ] Mo + M = 0
(I2x + ml2 ) (I2y I2z + ml2 ) 2 sin cos mal 2 cos + mgl sin = 0 (5.16)
5.2
ANALYSIS
ANALYSIS
165
(5.19)
(5.20)
where
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
(5.21)
(5.22)
(5.23)
Solutions of the above equations for dierent magnitude of s are presented in Fig.
3 The following set of data was adopted for numerical computation.
I1 = 2.5 [kgm2 ]
m = 8 [kg]
I2x = 2 [kgm2 ]
I2y = 2 [kgm2 ]
I2z = 0.2 [kgm2 ]
a = 0.3 [m]
ANALYSIS
166
l = 0.5 [m]
10
s
s
rad/s
s3
s2
s1
-3
-2
-1
s4
0
s rad
Figure 3
s1
s2
s4
s3
Figure 4
From Fig. 3 one can see that for 0 < s < 5.1[rad/s] there exists two equilibrium position. For s > 5.1[rad/s] there exists four possible equilibrium position. The
four equilibrium positions s1 , s2 , s3 and s4 which correspond to s = 7[rad/s]
are presented in Fig. 4. Not all of them have to be stable. Hence, stability analysis
is required to distinguish between stable and unstable equilibrium positions.
5.2.3 Equations of perturbation - stability of the equilibrium positions.
The already found particular solution forms the nominal motion.
= s
= s
= s = 0
(5.24)
(5.25)
ANALYSIS
167
where
1 =
1
2 =
(B sin cos + C cos + Mo M)
A
1
3 =
(E 2 sin cos + F 2 cos + G sin )
D
Equation of perturbations has the following form.
(5.26)
(5.27)
where
A11 =
A12 =
A13 =
A21 =
=
1
( s , s , s ) = 0
1
( , s , s ) = 0
s
1
( , s , s ) = 1
s
2
( s , s , s )
(2(I2y + ml2 ) sin s cos s + 2mal cos s 2I2z sin s cos s )(Mo M s )
A( s )2
A( s )
2
B sin s cos s s + C cos s s
A23 =
( s , s , s ) =
A( s )
2
2
3
E s cos s E 2s sin2 s F 2s sin s + G cos s
( s , s , s ) =
A31 =
D
3
2E s sin s cos s + 2F s cos s
( s , s , s ) =
A32 =
D
3
A33 =
(5.28)
( , s , s ) = 0
s
The characteristic equation is
A11 r
A
A
12
13
=0
A21
A
r
A
(5.29)
22
23
A31
A32
A33 r
If all roots of the above equation have negative real parts, solution s , s , s is considered as stable. Application of this criterion to the system considered leads to
conclusion that only solution shown in Fig. 5 are stable.
ANALYSIS
168
10
s
s
rad/s 5
s2
-3
s4
-2
-1
s rad
Figure 5
For s = 7[s1 ] there exists two stable equilibrium positions. They are s =
7[s ], s2 = 1.25[rad] and s = 7[s1 ], s4 = 1.399[rad]. Roots of the equation
5.29 corresponding to these equilibrium positions were computed to be
1
(5.30)
respectively. Their real parts proves stability of the equilibrium positions. Their imaginary conjugated parts represents frequencies of the decaying oscillations in vicinity
of the equilibrium positions ( see Fig. 6 and 7).
Which stable position the system finally obtains depend on initial conditions.
Numerical simulation carried out for Mo = 50[Nm] and M = Mo /7[Nms], indicates
that for initial conditions
(0) = 0 (0) = 0
(0) = 2.5
(5.31)
the system tends to equilibrium position s2 = 1.25[rad] (see Fig. 6). But, for
initial conditions
(0) = 0 (0) = 0 (0) = 0
(5.32)
the system tends to position s4 = 1.399[rad] (see Fig. 7).
ANALYSIS
169
8
6
rad
rad/s
2
0
-2
0
10
20
time s
30
40
30
40
Figure 6
8
6
rad
rad/s
4
2
0
10
20
time s
Figure 7
Part III
EXPERIMENTAL
INVESTIGATIONS.
170
171
INTRODUCTION.
The results obtained by modeling and analyzing a dynamic problem correspond strictly to the physical model we have created. Assumptions adopted for the
physical model always simplify the problem considered. Hence, the obtained results
(e.g.. dynamic behavior of the physical model) are dierent then a true dynamic
behavior of the real object. Experimental investigation allows to assess these dierences. If they are negligible from practical point of view, one can adopt the developed
mathematical model as well as the methods used for its solution for further design.
If experimental investigation shows unacceptable dierences the physical model or
methods of its analysis must be improved.
If the object is still on design stage, experimental investigation can be carried out on especially design models supplied with measuring equipment (laboratory
installations). Models for experimental investigation should possesses all features of
the real object which has an qualitative influence on the problem considered. Results
of the experimental investigation can not be transfer directly to the real object, but
form a base for verification of mathematical model and methods used for its analysis.
After verification the mathematical model can be used for qualitative description of
the problem existing in the real object.
In some cases it is possible to design model which reflect the dynamic problem both qualitatively and quantitatively. Theory of dynamic similarity permits the
scaling factors between the real object and the model to be calculated. Upon using
these scaling factors, experimental results can be transfer to the real object without
any mathematical model.
The following chapters provide examples of modeling analysis and experimental investigation of two dynamic problems.
Chapter 6
INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF A GYROSTABILIZER
ON MOTION OF A SHIP.
6.1
y2
z1
z2
Y y1
3
1
x1 x2
Figure 1
Housing 2 of the gyroscope 3 is free to rotate about axis x1 as shown in Fig. 1. The
gyroscope 3, driven by a motor, rotates with respect to the housing about axis z2 .
Such device attenuates greatly the rolling motion of the ship 1. caused by impacts of
waves and blows of wind. Fig. 2 shows the stabilizer installed on the board of a ship.
MODELLING.
173
Figure 2
6.2
MODELLING.
y2
Mb
y1
o
G3
G2
z1
z2
1
Mr = -G 1 h
a3
X
a2
G1
H1
a1
x1
h
G1
Figure 3
The ship 1 is considered as a rigid body which is free to rotate about axis Y .
Its angular position is determined by the angle . All linear displacements as well as
MODELLING.
174
pitching and yawing of the ship are neglected. Moment of inertia of the ship about
its axis of rotation will be denoted by I1y and its centre of gravity is determined by
the distance a1 . Due to the gravity force G1 and the buoyancy force H1 there exists
the righting moment which in this physical model is denoted by Mr .
Housing 2 can to rotate about axis x2 and the angle uniquely determines
its relative angular position with respect to the ship. Its principal moments of inertia
along axes x2 y2 z2 will be denoted by I2x , I2y , I2z respectively. Centre of gravity G2 is
determined by distance a2 and its mass will be denoted by m2 . Between the housing
and the ship there is a brake installed. It produces the braking moment about the
axis of relative rotation x2 . This braking moment is denoted in Fig. 3by Mb .
The gyroscope 3 rotates with the constant angular speed about axis z2
relatively to its housing. Axis z2 is an axis of symmetry of the gyroscope. The
principal moments of inertia of the gyroscope are denoted by I3 = I3x = I3y , I3z
and its mass by m3 . The centre of gravity of the gyroscope G3 is determined by the
distance a3
If one adopts the above assumptions, the system can be considered as system
of two degree of freedom. The two generalized coordinates are denoted by and .
6.2.2 Mathematical model.
Kinematics.
Angular velocity of the ship 1. along body 1 system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 .
1 = j1
(6.1)
(6.2)
(6.3)
Velocity of the centre of gravity G1 along system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 may be obtained by dierentiation of its position vector rG1 = k1 (a1 ).
i1 j1 k1
0 = i1 a
1
(6.4)
vG1 = 1 k1 (a1 ) = 0
0 0 a1
Velocity of the centre of gravity G2 along system of coordinates z2 y2 z2 may be obtained by dierentiation of its position vector rG2 = k2 (a2 ).
i2
j
k
2
2
(6.5)
vG2 = 2 k2 (a2 ) = cos sin = i2 a2 cos + j2 a2
0
0
a2
MODELLING.
175
z1
z2
y1
R 32y2
M32y2
G3
R 32z2
z2
M32z2
o2
R 32z2
a3
M32z2
G3
o1
M32x2
R 32x2
x
Figure 4
The free body diagram of the gyroscope 3 is shown in Fig. 4. The origin o2 is
chosen as the point of reduction of the interaction forces (M32 and R32 ) between
the gyroscope and its housing. The component M32z2 stands for the driving moment
that has to apply to the gyroscope to keep it going with the assumed velocity . The
gyroscope performs rotational motion about point O and its axis of relative rotation
is axis of symmetry. Hence, the modified Eulers equations may be used.
I3 2x + (I3z I3 ) 2y 2z + I3z 2y = M32x2 m3 a3 g cos sin
I3 2y (I3z I3 ) 2x 2z I3z 2x = M32y2 m3 a3 g sin
= M32z2
I3z ( 2z + )
(6.6)
(6.7)
(6.8)
Introduction of Eq. 6.2 into Eqs. 6.6, 6.7 and 6.8 yields.
I3 + (I3z I3 )( 2 sin cos ) + I3z cos =
(6.9)
= M32x2 m3 a3 g cos sin
I3 (
cos sin ) (I3z I3 )( sin)
I3z = M32y2 m3 a3 g sin (6.10)
I3z (
sin cos ) = M32z2
(6.11)
MODELLING.
176
z2
z1
y2
R 21y2
M21y2
R 23y2
y1
R 21z2
Mb
M23y2
o
M21z2
R 23z2
M23z2
G2
a2
Figure 5
The free body diagram of the housing is shown in Fig. 5. The housing is interacting
with both the gyroscope 3 and the ship body 1. M23 and R23 represent the moment
and force due to interaction with the gyroscope whereas M21 and R21 stand for the
moment and force due to interaction with the ship. Mb represents the breaking
moment produced by a break installed between the body of ship and the housing.
The housing performs rotational motion about the point O. Hence Euler equations
may be used.
I2x 2x + (I2z I2y ) 2y 2z = M23x2 m2 a2 g cos sin + Mb
I2y 2y + (I2x I2z ) 2x 2z = M23y2 + M21y2 m2 a2 g sin
I2z 2z + (I2y I2x ) 2x 2y = M23z2 + M21z2
(6.12)
(6.13)
(6.14)
Introducing Eq. 6.2 into Eqs. 6.12, 6.13 and 6.14 one can obtain
I2x + (I2z I2y )( 2 sin cos ) =
= M23x2 m2 a2 g sin + Mb
I2y (
cos sin ) + (I2x I2z )( sin ) =
= M23y2 + M21y2 m2 a2 g sin
I2z (
sin cos ) + (I2y I2x ) cos = M23z2 + M21z2
(6.15)
(6.16)
(6.17)
MODELLING.
177
y2
M12z2
M12y2
Mr
z1
y1
Y
z2
1
Mr = -G 1 h
O
G1
H1
a1
x1
h
G1
Figure 6
The ship performs rotational motion about axis y1 , which is fixed in the inertial space.
Hence its motion may be described by Newtons generalized equation.
I1y
= M12y1 + Mr
(6.18)
(6.19)
(6.20)
Equations of motion.
Taking into consideration, that
M23x2 = M32x2 M23y2 = M32y2
M12y2 = M21y2 M12z2 = M21z2
M23z2 = M32z2
(6.21)
ANALYSIS.
178
(6.22)
The above 7 equations comprises 7 unknown: , , M12y2 , M12z2 , M32x2 , M32y2 , M32z2 .
Upon eliminating the five unknown components of reaction moments, one may obtain
two dierential equations which govern motion of the system considered.
+ (I2z I2y + I3z I3 ) sin 2
[I1y + (I2y + I3 ) cos2 + (I2z + I3z ) sin2 ]
I3z cos + (m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g cos sin Mr = 0
1
(I2x + I3 ) + (I3 I3z + I2y I2z ) 2 sin 2 + I3z cos
2
+(m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g cos sin Mb = 0
6.3
(6.23)
ANALYSIS.
For analysis of the mathematical model derived in the previous section, it is assumed
that the righting moment may by approximated by function
Mr = Mro sin
(6.24)
and the breaking moment is considered as a linear function of the angular displacement and its first derivative
Mb = k c
(6.25)
Introducing the above relationships into equations 6.23, the equations of motion take
the following form
+ (I2z I2y + I3z I3 ) sin 2
[I1y + (I2y + I3 ) cos2 + (I2z + I3z ) sin2 ]
I3z cos + (m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g cos sin + Mro sin = 0
1
(I2x + I3 ) + (I3 I3z + I2y I2z ) 2 sin 2 + I3z cos
2
+(m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g cos sin + k + c = 0
(6.26)
The above equations has been solved by means of Runge Kutta method for numerical
data corresponding to a liner of length 110m. and total mass 5.1 106 kg. Figure
7 presents proportions between the ship and gyroscope. To see the influence of the
gyroscope on the dynamic behavior of the ship let us compute motion of the ship
caused by an impact of wave for rotating and stationary gyroscope. Let us assume
that the impact initiates motion of the previously motionless ship with initial angular
velocity o = 0.1rad/s. Hence, the initial conditions may be chosen as follow.
o = 0 o = .1 o = 0 o = 0
(6.27)
ANALYSIS.
179
0.4m
110m
4m
15m
Figure 7 Parameters of the ship and gyroscope., I3 = 0.1 106 kgm2 , I3z = .05
106 kgm2 , I2x = 0.2 106 kgm2 , I2y = 0.1 106 kgm2 , I2z = 0.2 106 kgm2 , I1y =
198.5 106 kgm2 , m1 = 5.1 106 kg, Mro = 9. 106 Nm, m2 a2 + m3 a3 = 1. 103 Nm,
k = 1. 104 Nm/rad, c = 1. 106 Nms/rad, = 300 rad/s
0.5
0
&
[rad]
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
50
100
150
200
time [s]
&
[rad]
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
50
100
150
200
time [s]
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS.
180
Solution of equations with the above initial conditions for stationary gyroscope ( =
0) is presented in Fig. 8. The ship, in this case, performs an oscillatory motion with
period T 30s whereas the housing is motionless with respect to the ship.
Solution of the equations 6.26 with the same initial conditions for the gyroscope
rotating with angular velocity = 300rad/s is presented in Fig. 9 In this case
the energy of the impact is adopted not only by the ship, but by the housing with
gyroscope as well. Due to large relative motion of the housing the energy is dissipated
by the brake. It results in three times smaller swing of the ship and fast return to its
equilibrium position.
6.4
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS.
Results of the above analysis are more reliable if they are supported by an experimental investigation which usually is aimed to assess assumptions done during creation of
physical model, evaluate mathematical methods adopted for solution of mathematical
model as well as to make sure that there is no mistakes in derivation of mathematical
model or programming.
The experimental investigation can be curried out on real objects (if they
exist and are available for experiment), dynamically similar models (if feasible), or
on especially design laboratory installations which contains all important features of
the real system but only qualitatively reflect its dynamic properties.
This section presents the last approach to experimental investigations aimed
to verify mathematical model 6.23.
6.4.1 Description of the laboratory installation
Schematic of the laboratory installation is shown in Fig. 10.
S
B
10
11
7
6
8
H
A
1
2
3
A
5
1
4
Figure 10
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS.
181
Frame 1, which represents the ship, is free to rotate about the horizontal axis
with respect to the motionless base 4. Housing 2 of the gyroscope 3 is free to rotate
with respect to the frame 1. the hydraulic damper 8 produces a damping moment
which depend on relative motion of the housing with respect to the frame 1. The
gyroscope 3 is driven by electric motor 5 with a constant speed. Protractors 6 and
7 allows to measure the angular position of the ship and housing . They are used
for scaling of transducers A and B. The transducers A and B produce the analog
signals which are proportional to the angular displacements and . These signals,
in a digitized form, are send to a memory of the computer 11.
The laboratory installation was design to fulfil some of the adopted assumptions. Similarly to the physical model the body which represents the ship may only
rotates about one axis Y. Of course, those assumption can not be evaluated by means
of the following experimental investigation.
6.4.2 Mathematical model of the laboratory installation.
In the case of laboratory installation the righting moment Mr is produced by gravity
forces and friction which is here approximated by a linear damping with coecient
c . Hence
Mr = m1 a1 gsin c
(6.28)
Assume that the real friction produced by the break is a linear friction with coecient
c .
Mb = c
(6.29)
Introduction of Eqs.6.28 and 6.29 into Eq. 6.23 yields
+ (I2z I2y + I3z I3 ) sin 2+
[I1y + (I2y + I3 ) cos2 + (I2z + I3z ) sin2 ]
I3z cos + (m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g cos sin + m1 a1 g sin + c = 0
1
(I2x + I3 ) + (I3 I3z + I2y I2z ) 2 sin 2 + I3z cos +
2
+(m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g cos sin + c = 0
(6.30)
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS.
182
a2
H
a3
lH
O
G3
3
2
G2
H
m3 g
m2 g
mH g
Figure 11
From Fig. 11 one can see that
(m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g sin H = mH glH cos H
(6.31)
m2 a2 + m3 a3 = mH lH cot H
(6.32)
Hence
In a similar manner, upon suspending a weight mS at point S, (see Fig. 10), one can
identify static moment m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3
m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 = mS lS cot S
(6.33)
m1 a1 = mS lS cot S mH lH cot H
(6.34)
Hence
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS.
183
about axis y1 for stationary gyroscope and motionless housing with respect to the
ship ( = 0, = 0, = 0, = 0).
According to Eq. 6.30 the free motion of the ship is governed by the following
equation
+ (m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g sin + c = 0
(I1y + I2y + I3 )
(6.35)
(6.36)
+ 2o + 2h = 0
(6.37)
where
I = I1y + I2y + I3
k = (m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g
or
whereq
= kI
c
2h = I
The moment of inertia I may be assessed from relationship between the period
of free oscillation T and the natural frequency .
r
I
2
= 2
(6.38)
T =
k
The period T can be obtained from the recorded free motion of the ship. An example
of the recorded free motion of the ship ex (t) is presented in Fig. 12.
ex
ex (t)
ex (t+T )
t
T
t
t+T
Figure 12
Since k has been already identified the formula 6.38 yields approximate magnitude of the moment of inertia I .
I =
T2 k
T2 (m1 a1 + m2 a2 + m3 a3 )g
=
4 2
4 2
(6.39)
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS.
184
c
ex (t)
= T h = T
ln
ex (t + T )
2I
Hence,
ex (t)
c = ln
ex (t + T )
2I
T
(6.40)
(6.41)
2I
ex (t)
c = ln
(6.43)
ex (t + T ) T
Magnitude of these parameters can be improved by fitting solution of the non-linear
model 6.35 into the recorded motion by means of the curve fitting technique. Computed in this way parameters may be considered as the identified ones.
The curve fitting technique.
Very often, to identify parameters of a mathematical model, the curve fitting
technique is used. To explain it, let us assume that xex (t) is the recorded motion of a
system. This motion is approximated by solution of x(t) of the following mathematical
model.
(
x, x,
x, t, a, b) = 0
(6.44)
where a and b are parameters to be identify.
The recorded motion always allows to assess the initial conditions.
xo = xex (0)
xex (t) xex (0)
x o =
t
(6.45)
n=N
X
n=1
!1/2
(6.46)
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS.
185
Now, upon varying the parameters a and b one can minimize the error ER. Parameters ai and bi for which error has the smallest magnitude can be considered as the
identified ones.
Parameters I3 and I3z may be assessed with sucient accuracy analytically
and parameter I2y may be assumed as equal to I2x . Therefore
I2x = I I3
I2y = I2x
I1y = I I2y I3
(6.47)
The gyroscope is driven by one phase AC electrical motor, hence its angular speed
may by assumed to be 3000RP M.
6.4.4 Verification of the mathematical model.
Having all parameters of the mathematical model identified, one may verify it. This
verification can be obtained by comparison of the recorded motion of the laboratory
installation with solution of its mathematical model. The necessary initial conditions
have to coincide initial condition of the recorded motion.
Chapter 7
INVESTIGATION OF AN INDICATOR OF ANGULAR
VELOCITY.
7.1
Z,z1
z2
1
y2
y1
x1
Figure 1
It is easy to measure the absolute angular velocity of an object if it performs its
rotational motion in an immediate neighborhood of another which can be considered
as motionless. For example, relative angular velocity of a rotor measured with respect
to its housing may be considered as absolute one if the housing is founded on the
Earth. Much more dicult is to measure or control the absolute velocity of an object
which performs its motion far away from the Earth (planes, ships, floating platforms,
etc.) or are installed on vehicle performing its own rotational motion (a radar antenna
installed on a track). In such cases the principle of work of indicators of the absolute
angular velocity are based on gyroscopic eect.
Fig. 1. presents an indicator which may be used to measure and control
MODELLING
187
MODELLING
z2
x1
y1
z1
y2
y1
G3
G2
l3
l2
Figure 2
The physical model of the described indicator is shown in Fig. 2. Axes XY Z forms
the inertial system of coordinates. The system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is rigidly connected to the platform 1 and rotates with the constant angular velocity 1 . Housing,
with all attached accessories, form the rigid body 2, and x2 y2 z2 is the body 2 system of coordinates. The centre of gravity G2 of the body 2 is located at distance l2
from the centre of rotation C. Its angular position with respect to the platform 1 is
determined by an angle .
The gyroscope 3, together with rotor of the motor 4, is regarded as rigid body
3. Axis z2 is its axis of symmetry and the dimension l3 locates its centre of gravity G3 .
The body 3 rotates with the constant angular rate about axis z2 . Axes x2 y2 z2 are
MODELLING
188
principal axes of body 2 and 3. Moments of inertia of the two bodies are I2x2 , I2y2 , I2z2
and I3x2 = I3y2 = I3 , I3z2 respectively.
Between the housing 2 and platform 1 there exists damping which can be
O
M32x2
X
M32z2
x1 x2
Z
z2
y1
z1
y2
M32y2
y1
G3
l3
m3 g
Figure 3
The gyroscope 3, whose the free body diagram is shown in Fig. 3, performs rotational
motion about the origin O, and axis z2 is its axis of symmetry. Hence, the modified
Euler equations may be used to describe its motion. The gyroscope 3 rotates with the
angular velocity with respect to system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 whereas the system
of coordinates has its own angular velocity 2 .
2 = 1 + 21 = k1 1 + i2
(7.1)
(7.2)
MODELLING
189
(7.3)
yields
I3 + (I3z2 I3 ) 21 sin cos + I3z2 1 sin = M32x2 m3 gl3 sin
I3 ( 1 sin + 1 cos ) (I3z2 I3 )1 cos I3z2 = M32y2
I3z2 ( 1 cos 1 sin + ) = M32z2
(7.4)
where
M32x2 , M32y2 , M32z2 are components of the resultant moment of reactions of the body
2 on the gyroscope 3.
Equations of motion of the housing 2.
O
M23x2
X
z2
M21z2
M23z2
y1
M21x2 = M d
x1 x2
z1
y2
M21y2
M23y2
y1
O
G2
l2
m2 g
Figure 4
ANALYSIS
190
The housing 2 whose the physical model is shown in Fig. 4 performs rotational
motion about point O. Hence Euler unmodified equations may be used.
Ix x + (Iz Iy )y z = Mx
Iy y + (Ix Iz ) x z = My
Iz z + (Iy Ix )y x = Mz
(7.5)
Upon introducing the relationship 7.2, the equations of motion takes the following
form.
I2x2 + (I2z2 I2y2 )21 sin cos = M23x2 m2 gl2 sin c
I2y2 ( 1 sin + 1 cos ) + (I2x2 I2z2 ) 1 cos = M23y2 + M21y2
I2z2 ( 1 cos 1 sin ) + (I2y2 I2x2 ) 1 sin = M23z2 + M21z2
(7.6)
Equations of motion of the system.
Taking into consideration that
M23x2 = M32x2
(7.7)
the first of equation 7.4 and first of equation 7.6 yield the following equation of motion.
Ix + (Iz Iy ) 21 sin cos + I3z2 1 sin + MG sin + c = 0
(7.8)
where
Ix = I2x2 + I3 moment of inertia of the whole assembly about axis x2
Iy = I2y2 + I3 moment of inertia of the whole assembly about axis y2
Iz = I2z2 + I3z2 moment of inertia of the whole assembly about axis z2
MG = m2 gl2 + m3 gl3 static moment with respect to point of rotation O.
7.3
ANALYSIS
= o = constant
Introduction of Eq. 7.9 into Eq. 7.8) yields.
((Iz Iy ) 21 cos o + I3z2 1 + MG ) sin o = 0
Hence,
I3z2 1 + MG
,
o = arccos
(Iz Iy ) 21
o = 0 and o =
(7.10)
(7.11)
ANALYSIS
191
the particular solutions 7.11, representing possible equilibrium positions, are presented in Fig. 5. as a function of angular speed 1 .
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
[rad]
1
0.5
0
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
25
30
1 [rad/s]
Figure 5
Not all these solution are stable. To assess stability of these solutions let us
analyze motion of the system in vicinity of an equilibrium position o .
7.3.2 Stability analysis.
Motion in vicinity of the equilibrium position o always can be assumed in the following form.
= o +
(7.12)
where ,called perturbation, is an unknown function of time. To determine this
function let us introduce 7.12 into the equation of motion 7.8.
Ix + (Iz Iy )21 sin( o + ) cos( o + ) + I3z2 1 sin( o + )
+MG sin( o + ) + c = 0
(7.13)
According to 7.10 the first three terms are equal to zero. Therefore the equation of
perturbations takes the following form.
Ix + ((Iz Iy ) 21 cos 2 o + I3z2 1 cos o + MG cos o ) + c = 0
(7.15)
or
+ B + C = 0
where
C=
1
((Iz Iy )21 cos 2 o + I3z2 1 cos o + MG cos o )
Ix
(7.16)
(7.17)
ANALYSIS
192
c
(7.18)
Ix
Solution of the equation of perturbations depends on roots of the characteristic equation associated with the equation 7.16.
B=
r2 + Br + C = 0
Roots of the characteristic equation of equation are
B B 2 4C
r1,2 =
2
(7.19)
(7.20)
(7.21)
It can be seen from Eq. 7.21 that if the real part of both roots is negative, the
perturbations decay to zero and the equilibrium considered is stable. Since Ix and c
are always positive, roots 7.20 have negative real parts if and only if
C>0
(7.22)
Hence, only those solutions 7.11 can be considered as stable which additionally fulfill
stability condition 7.22.
7.3.3 Stable and unstable equilibrium positions.
In Figures 6 to 11 the equilibrium positions which fulfil the condition 7.22 (the stable
solutions) are marked by solid line. The broken line corresponds to the unstable
equilibrium positions. Stable and unstable equilibrium positions for Iy > Iz are
shown in Fig. 6 to Fig. 8 for = 0 = 150 and = 300 rad/s respectively.
Dierent behavior may be predicted in case when Iy < Iz . From solutions
presented in Fig. 9to Fig. 11 one can see that the only possible equilibrium positions
(solid line) are o = 0, o = or both of them. It means, that for certain magnitude
of angular velocity of the platform (e.g.. 1 = 10, Fig. 9.) the housing considered
may perform oscillations about equilibrium position o = 0, as well as o = . This
oscillatory motion depends on initial conditions. Fig. 12 presents solution of equation
of motion 7.8 for two sets of initial conditions very close to each other. One of them
( in = 1, in = 0) corresponds to the point A shown in Fig. 10. The other ( in = 1.1,
in = 0) corresponds to the point B in the same figure. Despite of the fact that the
above initial conditions diers very little, the corresponding solutions (see Fig. 12)
are totally dierent. One of them tends to equilibrium position o = 0, whereas the
other tends to equilibrium position o = . In the case considered, the unstable
solution (broken line) divides all possible initial positions o corresponding to initial
velocity in = 0 into two categories. One of them produces solutions which tend
to equilibrium position o = 0. Solutions belonging to the other category of initial
conditions tend to equilibrium o = .
ANALYSIS
193
3.5
3
2.5
o
[rad]
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
25
30
1 [rad/s]
stable equilibrium positions
Figure 6 Stable and unstable solution for : = 0 and 0.6 = Iy > Iz = 0.25 kgm2
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
[rad]
1
0.5
0
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
25
30
1 [rad/s]
Figure 7 Stable and unstable solution for : = 150rad/s and 0.6 = Iy > Iz = 0.25
kgm2
ANALYSIS
194
3.5
3
2.5
o
[rad]
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
1 [rad/s]
15
20
25
30
Figure 8 Stable and unstable solution for : = 300rad/s and 0.6 = Iy > Iz = 0.25
kgm2
3.5
3
2.5
o
[rad]
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
25
30
1 [rad/s]
stable equilibrium positions
Figure 9 Stable and unstable solution for : = 0 rad/s and 0.6 = Iy < Iz = 0.8 kgm2
ANALYSIS
195
3.5
3
2.5
[rad] 1.5
1
0.5
0
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
25
30
1 [rad/s]
stable equilibrium positions
Figure 10 Stable and unstable solution for : = 150 rad/s and 0.6 = Iy < Iz = 0.8
kgm2
3.5
3
2.5
o
[rad]
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
20
25
30
1 [rad/s]
stable equilibrium positions
Figure 11 Stable and unstable solution for : = 300 rad/s and 0.6 = Iy < Iz = 0.8
kgm2
ANALYSIS
196
5
4
[rad]
B
A
2
1
0
-1
0
t [s]
25
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION.
7.4
197
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION.
9
z1
1
3
4
FM
11
x2
2
10
7
6
R
Figure 13
The gyroscope 3 is driven by the electric motor 4. with a constant angular speed
. The housing 2 of the gyroscope is free to rotate about axis x2 with respect to
the frame 1, which represent the platform. The transducer 5 allows for recording
the actual relative angular position of the housing as a function of time. The frame
1 is driven by the electric motor 6 via gearbox 7. Regulator 8 permits variation of
angular speed of the frame 1. Transducer 9 allows to measure this angular speed.
The indicator of angular position 10 permits to scale the transducer 5.
7.4.2 Identification of the systems parameters.
The mathematical model of the laboratory installation has form 7.8 and it is repeated
here.
Ix + (Iz Iy ) 21 sin cos + I3z2 1 sin + MG sin + c = 0
(7.23)
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION.
198
z2
z1
y2
s
y1
O
G3
G2
l3
l2
m3 g
m2 g
Figure 14
The arrangement for identification of the static moment due to gravity forces m2 g
and m3 g is shown in Fig. 14. Its magnitude may be obtained from the following
formula.
MG = m2 l2 g + m3 l3 g = F L
(7.24)
where
F - is the reading from spring balance (see Fig. 14)
L = - is the distance between point of application of the force F and point of rotation
O
(7.25)
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION.
199
where
2 =
Hence
MG
Ix
MG
MG T 2
Ix = 2 =
4 2
(7.26)
(7.27)
where
T - is the measured period of small free oscillations of housing
MG - is the static moment measured in the previous experiment.
Moment of inertia Iy , due to symmetry of the housing, is to be assumed to
be equal to Ix .
Moment of inertia Iz is to be obtained from the equilibrium position of the
system for stationary gyroscope ( = 0) and rotating frame 1. According to equation
7.11, for the case considered, one can obtain
Iz = Iy
MG
cos s 21
(7.28)
where
1 - is the angular velocity of the frame.
s - is the corresponding equilibrium position of the housing.
7.4.3 Collection of experimental data.
The transducer 9 produces 500 impulses per one revolution of the frame 1. Frequency
of these impulses can be read from the frequency meter 11 (see Fig. 13). Therefore
the angular velocity of the frame can be computed from the following formula.
1 =
2
rad/s
500 f1
where
f - is the frequency measured in Hz.
For any angular velocities of the frame 1 within the range 10 < 1 <
+10 rad/s,the indicator of the angular position 10 (see Fig. 13) allows the equilibrium
position o to be assessed. This data forms so called experimental static characteristics of the laboratory installation. The developed software permits to compute, for
the identified parameters, static characteristic of the physical model. Comparison of
the analytical and experimental static characteristic allows to assess correctness and
accuracy of the derived mathematical model as well as the applied stability analysis.