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Introduction To Electronics
Introduction To Electronics
RC
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Introduction to
Electronics
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vo1
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ib2
vid /2
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vX
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An
Online
Text
R
b1
b2
EB
Bob Zulinski
RC
RC
Associate
Professor
+ vod +
+
of Electrical
Engineering
v
v
ib2
o1
o2
ib1
Michigan Technological University
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+
vid /2
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vX
(+1)ib1
(+1)ib2
REB
Version 2.0
Introduction to Electronics
Dedication
Human beings are a delightful and complex amalgam of
the spiritual, the emotional, the intellectual, and the physical.
This is dedicated to all of them; especially to those
who honor and nurture me with their friendship and love.
ii
Introduction to Electronics
iii
Table of Contents
Preface xvi
Philosophy of an Online Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
Notes for Printing This Document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviii
Copyright Notice and Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviii
2
2
2
3
4
4
A quick exercise 4
6
6
7
7
7
Introduction to Electronics
iv
Amplifier Cascades 13
Decibel Notation 14
Power Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cascaded Amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Voltage Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Current Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Using Decibels to Indicate Specific Magnitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
14
14
15
15
Voltage levels: 15
Power levels 16
20
21
22
23
23
Introduction to Electronics
Differential Amplifiers 27
Example: 27
Introduction to Electronics
vi
Diode Models 50
The Shockley Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Forward Bias Approximation 51
Reverse Bias Approximation 51
At High Currents 51
Introduction to Electronics
vii
Introduction to Electronics
viii
100
100
102
104
Introduction to Electronics
ix
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
For b = 100 (and VBE = 0.7 V) 118
For b = 300 118
Introduction to Electronics
Notation 142
BJT Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit 143
The Common-Emitter Amplifier 145
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Constructing the Small-Signal Equivalent Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Voltage Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Input Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Output Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
145
146
147
148
148
Introduction to Electronics
xi
149
150
151
152
157
158
158
158
159
160
161
162
164
165
166
167
Introduction to Electronics
xii
176
177
178
179
180
Introduction to Electronics
xiii
DC Imperfections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Input Offset Voltage, VIO 195
Input Currents 195
Noise 206
Johnson Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Johnson Noise Model 207
Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Introduction to Electronics
xiv
222
222
223
223
224
226
227
228
229
Introduction to Electronics
xv
Introduction to Electronics
xvi
Preface
Philosophy of an Online Text
I think of myself as an educator rather than an engineer. And it has
long seemed to me that, as educators, we should endeavor to bring
to the student not only as much information as possible, but we
should strive to make that information as accessible as possible,
and as inexpensive as possible.
The technology of the Internet and the World Wide Web now allows
us to virtually give away knowledge! Yet, we dont, choosing
instead to write another conventional text book, and print, sell, and
use it in the conventional manner. The whys are undoubtedly
intricate and many; I offer only a few observations:
I use the word supposedly because, in my view, the official rewards for textbook
authoring fall far short of what is appropriate and what is achievable through an equivalent
research effort, despite all the administrative lip service to the contrary. These arguments,
though, are more appropriately left to a different soapbox.
Introduction to Electronics
xvii
Introduction to Electronics
xviii
Introduction to Electronics
R2
(1)
Resistors in Parallel
R1
R2
Fig. 2.
Rs in parallel.
Rtotal =
R1 R2
R1 + R2
(2)
Rtotal =
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
R1 R2 R3
(3)
Introduction to Electronics
+
3V
5V
Real Sources
i
ISC
1/RTH
v = VOC i RTH
or
i = ISC
v
RTH
(4)
Introduction to Electronics
RTH
+
VOC = VTH
-
+
ISC
RTH
v
-
Note that:
RTH =
VOC
ISC
(5)
Fig. 6. Thevenin
equivalent circuit.
RA
+
VX
RB
RC
+
VA
+
VB
+
VC
-
Fig. 8. Example of a
voltage divider.
Voltage Dividers
Example - finding the voltage across RB :
VB =
RB
VX
R A + RB + RC
(6)
Introduction to Electronics
Current Dividers
IB
IX
RA
RB
1
RB
IB =
I
1
1
1 X
+
+
R A RB RC
RC
(7)
Superposition
Superposition applies to any linear circuit - in fact, this is the
definition of a linear circuit!!!
An example of finding a response using superposition:
I
IA
IB
+
A quick exercise:
Use superposition and voltage division to show that VX = 6 V:
4V
10 k
30 k
VX
Fig. 13. A quick exercise . . .
12 V
Introduction to Electronics
KCL:
Introduction to Electronics
Signal
Source
+
vi (t)
-
+
Amplifier vo (t)
-
Load
Ground
Signal Source
A signal source is anything that provides the signal, e.g., . . .
. . . the carbon microphone in a telephone handset . . .
. . . the fuel-level sensor in an automobile gas tank . . .
Amplifier
An amplifier is a system that provides gain . . .
. . . sometimes voltage gain (illustrated below), sometimes current
gain, always power gain.
vi
vo
vo
Signal
Source
Introduction to Electronics
+
vi (t)
-
+
Amplifier vo (t)
-
Load
Ground
Load
The load is anything we deliver the amplified signal to, e.g., . . .
. . . loudspeaker . . .
. . . the leg of lamb in a microwave oven . . .
Ground Terminal
Usually there is a ground connection . . .
. . . usually common to input and output . . .
. . . maybe connected to a metal chassis . . .
. . . maybe connected to power-line ground . . .
. . . maybe connected to both . . .
. . . maybe connected to neither . . . use caution!!!
Introduction to Electronics
ii
Ro
+
vi Ri
-
+
-
Avocvi
Amplifier
io
+
vo RL
Load
Fig. 19. Modeling the source, amplifier, and load with the emphasis on
voltage.
Signal Source
Our emphasis is voltage . . . source voltage decreases as source
current increases, as with any real source . . .
. . . so we use a Thevenin equivalent.
Amplifier Input
When the source is connected to the amplifier, current flows . . .
. . . the amplifier must have an input resistance, Ri .
Amplifier Output
Output voltage decreases as load current increases . . .
. . . again we use a Thevenin equivalent.
Load
Load current flows . . . the load appears as a resistance, RL .
Introduction to Electronics
ii
RS
io
Ro
+
vi R i
-
vs +
-
+
-
+
vo R L
-
Avocvi
Source
Amplifier
Load
Fig. 20. Voltage amplifier model (Fig. 19 repeated).
Avoc =
vo
vi
(8)
RL =
Voltage Gain
With a load in place our concept of voltage gain changes slightly:
AV =
vo
vi
vo =
RL
Avocv i
Ro + RL
Av = Avoc
RL
Ro + RL
(9)
We can think of this as the amplifier voltage gain if the source were
ideal:
ii
vi +-
+
vi
-
Ro
Ri
+
-
Avocvi
io
+
vo R L
-
Amplifier
Load
Fig. 21. Av = vo /vi illustrated.
Introduction to Electronics
ii
RS
Ro
+
vi R i
-
vs +
-
+
-
Avocvi
10
io
+
vo R L
-
Source
Amplifier
Load
Fig. 22. Voltage amplifier model (Fig. 19 repeated).
With our real source model we define another useful voltage gain:
Avs =
vo
vs
vi =
Ri
vs
RS + Ri
Avs = Avoc
Ri
RL
RS + Ri Ro + RL
(10)
Notice that Av and Avs are both less than Avoc , due to loading effects.
Current Gain
We can also define the amplifier current gain:
vo
Ai =
io
R
RL v o Ri
=
=
= Av i
vi
ii
v i RL
RL
Ri
(11)
Power Gain
Because the amplifier input and load are resistances, we have
Po = Vo Io , and Pi = Vi Ii (rms values). Thus:
G=
Po VoIo
2 Ri
2 R
=
= Av Ai = Av
= Ai L
Pi
Vi Ii
RL
Ri
(12)
Introduction to Electronics
11
V AA
ii
+
vi
-
Source
Ro
+
Ri
A vocv i
Amplifier
IB
-V BB
io
+
vo
-
V AA
RL
Load
-
V BB
Fig. 23. Our voltage amplifier model showing power supply and ground connections.
DC Input Power
PS = VAAI A + VBBIB
(13)
This is sometimes noted as PIN. Use care not to confuse this with
the signal input power Pi .
Conservation of Power
Signal power is delivered to the load Po
Power is dissipated within the amplifier as heat PD
The total input power must equal the total output power:
PS + Pi = Po + PD
(14)
IA
RS
vs +
Source
V AA
ii
+
vi
-
Introduction to Electronics
Ro
+
Ri
A vocv i
Amplifier
IB
-V BB
io
+
vo
-
V AA
12
RL
Load
-
V BB
Fig. 24. Our voltage amplifier model showing power supply and ground connections
(Fig. 23 repeated).
Efficiency
Efficiency is a figure of merit describing amplifier performance:
Po
100%
PS
(15)
Amplifier Cascades
13
Introduction to Electronics
Amplifier Cascades
Amplifier stages may be connected together (cascaded) :
ii1
+
vi1
-
ii2
Ro1
Ri1
+
-A
voc1 i1
+
vo1 = vi2
-
io2
+
vo2
-
Ri2
Amplifier 1
Ro2
-A
voc2 i2
Amplifier 2
v o1
v i1
(16)
v o2 v o2
=
v i 2 v o1
(17)
Av 1 =
Gain of stage 2:
Av 2 =
Gain of cascade:
Avoc =
v o1 v o 2
= Av 1Av 2
v i 1 v o1
(18)
ii1
+
vi1
-
Ri1
+
-A v
voc i1
io2
+
vo2
-
Decibel Notation
Introduction to Electronics
14
Decibel Notation
Amplifier gains are often not expressed as simple ratios . . . rather
they are mapped into a logarithmic scale.
The fundamental definition begins with a power ratio.
Power Gain
Recall that G = Po /Pi , and define:
GdB = 10logG
(19)
Cascaded Amplifiers
We know that Gtotal = G1 G2 . Thus:
Gtotal , dB = 10 logG1G2 = 10 logG1 + 10 logG2 = G1, dB + G2, dB
(20)
Voltage Gain
To derive the expression for voltage gain in decibels, we begin by
recalling from eq. (12) that G = Av2(Ri /RL ). Thus:
10 logG = 10 log Av
Ri
RL
(21)
Decibel Notation
Introduction to Electronics
15
(22)
Only when Ri does equal RL , will the numerical values of GdB and
Av dB be the same. In all other cases they will differ.
From eq. (22) we can see that in an amplifier cascade the product
of voltage gains becomes the sum of voltage gains in decibels.
Current Gain
In a manner similar to the preceding voltage-gain derivation, we can
arrive at a similar definition for current gain:
Ai dB = 20log Ai
(23)
3.16 V = 20 log
3.16 V
= 10 dBV
1V
(24)
Decibel Notation
Introduction to Electronics
16
Power levels:
dBm, decibels with respect to 1 mW . . . for example
5 mW = 10 log
5 mW
= 6.99 dBm
1 mW
(25)
5 mW = 10log
5 mW
= 23.0 dbW
1W
(26)
Introduction to Electronics
17
ii
Ro
+
vi Ri
-
vs +
Source
+
-
io
+
vo RL
-
Avocvi
Amplifier
Load
Fig. 27. Modeling the source, amplifier, and load with the emphasis on
voltage (Fig. 19 repeated).
is
RS
Source
ii
io
+
vi
-
+
vo
-
Ri
Aiscii
Current Amplifier
Ro
RL
Load
Fig. 28. Modeling the source, amplifier, and load with the emphasis on
current.
Aisc =
io
ii
(27)
RL = 0
Introduction to Electronics
18
RS
+
vi
-
vs +
-
io
Ri
Gmscvi
Ro
+
vo
-
RL
Source
Transconductance Amplifier
Load
Fig. 29. The transconductance amplifier model.
Gmsc =
io
vi
(siemens, S)
(28)
RL = 0
is
RS
+
vi
-
Ro
Ri
+
-
Rmocii
io
+
vo R L
-
Source
Transresistance Amplifier
Load
Fig. 30. The transresistance amplifier model.
Rmoc =
vo
ii
(ohms, )
RL =
(29)
Introduction to Electronics
19
Introduction to Electronics
20
ii
+
vi
-
Ro
Ri
+
-
Avocvi
Voltage Amplifier
io
+
vo R L
Load
Introduction to Electronics
+
vi
-
+
-
21
Avocvi
is
RS
Source
ii
io
+
vi
-
+
vo
-
Ri
Aiscii
Current Amplifier
Ro
RL
Load
How can we maximize the current that gets delivered to the load ?
Introduction to Electronics
22
ii
Aiscii
+
vi
-
Gmscvi
Introduction to Electronics
23
ii
+
-
Rmocii
Introduction to Electronics
24
Av =
V Vo
Vo
= o
= A v A v
Vi
Vi Vi
(30)
(31)
Introduction to Electronics
25
midband region
|Av mid|dB
3 dB
Bandwidth, B
f (log scale)
fH
|Av|dB
midband region
|Av mid|dB
3 dB
Bandwidth, B
f (log scale)
fL
fH
Introduction to Electronics
26
Differential Amplifiers
Introduction to Electronics
27
Differential Amplifiers
Many desired signals are weak, differential signals in the presence
of much stronger, common-mode signals.
Example:
Telephone lines, which carry the desired voice signal between the
green and red (called tip and ring) wires.
The lines often run parallel to power lines for miles along highway
right-of-ways . . . resulting in an induced 60 Hz voltage (as much as
30 V or so) from each wire to ground.
We must extract and amplify the voltage difference between the
wires, while ignoring the large voltage common to the wires.
2
vI1
+
-
vI2
vICM
-
+
-
vID /2
+
-
vID /2
2
v I1 = v ICM +
v ID
2
and
v I 2 = v ICM
v ID
2
(32)
Differential Amplifiers
Introduction to Electronics
28
v ID = v I1 v I 2
and
v ICM =
v I1 + v I 2
2
(33)
Note that the differential voltage vID is the difference between the
signals vI1 and vI2 , while the common-mode voltage vICM is the
average of the two (a measure of how they are similar).
+
-
vid /2
Amplifier
vid /2
CMRRdB = 20log
Ad
Acm
(34)
Introduction to Electronics
29
v+
+
vO
v-
vO = A0 (v+ -v- )
A0 = Ad =
Acm = 0
Ri =
Ro = 0
B=
2.
3.
Introduction to Electronics
30
Slew Rate
So far we have said nothing about the rate at which vo increases or
decreases . . . this is called the slew rate.
In our ideal op amp, well presume the slew rate is as fast as we
need it to be (i.e., infinitely fast).
31
Introduction to Electronics
i1
+
i2
R1
vi
R2
Voltage Gain
Because the ideal op amp has Ri = , the current into the inputs
will be zero.
This means i1 = i2 , i.e., resistors R1 and R2 form a voltage dividerIII
Therefore, we can use superposition to find the voltage v- .
(Remember the quick exercise on p. 4 ??? This is the identical
problem!!!):
v =
v i R2 + v o R1
R1 + R2
(35)
v i R2 + v oR1 = 0
vo =
R2
vi
R1
Av =
R2
R1
(36)
Introduction to Electronics
32
+
vO
0
i1
+
i2
R1
vi
R2
Input Resistance
This means resistance seen by the signal source vi , not the input
resistance of the op amp, which is infinite.
Because v- = 0, the voltage across R1 is vi . Thus:
i1 =
vi
R1
Rin =
vi vi
= v = R1
i1
R
i
(37)
Output Resistance
This is the Thevenin resistance which would be seen by a load
looking back into the circuit (Fig. 45 does not show a load attached).
Our op amp is ideal; its Thevenin output resistance is zero:
RO = 0
(38)
Introduction to Electronics
33
+
vi
vO
i2
i1
R1
R2
Voltage Gain
This time our rules of operation and a voltage divider equation lead
to:
R1
vi = v+ = v =
vo
(39)
R1 + R2
from which:
vo =
R
R1 + R2
v i = 1 + 2 v i
R1
R1
Av = 1 +
R2
R1
(40)
(41)
Introduction to Electronics
34
vo
vi
Fig. 47. The voltage follower.
Voltage Gain
This one is easy:
vi = v+ = v = vo
Av = 1
(43)
and
RO = 0
(44)
Introduction to Electronics
35
iA
+
vA
RA
vB
iF
iB
+
RB
RF
Voltage Gain
We could use the superposition approach as we did for the
standard inverter, but with three sources the equations become
unnecessarily complicated . . . so lets try this instead . . .
Recall . . . vO takes on the value that causes v- = v+ = 0 . . .
So the voltage across RA is vA and the voltage across RB is vB :
iA =
vA
RA
and
iB =
vB
RB
(45)
iF = i A + iB
v
v
and v RF = RF (i A + i B ) = RF A + B
R A RB
(46)
R
v O = F v A + F v B
RB
RA
(47)
Introduction to Electronics
36
i1
vi
R2
R1
i2
R4
R3
Voltage Gain
One common approach to a solution begins with a KCL equation at
the R2 - R3 - R4 junction . . .
. . . well use the superposition & voltage divider approach, after we
apply some network reduction techniques.
Notice that R3 , R4 and the op amp output voltage source can be
replaced with a Thevenin equivalent:
R4
R3
RTH
+
vO
+
vTH
Introduction to Electronics
37
v TH =
R3
vO
R3 + R4
and
RTH = R3 || R4
(48)
R1
vi
REQ = R2 + RTH
vTH
v- = 0
v TH =
REQ
vi
R1
(49)
R + (R3 || R4 )
R
R3
R || R
vO = 2
v i = 2 + 3 4 v i
R3 + R 4
R1
R1
R1
Av =
R R
vO
R || R
= 1 + 4 2 + 3 4
vi
R1
R3 R1
(50)
(51)
Introduction to Electronics
38
Voltage Gain
R1
+
v2
R2
i2
i1
+
v1
R1
R2
i1 =
v+ =
R2
v2 = v
R1 + R2
(52)
v1 v v1
R2
=
v 2 = i2
R1
R1 R1(R1 + R2 )
(53)
v R = i 2R2 =
2
R2
R2R2
v1
v
R1
R1(R1 + R2 ) 2
(54)
vO = v + v R =
2
R2
R
R2R2
v 2 2 v1 +
v
R1 + R2
R1
R1(R1 + R2 ) 2
(55)
Introduction to Electronics
39
R2
R 2R 2
R1R2
R2R2
v2 +
v2 =
v2 +
v2
R1 + R2
R1(R1 + R2 )
R1(R1 + R2 )
R1(R1 + R2 )
R (R + R2 )
R1R2 + R2R2
R
v2 = 2 1
v2 = 2 v2
R1(R1 + R2 )
R1(R1 + R2 )
R1
(56)
(57)
vO =
R2
R
R
v 1 + 2 v 2 = 2 (v 2 v 1)
R1
R1
R1
(58)
So, under the conditions that we can have identical resistors (and
an ideal op amp) we truly have a differential amplifier!!!
Introduction to Electronics
40
The Integrator
From our rules and previous
experience we know that v- = 0
and iR = iC , so . . .
+
vO
iR
+
vi
iC
R
iR =
(59)
vi
= iC
R
1
1
v C = iC dt = iC dt + v C (0)
C
C0
(60)
1 v
1
v O = i dt + v C (0) =
v i dt + v C (0)
C0R
RC 0
(61)
Normally vC (0) = 0 (but not always). Thus the output is the integral
of vi , inverted, and scaled by 1/RC.
Introduction to Electronics
41
The Differentiator
+
vO
iC
vi
iR
-
iC = C
dv C
dv
= C i = iR
dt
dt
(62)
v O = v R = i R R = RC
dv i
dt
(63)
Introduction to Electronics
42
+
vi
iL
iF
RL
R1
R2
+
vO
-
To limit iF + iL to a reasonable
value, we adopt the rule of
thumb that resistances should
be greater than approx. 100 .
Of course this is highly
dependent of the type of op amp
to be used in a design.
i1
+
vi
RS
R1
R2
Introduction to Electronics
43
and
y =4
(64)
Introduction to Electronics
44
0, for x < 0
y =
2
0.4x , for x 0
(65)
and
y =8
4x
5
(66)
Introduction to Electronics
45
(67)
and
y =8
4x
5
(68)
Diodes
Introduction to Electronics
46
Diodes
When we place p-type semiconductor adjacent to n-type
semiconductor, the result is an element that easily allows current to
flow in one direction, but restricts current flow in the opposite
direction . . . this is our first nonlinear element:
free
holes
Anode Cathode
+ + + + - n-type
p-type
+ + + - - - -
free
electrons
iD
+
vD
Diodes
Introduction to Electronics
47
Fig. 61. PSpice-generated i-v characteristic for a 1N750 diode showing the various regions of
operation.
Diodes intended for use in the breakdown region are called zener
diodes (or, less often, avalanche diodes).
In the reverse bias region, |iD| 1 nA for low-power (signal)
diodes.
Introduction to Electronics
48
iD
+
vD
-
+
VS
Fig. 62. Example circuit to illustrate
graphical diode circuit analysis.
RTH(=R) i
+
+
VOC
(=VS)
-
v = VOC iRTH
i=iD
or
i = ISC
v
RTH
(69)
. . . where VOC and ISC are the opencircuit voltage and the short-circuit
current, respectively.
ISC
1/R TH
V OC
v=v D
Introduction to Electronics
49
iD
+
vD
-
+
VS
-
Case 1:
1
25
mA
= 40VmA = 20
0.5 V
Case 3:
VOC = VS = 10 V
ISC = 10 V / 1 k = 10 mA
VOC not on scale, use slope:
1
1 k
2.5 mA
= 1mA
V = 2.5 V
Diode Models
Introduction to Electronics
50
Diode Models
Graphical solutions provide insight, but neither convenience nor
accuracy . . . for accuracy, we need an equation.
v
iD = IS exp D 1
nVT
(70)
v D = nVT ln D + 1
IS
(71)
or conversely
where,
IS is the saturation current, 10 fA for signal diodes
IS approx. doubles for every 5 K increase in temp.
n is the emission coefficient, 1 n 2
n = 1 is usually accurate for signal diodes (iD < 10 mA)
VT is the thermal voltage, V = kT
T
at T = 300 K, VT = 25.9 mV
well use VT = 25 mV as a matter of convenience.
(72)
Diode Models
51
Introduction to Electronics
v
iD = IS exp D 1
nVT
(73)
v D = nVT ln D + 1
IS
(74)
v
iD IS exp D
nVT
(75)
(76)
v D = nVT ln D + 1 + i DRS
IS
(77)
At High Currents:
Diode Models
Introduction to Electronics
52
+ -
iD
vD
Diode Models
Introduction to Electronics
53
iD
4 k
7 k
+
6 k
10 V
3 k
10 V
We need first to
assume a diode state,
i.e., ON or OFF.
7 k
vD
+
6 k
10 V
3 k
10 V
vD
+
+
+
6 V 6 k
-
10 V
-
7 k
3 k
+
3V
-
10 V
-
vD is not negative, so
diode must be ON.
7 k
iD
+
6 k
10 V
3 k
10 V
iD
2.1 k
667 A
6V
3V
-
No contradictions !!!
Diode Models
Introduction to Electronics
54
+ -
iD
fwd bias (ON)
vD
rev bias (OFF)
Fig. 73. Ideal diode i-v characteristic.
(Fig. 67 repeated)
1.
2.
3.
If all OFF diodes have vD < 0, and all ON diodes have iD > 0,
the initial assumption was correct. If not make new
assumption and repeat.
Diode Models
55
Introduction to Electronics
v = VX + iR X
(78)
1/RX
v
VX
-V X /RX
VX
- +
Fig. 74. A piecewise-linear segment.
RX
v
Diode Models
Introduction to Electronics
56
iD
1/RF
VZ
VF
1/RZ
vD
Diode Models
Introduction to Electronics
57
500
iD
+
5V
+
vD
-
500
+
5V
iD =
vD
and
10
0.5 V
+
-
5 V 0.5 V
= 8.82 mA
500 + 10
= 0.588 V
(79)
(80)
Diode Models
Introduction to Electronics
58
+ -
iD
vD
. . . it has VF = 0, RF = 0 in the
forward bias region . . .
. . . it doesnt
breakdown region.
have
+ -
iD
fwd bias (ON)
vD
VF
. . . it doesnt
breakdown region
have
Introduction to Electronics
59
vD
+
iD
vOUT
We can use load line analysis with the zener diode i-v characteristic
to examine the behavior of this circuit.
Introduction to Electronics
RTH = 500
+
VTH
7.5 V to 10 V -
vD
+
iD
60
As VTH varies from 7.5 V to 10 V, the load line moves from its blue
position, to its green position.
As long as the zener remains in breakdown, vOUT remains nearly
constant, at 4.7 V.
As long as the minimum VTH is somewhat greater than VZ (in this
case VZ = 4.7 V) the zener remains in the breakdown region.
If were willing to give up some output voltage magnitude, in return
we get a very constant output voltage.
Introduction to Electronics
61
8
+
4.6 V
vOUT
-
Fig. 85. Regulator circuit of Fig. 81 with piecewiselinear model replacing the diode.
Introduction to Electronics
62
RTH = 500
+
VTH
7.5 V to 10 V -
8
+
4.6 V
vOUT
-
Important:
Circuit Analysis:
The 500 and 8 resistors are in series, forming a voltage divider.
For VTH = 7.5 V:
V8 =
8
(7.5 V 4.6 V) = 45.67 mV
500 + 8
(81)
(82)
For VTH = 10 V:
V8 =
8
(10 V 4.6 V) = 85.04 V
500 + 8
(83)
(84)
Thus, for a 2.5 V change in the line voltage, the output voltage
change is only 39.4 mV !!!
Introduction to Electronics
63
VSS
vD
+
+
-
RL
vOUT
-
iD
Fig. 87. Zener regulator with load.
RTH
+
+
VSS
RL
vOUT
-
vD
+
iD
+
VTH
+
vOUT
vD
+
iD
Introduction to Electronics
64
(b) RL = 1 k
(c) RL = 100
RS = 500
+
VSS
10 V
-
vD
+
+
RL
iD
vOUT
-
VOC = VTH =
ISC =
(b)
10 k
10 V = 9.52 V
10 k + 500
(85)
VSS
10 V
=
= 20 mA
RS 500
(86)
VOC = VTH =
ISC =
1 k
10 V = 6.67 V
1k + 500
VSS
10 V
=
= 20 mA
RS 500
(87)
(88)
(c)
VOC = VTH =
ISC =
Introduction to Electronics
65
100
. V
10 V = 167
100 + 500
(89)
VSS
10 V
=
= 20 mA
RS 500
(90)
The three load lines are plotted on the zener characteristic below:
Fig. 91. Load line analysis for the loaded zener regulator.
Introduction to Electronics
66
+ vD +
vS
Vm sin t
RL
+
vO
-
Vm
. . . vD = 0
t
. . . v O = vS
T
-Vm
. . . diode OFF
vO
. . . iD = 0, vO = 0
Vm
t
. . . vD = vS
-Vm
Introduction to Electronics
67
Rtotal
+
Vm sin t
-
110 Vrms
VBATTERY
Vm
vS
Charging
current
VBATT
t
T
-Vm
Fig. 97. Battery charger waveforms.
Here vS represents the transformer secondary voltage, and VBATT
represents the battery voltage.
Introduction to Electronics
68
iL (t)
iD (t)
+
vS (t)
RL
+
vL (t)
-
vL(t)
Ripple voltage,
Vr
Vm
t
on
diode off
on
diode off
on
Introduction to Electronics
vL(t)
Ripple voltage,
69
Vr
Vm
t
on
diode off
on
diode off
on
When vS > vL (shown in blue), the diode is on, and the voltage
source charges the capacitor.
(Because the diode and source are ideal, vS can only be
infinitesimally greater than vL )
2.
3.
4.
Introduction to Electronics
vL(t)
Ripple voltage,
70
Vr
Vm
t
on
diode off
on
diode off
on
Q ILT
Vm
V
T = m
RL
fRL
(91)
(92)
Vr C =
Vm
fRL
C=
Vm
Vr fRL
(93)
Introduction to Electronics
71
Because all of the charge supplied to the load must come from the
source only when the diode is ON, iD PEAK can be very large, as
illustrated below..
vL(t)
Ripple voltage,
Vr
Vm
t
on
diode off
on
diode off
on
i(t)
iD PEAK
iD(t)
iL(t)
t
on
diode off
on
diode off
on
Introduction to Electronics
72
+
vS (t)
+
vS (t)
-
iL (t)
DA
DB
RL
vB (t)
+
vL (t)
-
Operation
Note that the upper half of the transformer secondary voltage has
its negative reference at ground, while the lower half of the
secondary voltage has its positive reference at ground.
1st (Positive) Half-Cycle:
Current flows from upper source, through DA and RL, returning to
upper source via ground. Any current through DB would be in
reverse direction, thus DB is off.
2nd (Negative) Half-Cycle:
Current flows from lower source, through DB and RL, returning to
lower source via ground. Any current through DA would be in
reverse direction, thus DA is off.
vS
vL
Vm
Vm
t
Introduction to Electronics
73
vA (t)
vin (t)
+
vS (t)
+
vS (t)
-
iL (t)
DA
DB
RL
vB (t)
+
vL (t)
-
vB
t
-2Vm
-2Vm
Introduction to Electronics
74
vin (t)
D4
+
vS (t)
-
D3
D1
D2
iL (t)
+
vL (t)
-
Operation
vS
Vm
t
-Vm
Vm
t
75
Introduction to Electronics
Full-Wave Rectifier
Archaic since vacuum tube rectifiers have largely been replaced by
semiconductor rectifiers.
Preferable only at low voltages (one less diode forward-voltage
drop), if at all.
Vr C =
Vm
2fRL
C=
Vm
2Vr fRL
(94)
Introduction to Electronics
76
C
iC
n-type
collector
p-type base
n-type
emitter
iB
B
+v
BE
+
vCE
iE
E
E
Operating Region
EBJ
CBJ
Feature
cutoff
rev.
rev.
iC = iE = iB = 0
active
fwd.
rev.
amplifier
saturation
fwd.
fwd.
inverse
rev.
fwd.
limited use
Were most interested in the active region, but will have to deal with
cutoff and saturation, as well.
Discussion of inverse region operation is left for another time.
Introduction to Electronics
77
Base region very lightly doped and very narrow . . .very few
holes available to conduct current.
E
Fig. 116. Active-region
BJT currents.
Introduction to Electronics
78
+
vCE
+v
BE
- iE
v
i E = IES exp BE 1
VT
(95)
E
Fig. 117. Npn BJT
schematic symbol.
(96)
iC
iE
(97)
Introduction to Electronics
79
v
iC = i E = IES exp BE 1
VT
(98)
v
iC IS exp BE
VT
(99)
thus
i E = i E + i B
i B = (1 )i E
iC
i E
=
=
=
iB (1 )iE 1
(100)
(101)
+1
(102)
(103)
Introduction to Electronics
80
v+
BE
+
vCE
-
+
-
Input Characteristic
First, we measure the iB - vBE relationship (with vCE fixed). Not
surprisingly, we see a typical diode curve:
Introduction to Electronics
81
Output Characteristics
Next, we measure a family of iC - vCE curves for various values of
base current:
iC
iB
+
-
+
vCE
v+
BE
-
+
-
Active Region:
Recall that the active region requires that the EBJ be forwardbiased, and that the CBJ be reverse-biased.
A forward-biased EBJ means that vBE 0.7 V. Thus, the CBJ will
be reverse-biased as long as vCE > 0.7 V.
Note that iC and iB are related by the ratio , as long as the BJT is
in the active region.
We can also identify the cutoff and saturation regions . . .
Introduction to Electronics
82
Cutoff:
The EBJ is not forward-biased (sufficiently) if iB = 0. Thus the cutoff
region is the particular curve for iB = 0 (i.e., the horizontal axis).
Saturation:
When the EBJ is forward-biased, vBE 0.7 V. Then, the CBJ is
reverse-biased for any vCE > 0.7 V. Thus, the saturation region lies
to the left of vCE = 0.7 V.
Note that the CBJ must become forward-biased by 0.4 V to 0.5 V
before the iC = iB relationship disappears, just as a diode must be
forward-biased by 0.4 V to 0.5 V before appreciable forwardcurrent
flows.
Introduction to Electronics
83
C
iC
p-type
collector
n-type base
iB
B
p-type
emitter
. . . iC and iE resulting
from active region
operation also flow in the
opposite direction.
vEC
+
vEB
+ iE
E
E
Fig. 123. A pnp BJT and its schematic symbol. Note
that the current and voltage references have been
reversed.
In general,
i E = i B + iC
and
v
iE = IES exp EB 1
VT
(104)
iC = i E ,
i C = i B
and
v
iC IS exp EB
VT
(105)
Introduction to Electronics
84
Because the voltage and current references are reversed, the input
and output characteristics appear the same also:
Introduction to Electronics
85
Introduction to Electronics
86
Description of Operation
Drain
Gate
D
iD
iG = 0
n-type p
channel
+
vDS
+v
GS
iD
S
Source
Fig. 127. The n-channel JFET
representative physical structure (left) and schematic
symbol (right).
Drain
Gate
Source
Fig. 128. Depletion region
depicted for vGS = 0, vDS = 0.
Drain
Gate
+
vGS < 0
-
Source
Fig. 129.
Depletion region for negative
vGS (reverse bias).
Drain
Gate
+
vGS = VP
-
Source
Introduction to Electronics
87
Introduction to Electronics
88
Gate
+
0 < vDS < |VP|
-
Source
Drain
Gate
vDS
+
|VP|
-
Source
Introduction to Electronics
89
(106)
Triode Region:
The FET is in the triode region for 0 > vGS > VP , and vGD > VP :
i D = K 2(v GS VP )v DS v DS 2
(107)
for small v DS
(108)
Rchannel
v DS
1
iD
2K (v GS VP )
(109)
Pinch-Off Region:
The FET is in the pinch-off region for 0 > vGS > VP , and vGD < VP :
i D = K (v GS VP )
(110)
Introduction to Electronics
90
v GS v DS = VP
v GS VP = v DS
(111)
v GS VP =
iD
K
(112)
v DS =
iD
K
i D = Kv DS
(113)
Introduction to Electronics
91
(114)
K=
IDSS
2
VP
(115)
Introduction to Electronics
92
metal
G
SiO 2
channel
n-type wells, used for the source and drain, are connected by
a very thin n-type channel . . .
Introduction to Electronics
93
metal
G
SiO 2
n-type wells, used for the source and drain, are not connected
by a channel at all . . .
Introduction to Electronics
94
iD
IDSS
vGS
VP
i D = K (v GS VP )
iD
(116)
IDSS
vGS
i D = K (v GS VP )
VP
(117)
iD
vGS
VTH
(118)
Introduction to Electronics
95
Introduction to Electronics
96
iD
iG = 0
G
+
vDS
+v
GS iD
S
iD
iG = 0
G
iG = 0
+v
GS
S
+v
GS
S
Introduction to Electronics
97
n-ch. JFET
n-ch. depl. MOSFET
VTH
VP
p-ch. enh. MOSFET
VTH
p-ch. JFET
p-ch. depl. MOSFET
But more often youll see negative signs used to labels axes, or
values along the axes, such as these examples:
98
Introduction to Electronics
(119)
Triode Region:
(for vGS < VP , and vGD < VP )
i D = K 2(v GS VP )v DS v DS 2
(120)
(121)
Introduction to Electronics
99
S
Fig. 151. Zener-diode gate
protection of a MOSFET.
S
Fig. 152. Normal
MOSFET bodysource connection.
Introduction to Electronics
100
RC
iC
RB
+
vin
iB
+
vBE
-
+
vCE
-
+
VBB
VBB + v in = i BRB + v BE
VCC
(122)
VCC = iC RC + v CE
(123)
iB min
vBE
VBB +vin max
Introduction to Electronics
101
iB
VBB /R B
iB max
IBQ
iB min
vBE
VBB -vin max VBB
Thus, as vin varies through its cycle, base current varies from
iB max to iB min .
The base-emitter voltage varies also, from vBE max to vBE min ,
though we are less interested in vBE at the moment.
Introduction to Electronics
102
RC
iC
RB
+
vin
iB
+
vBE
-
+
vCE
-
+
-
VCC
+
VBB
Introduction to Electronics
103
Introduction to Electronics
104
A Numerical Example
Lets look at a PSpice simulation of realistic circuit:
RC = 1 k
iC
RB = 10 k
+
+
vBE
iB
+
+
vCE
Q1
2N2222
+
-
VCC = 10 V
Introduction to Electronics
105
IBQ = 31 A
iB max = 40 A
Fig. 161. 2N2222 output characteristics, with curves for base currents of (from
bottom to top) 4 A, 13 A, 22 A, 31 A, 40 A, and 49 A.
VCEQ = 4.50 V
Av =
v CE 2.95 V - 6.11V
=
= 15.8
v in
0.2 V
!!!
(124)
Introduction to Electronics
106
Fig. 163. Output (collector) waveform for the circuit of Fig. 159.
Introduction to Electronics
107
+
VBB = -1 V
+
vDS
+
vGS - J1
2N3819
+
-
VDD = 15 V
(125)
while KVL around the drain-source loop gives the familiar result:
VDD = i DRD + v DS
(126)
Introduction to Electronics
108
Fig. 165. PSpice-generated 2N3819 transfer characteristic showing the bias line,
and lines for vGS min and vGS max .
min
. V
= 15
. V
VGSQ = 10
v GS
max
= 0.5 V
= 3.00 mA
(127)
IDQ = 5.30 mA
(128)
iD
(129)
iD
min
max
= 8.22 mA
Introduction to Electronics
109
Fig. 166. 2N3819 output characteristics, with curves for gate-source voltages of
(from bottom to top) -3 V, -2.5 V, -2 V, -1.5 V, -1 V, -0.5 V, and 0 V.
From the output characteristics and the drain-source load line, the
indicated gate-source voltages correspond to the following drain-source
voltage values:
v GS
min
. V
= 15
. V
VGSQ = 10
v GS
max
= 0.5 V
= 12.0 V
(130)
VDSQ = 9.70 V
(131)
v DS
(132)
v DS
max
min
= 6.78 V
Av =
v DS 6.78 V - 12.0 V
=
= 5.22
v GS
1V
!!!
(133)
Amplifier Distortion
Introduction to Electronics
110
Amplifier Distortion
Lets look at the output waveform (vDS ) of the previous example:
Fig. 167. Output (drain) waveform for the FET amplifier example.
Amplifier Distortion
Introduction to Electronics
111
+
+
VBB = -1.5 V
+
vDS
+
vGS - J1
2N3819
+
-
VDD = 15 V
Fig. 169. Severely distorted output waveform resulting from operation in the
cutoff region (top) and the triode region (bottom).
Introduction to Electronics
112
Introduction to Electronics
113
RC
iC
+
vCE
-
Example
We let VCC = 15 V,
RB = 200 k, and RC = 1 k
For = 100:
IB =
IC = IB = 7.15 mA
Q. Active region???
(134)
(135)
For = 300:
IB =
RB
200 k
. mA
IC = IB = 215
(136)
(137)
Introduction to Electronics
114
V BB
iC
+
v CE
-
RE
Example
Now we let VCC = 15 V and VBB = 5 V
RC = 2 k and RE = 2 k
For = 100:
IE =
VBB VBE
= 215
. mA
RE
IC =
IE = 213
. mA
+1
(138)
(139)
For = 300:
IE =
VBB VBE
= 215
. mA
RE
IC =
IE = 214
. mA
+1
(140)
(141)
115
Introduction to Electronics
VCC
R1
RC
R1
VCC
VCC
RE
R2
RE
R2
RC
RC
RB
VBB
+
-
+
-
VCC
RE
Introduction to Electronics
116
Circuit Analysis
RC
RB
VBB
VCC
+
RE
(142)
(143)
IB =
VBB VBE
RB + ( + 1)RE
(144)
IB = IC =
(VBB VBE )
RB + ( +1)RE
(145)
(146)
117
Introduction to Electronics
Bias Stability
Bias stability can be illustrated with eq. (145), repeated below:
IB = IC =
(VBB VBE )
RB + ( +1)RE
(147)
Rule of Thumb:
let ( + 1)RE 10 RB
Equivalent Rule:
let IR 10IB
2
max
= 100
1
let VRC VCE VRE VCC
3
Introduction to Electronics
118
Example
15 V
R1
10 k
RC
RC
1 k
R B = 3.3 k
+
RE
R2 5 k
1 k
1 k
15 V
+
-
5 V
RE
1 k
IB =
VBB VBE
= 412
. A
RB + ( + 1)RE
IE =
IC
= 416
. mA
IC = IB = 412
. mA
(148)
(149)
For = 300:
IB =
VBB VBE
= 141
. A
RB + ( + 1)RE
IE =
IC
= 4.25 mA
IC = IB = 4.24 mA
(150)
(151)
Introduction to Electronics
119
RG
iD
+
vDS
-
VGG
-
.iD
High-current device
IDQ
Low-current device
IDQ
vGS
VGSQ
Fig. 179. Graphical illustration of fixed bias using an
n-channel JFET.
Finally, note the complete lack of bias stability. Fixed bias is not
practical!!!
Introduction to Electronics
120
VDD
RD
iD
+
+
vGS
RS
RG
vDS
+
R S iD
-
(153)
iD
High-current device
Bias line
vGS = -RS iD
Low-current device
IDQ
IDQ
vGS
121
Introduction to Electronics
V DD
R1
V DD
RD
RD
RG
R2
RS
VG
iD
+
v DS
-
+
-
RS
(154)
(155)
122
Introduction to Electronics
iD
High-current device
Bias line
vGS = VG - RS iD
IDQ
IDQ
Low-current device
vGS
Intercept at
V G / RS
VG
1
let VRD = VDS = VRS = VDD
3
Other considerations:
Because IG = 0, R1 and R2 can be very large (e.g., M).
Because VG can be > 0, this circuit can be used with any FET,
including enhancement MOSFETs.
Introduction to Electronics
123
Concepts of Biasing
We want bias stability because we generally desire to keep the Qpoint within some region:
iC
VCC
RC + RE
PMAX = iC vCE
Q-point area
VCC
vCE
Introduction to Electronics
124
i1
RC
iC
R1
iE
vB
+
vE R E
-
iB
R2
i2
-
ICQ
Fig. 186. Four-resistor bias
circuit, revisited.
(VBB VBEQ )
=
RB + ( + 1)RE
(156)
Design Procedure
RC =
VR
ICQ
and
RE =
VE VE
IEQ ICQ
(157)
R2 =
VE + VBEQ
I2
and
R1 =
(158)
Introduction to Electronics
125
iB
iE
RB
vB
+
This is essentially the same as the fourresistor bias circuit. Only the reference
point (ground) has changed.
RE
-VEE
ICQ =
Design Procedure
(VEE VBEQ )
RB + ( + 1)RE
(159)
RB =
RC =
V;B VB
=
IBQ
ICQ
and
RE
VEE VB VBEQ
ICQ
(160)
Choose VCEQ . Here a rule of thumb is: VCEQ VCC /2. Then:
]=V
CC
VCEQ + VB + VBEQ
ICQ
(161)
Introduction to Electronics
126
RC
iC
+VCC
i1
R1
iB
R2
i2
-VEE
Fig. 188. Grounded-emitter
bias circuit.
ICQ
R
VCC 1 (VEE + VBEQ )
R2
R1 + RC
(162)
Design Procedure
Allocate VCC between VRc and VCEQ . With supply voltage split
between only two elements the rule of thumb becomes:
VCEQ VCC / 2
R2 =
(163)
I2 10IBQ max
(164)
Then:
VEE + VBEQ
I2
R1 =
VCEQ VBEQ
I2 + IBQ
RC =
VCC VVEQ
ICQ + I1
(165)
Introduction to Electronics
127
+VCC
RC
i1
ICQ
iC
R1
iB
R2
R
VCC 1 (VEE + VBEQ )
R2
R1 + RC
(166)
i2
I1 = I2 + IB
(167)
IRC = I1 + IC = I2 + ( + 1)IB
(168)
and
-VEE
Fig. 189. Grounded-emitter
bias circuit (Fig. 188 repeated).
I2 =
VEE + VBEQ
R2
(169)
(170)
VCC = VBEQ +
R1
R
VEE + VBEQ ) + IBR1 + C (VEE + VBEQ ) + ( + 1)IBRC
(
R2
R2
(171)
128
Introduction to Electronics
VCC = VBEQ +
R
R1
VEE + VBEQ ) + IBR1 + C (VEE + VBEQ ) + ( + 1)IBRC
(
R2
R2
(172)
VCC VBEQ
R
R1
VEE + VBEQ ) C (VEE + VBEQ ) = IB R1 + ( + 1)RC
(
R2
R2
] (173)
RC /R2 0
+ 1
ICQ
R
VCC 1 (VEE + VBEQ )
R2
=
R1 + RC
(174)
Introduction to Electronics
129
BJTs are very efficient. And while values suffer the same
3:1 to 5:1 variation found in discrete transistors, all BJTs on an
IC wafer are essentially identical (if intended to be).
This latter point is most important, and drives all IC circuit design.
We begin to examine this on the following pages.
Introduction to Electronics
130
VCC
VCC
IREF
Load
RREF
IO = IC2
IC1
Q1
IB1
IB2
Q2
IO = IC 2 = IC1 = IC = IB
(175)
(176)
IO
IREF
IB
1
=
=
( + 2)IB + 2 1 + 2
(177)
Introduction to Electronics
VCC
VCC
IREF
Load
RREF
IO = IC2
131
Reference Current:
IREF is set easily, by choosing RREF :
IREF =
RREF
RREF
(178)
IC1
Q1
IB1
IB2
Q2
Output Resistance:
Finally, the output resistance seen by
the load is just the output resistance
of Q2 :
i
ro = C 2
v CE 2
(179)
Introduction to Electronics
IC2
132
Compliance Range
ro = 1/slope
Compliance Range
VCE2
0.5 V
BV
VCC
Amplifier
IDC
Current
Mirror
-VEE
Fig. 194. Follower
biased with a current
nirror.
-VEE
Fig. 195. Representation
of the mirror circuit of
Fig. 194.
133
Introduction to Electronics
Current Ratio:
V CC
Load
R REF
IO = IC2
Q2
Q3
IO = IC 2 =
IB 2 =
( + 2)
IE 2 =
IB
+1
+1
+2
1
IE 2 =
IB
+1
+1
IREF = IC1 + IB 2 = IB +
+2
IB
+1
(180)
(181)
(182)
(183)
IO
IREF
Introduction to Electronics
134
( + 2)
( + 2)
IB
( + 2)
+1
+1
=
=
=
+2
( + 1) + 2 ( + 1) + ( + 2)
IB +
IB
+
+1
+1
+1
(184)
2 + 2
1
1
= 2
1
=
2
2
+ 2 + 2 1 +
1+ 2
2
+ 2
(185)
IO
IREF
Thus the Wilson mirror ratio is much closer to unity than the ratio of
the simple diode-biased mirror.
Reference Current:
The reference current can be found by summing voltages rises from
ground to VCC :
IREF =
RREF
RREF
(186)
Output Resistance:
The output resistance of the Wilson can be shown to be ro2 .
However, the derivation of the output resistance is a sizable
endeavor and will not be undertaken here.
Introduction to Electronics
135
VCC
Load
R1
IO = IC2
IC1
Q1
-
V+
BE1
V+
BE2
-
Q2
R2
Current Relationship:
Recall the Shockley transistor equations for forward bias:
v
iC = IS exp BE
VT
i
and v BE = VT ln C
IS
(187)
i
and VBE 2 = VT ln C 2
IS
(188)
i
VBE 1 = VT ln C1
IS
Note that VT and IS are the same for both transistors because they
are identical (and assumed to be at the same temperature).
VCC
Introduction to Electronics
VCC
136
Load
R1
IO = IC2
IC1
Q1
-
V+
BE1
Q2
V+
BE2
R2
(189)
Rearranging:
VBE 1 VBE 2 = VBE R2IC 2
(190)
Substituting the base-emitter voltages from eq. (188) into eq. (190):
I
I
VT ln C1 VT ln C 2 R2IC 2
IS
IS
I
VT ln C1 R2IC 2
IC 2
(191)
Analysis:
VT IC1
ln = IC 2
R2 IC 2
Design: R2 =
VT IC1
ln
IC 2 IC 2
(192)
where:
IC1 IREF =
VCC VBE 1
R1
(193)
Introduction to Electronics
137
Load 1
Load 2
-VEE
-VEE
IREF
VCC
Load 3
VCC
Load 4
-VEE
Introduction to Electronics
138
139
Introduction to Electronics
iD
vs
VDC
iD
+
vD
IDQ
vD
VDQ
Fig. 201. Diode characteristic.
The Concept
First, we allow vs to be zero. The circuit is now dc only, and has a
specific Q-point shown.
We can find the Q-point analytically with the Shockley equation, or
with a diode model such as the ideal, constant-voltage-drop, or
piecewise-linear model.
Now, we allow vs to be nonzero, but small.
The instantaneous operating point moves slightly above and below
the Q-point. If signal is small enough, we can approximate the
diode curve with a straight line.
The Equations
This straight-line approximation allows us to write a linear equation
relating the changes in diode current (around the Q-pt.) to the
changes in diode voltage:
i D = K v D
(194)
Introduction to Electronics
140
(195)
IDQ
VDQ
vD
id =
1
vd
rd
(196)
141
Introduction to Electronics
1 i D
=
rd v D Q po int
(197)
v
v
iD = IS exp D 1 IS exp D
nVT
nVT
(198)
Thus:
v D
vD
VDQ
IS
=
I
exp
exp
S
nV
nV
nV
T
T
T
Q po int
(199)
V
IDQ IS exp DQ
nVT
(200)
So:
I
i D
DQ
v D Q po int nVT
rd
nVT
IDQ
(201)
Notes:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Notation
142
Introduction to Electronics
Notation
The following notation is standard:
iD
IDQ
id
iD
t
Fig. 203. Illustration of various currents.
vD , iD
VD , ID
vd , id
Vd , Id
Introduction to Electronics
143
iC
vs
ib
IBQ
iB
VDC
iB
iE
i
ib = B
v BE
IBQ
~0.7 V
1
v be = v be
r
Q po int
where
vBE
VT
IBQ
(202)
(203)
Introduction to Electronics
144
i c = i b
(204)
ib
ic
+
vbe r
-
ib
ie
E
Fig. 207. BJT small-signal equivalent circuit.
145
Introduction to Electronics
VCC
R1
RC
Cout
Cin
RS
+
vs
-
Q1
vin
R2
RE
CE
RL
vo
-
146
Introduction to Electronics
VCC
R1
RC
Cout
Cin
RS
Q1
+
vs
-
vin
R2
RL
CE
RE
vo
-
2.
3.
ib
+
vin R2
-
R1
ib
RC
RL
+
vo
-
Introduction to Electronics
147
ib
+
vs
-
vin
ib
RB
R L
+
vo
-
Voltage Gain
Our usual focus is Av = vo /vin , or Avs = vo /vs . We concentrate on the
former. Because ib is the only parameter common to both sides of
the circuit, we can design an approach:
1. We write an equation on the input side to relate vin to ib .
2. We write an equation on output side to relate vo to ib .
3. We combine equations to eliminate ib .
Thus:
v in = v be = i b r
v o = i bRL
And:
RL
v o i bRL
=
=
Av =
v in
i b r
r
(205)
(206)
(207)
Avo =
v o RC
=
v in
r
(208)
Introduction to Electronics
148
Input Resistance
Rin
iin
RS
ib
+
vs
-
vin
ib
RB
RL
+
vo
-
E
Fig. 212. Input resistance of common emitter amplifier.
(209)
Output Resistance
Recall that to find Ro , we must remove the load, and set all
independent sources to zero, but only independent sources. We do
not set dependent sources to zero!!!
Thus:
RS
B
RB
ib
i b
RC
Ro
E
Fig. 213. Output resistance of common emitter amplifier.
(210)
Introduction to Electronics
149
RS
Q1
+
vs
-
Cout
+
vin
-
R2
RL
RE
vo
-
ib
+
vin R2
i b
R1
R1 || R2 = RB
RE || RL = RL
(+1)ib
RE
+
R L vo
-
Introduction to Electronics
150
Voltage Gain
B ib
RS
+
vs
-
+
vin R2
ib
R1
(+1)ib
R1 || R2 = RB
RE
RE || RL = RL
+
RL vo
-
v in = ib r + ( + 1)ib RL
v o = ( + 1)i bRL
+ 1)RL
(
vo
=
Av =
v in r + ( + 1)R
(211)
(212)
(213)
Typical values for Av range from 0.8 to unity. The emitter (output)
voltage follows the input voltage, hence the name emitter follower.
The feature of the follower is not voltage gain, but power gain, high
input resistance and low output resistance, as we see next . . .
Introduction to Electronics
151
Input Resistance
Rin
Rit
RS
+
vs
-
ib
+
vin R2
R1
ib
r
E
(+1)ib
R1 || R2 = RB
RE
RL
+
vo
-
RE || RL = RL
Note that :
Rin =
v in
= RB || Rit ,
i in
where Rit =
v in
ib
(214)
Weve already written the equation we need to find Rit . Its equation
(211), from which:
(215)
Rit = r + ( + 1)RL
Thus
Rin = RB || r + ( + 1)RL
(216)
Introduction to Electronics
152
Output Resistance
B
RS
R2
ib
ib
R1
E
R 1||R 2||R S = R S
(+1)ib
itest
iy
+
vtest
RE
R ot
Ro
Ro =
v test
= RE || Rot ,
itest
But
v test
where Rot =
= i b RS + r
v test
v test
=
( + 1)ib
iy
RS + r
Rot =
+1
(217)
(218)
Introduction to Electronics
153
B.
C.
2.
3.
4.
Solve.
5.
Check units!!!
154
Introduction to Electronics
iD
vs
+
iD
IDSS
iS
V DC
IDQ
VP
VGSQ
vGS
D
+
vgs
-
gm vgs
is
S
Fig. 221. FET sm. sig. model.
and
i D = IDQ + i d
(219)
VGSQ and IDQ are related by the secondorder FET characteristic, but if |vs| is
small enough, vgs and id are related
(almost) linearly:
i d = gmv gs
(220)
Introduction to Electronics
iD
Transconductance
The coefficient gm is the slope
of the tangent :
i
gm = D
v GS
155
IDSS
Q
IDQ
(221)
Q
VP
VGSQ
vGS
(222)
We obtain:
gm =
2
K (v GS VP )
v GS
= 2K (VGSQ VP )
(223)
IDQ
K
(224)
VGSQ VP =
(225)
gm = 2
IDSS IDQ
VP
(226)
Introduction to Electronics
156
i D
id =
v GS
where
i D
v gs +
v DS
Q
i D
v DS
=
Q
v ds
v ds = gmv gs +
rd
Q
1
= slope of output char. at Q
rd
(227)
(228)
D
+
v gs
-
g m v gs
rd
is
S
Fig. 224. FET small-signal model including
FET output resistance.
Introduction to Electronics
157
Rsig
+
vsig
-
vin
-
+
RG
CS
RS
RL
vo
-
vsig
-
Rsig iin
+
vin
-
G
RG
D
+
vgs
gmvgs
rd
RD
+
R L vo
-
rd ||RD ||RL = RL
Fig. 226. Small-signal equivalent circuit for the common source amplifier.
Rsig iin
+
vsig
-
vin
Introduction to Electronics
158
D
+
vgs
RG
gmvgs
RD
rd
+
R L vo
-
rd ||RD ||RL = RL
Fig. 227. Common source small signal equivalent (Fig. 226 repeated).
Voltage Gain
v in = v gs
Thus:
v o = gmv gs RL
and
Av =
(229)
vo
= gmRL
v in
(230)
v in
= RG
i in
(231)
Input Resistance
Rin =
Output Resistance
Remember, we must remove RL , and set all independent sources
to zero. For this circuit we can determine Ro by inspection:
Ro = rd || RD
(232)
Introduction to Electronics
159
Cin
Rsig
+
vsig
-
vin
Cout
RG
+
RL
RS
vo
-
vsig
-
Rsig iin
+
vin
-
G
RG
D
+
vgs
-
rd ||RS ||RL = RL
gmvgs
rd
RS
+
RL vo
-
160
Introduction to Electronics
Rsig iin
+
vsig
-
vin
G
RG
D
+
vgs
-
rd ||RS ||RL = RL
gmvgs
rd
RS
+
RL vo
-
Voltage Gain
This one requires a little more algebra. Beginning with:
v in = v gs + v o
v gs = v in v o
(233)
and
v o = gmv gs
v gs
+ i in RL = gmv gs +
RL = v gs gm +
R
RG
RG L
(234)
We replace vgs in eq. (234) with eq. (233), and solve for vo /vin :
1
v o = (v in v o ) gm +
RL
RG
(235)
1
1
RL v o = v in gm +
RL
1 + gm +
R
R
G
G
(236)
1
gm +
RL
RG
vo
=
= 0.5 to 0.8 typically
Av =
v in
1
1 + gm +
RL
RG
(237)
vsig
-
Introduction to Electronics
Rsig iin
+
G
RG
vin
D
+
vgs
-
161
rd ||RS ||RL = RL
gmvgs
rd
RS
+
RL vo
-
Input Resistance
Replacing vo in eq. (233) with eq. (234):
1
v in = v gs + v o = v gs + v gs gm +
RL
RG
(238)
1
v in = i inRG + i inRG gm +
RL
RG
(239)
Rin =
v in
= RG + (1 + gmRG )RL
i in
(240)
Introduction to Electronics
Rsig
G
RG
162
+
vgs
-
gmvgs
rd
RS
itest
+
vtest
-
Output Resistance
This calculation is a little more involved, so we shall be more formal
in our approach.
We remove RL , apply a test source, vtest , and set the independent
source to zero.
From a KCL equation at the source node:
itest =
v test v test
v test
+
+
gmv gs
RS
rd
RG + Rsig
(241)
v gs =
RG
v test
RG + Rsig
(242)
itest
1
gmRG
1
1
= v test
+ +
+
RS rd RG + Rsig RG + Rsig
(243)
Introduction to Electronics
Rsig
G
RG
163
+
vgs
-
gmvgs
rd
RS
itest
+
vtest
-
Thus:
Ro =
v test
1
=
gmRG
1
1
1
i test
+ +
+
RS rd RG + Rsig RG + Rsig
(244)
R + Rsig
Ro = RS || rd || (RG + Rsig )|| G
gmRG
(245)
164
Introduction to Electronics
f
f
j 1 + j
fZ 2
fZ 1
Av (f ) =
f
1 + j
fP 1
(246)
Remember:
Bode plots are not the actual curves, but only asymptotes to
the actual curves.
Introduction to Electronics
165
0 dB
fZ1
fz1
20 dB/decade
f
fZ 2
0 dB
fz2
0 dB
fp
-20 dB/decade
f
fP 1
Introduction to Electronics
166
+90O
Fig. 237. Bode phase response
for jf/fZ1 .
+90O
10fz2
f
fZ1
f
fZ 2
45O/decade
0O
fz2 /10
0O
fp /10
-45 /decade
-90O
10fp
f
fP 1
Introduction to Electronics
167
Single-Pole Low-Pass RC
The review of the details of the
Bode response of a single-pole
low-pass RC circuit begins with
the s-domain transfer function:
R
+
+
Vin(s)
1/sC
Vo(s)
-
Av =
1
sC
Vo
1
=
=
Vin R + 1
sRC + 1
sC
(247)
Av =
1
1
=
1 + j (2RC )f 1 + j f
fb
where
fb =
1
2RC
(248)
This fits the generalized single-pole form from the previous page,
except were using fb instead of fP. The term fb is called the halfpower frequency, the corner frequency, the break frequency, or the
3-dB frequency.
Gain Magnitude in dB:
From:
Av =
1
f
12 +
fb
(249)
Introduction to Electronics
168
We obtain:
Av
f
= 20 log
= 20 log(1) 20 log 12 +
2
fb
f
2
1 +
fb
1
dB
(250)
2
f 2
f
= 20 log 12 + = 10 log1 +
fb
fb
dB
= 10 log(1) = 0 dB
(251)
Av
dB
f
f
= 10 log = 20 log
fb
fb
(252)
Av , dB
fb /10
-3 dB
fb
10fb
100fb
-20 dB
-40 dB
Fig. 241. Bode magnitude plot for single-pole lowpass, in red. The actual curve is shown in blue.
Introduction to Electronics
169
Im
Av =
f/fb
1
1+ j
Re
1
f
fb
(253)
A = arctan
v
f
fb
(254)
The Bode phase plot shows the characteristic shape of this inverse
tangent function:
, deg
0O
fb /10
fb
10fb
100fb
-45O
-90O
Introduction to Electronics
170
Single-Pole High-Pass RC
1/sC
+
+
Vin(s)
Av =
Vo(s)
-
R
1
+R
sC
sRC
sRC + 1
(255)
Av =
f
fb
j (2RC )f
=
1 + j (2RC )f 1 + j f
fb
where
fb =
1
2RC
(256)
Av
dB
f
f
= 20 log 20 log 1 +
fb
fb
(257)
Recall from Fig. (234) that the first term is a straight line, with +20
dB/dec slope, passing through 0 dB at fb .
The last term is the same term from the low pass example, which
has the form of Fig. (236).
The total Bode magnitude response is merely the sum of these two
responses.
Introduction to Electronics
171
fb
10fb
100fb
-3 dB
-20 dB
-40 dB
f
fb
This is just the low-pass phase plot shifted upward by 90o:
A = 90 arctan
v
, deg
90O
45O
0O
fb /10
fb
10fb
f
100fb
(258)
Coupling Capacitors
Introduction to Electronics
172
Coupling Capacitors
Effect on Frequency Response
VCC
RB
RC
Cout
Cin
RS
+
vs
-
Q1
vin
RL
vo
-
Amplifier
Source
Load
ib
RB
ib
RC
+
vx Rin
-
+
A v
- vo x
Coupling Capacitors
173
Introduction to Electronics
RS
Ro
Cin
+
vx Rin
-
+
vs
-
+
Avo vx
-
Cout
RL
+
vo
-
Fig. 250. Complete circuit redrawn with amplifier section replaced by its model.
Note that both sides are identical topologically, and are single-pole,
high-pass circuits:
On the left:
f1 =
On the right:
1
2Cin (RS + Rin )
(259)
f2 =
1
2Cout (Ro + RL )
(260)
Now lets work our way lower in frequency. . . when we get to the
first of the two pole frequencies, our Bode magnitude plot begins to
drop at 20 dB/decade. . . when we get to the second pole, the plot
drops at 40 dB/decade. . . see the illustration on the next page.
Coupling Capacitors
Introduction to Electronics
174
20 log Av mid
20 dB/dec
f2
40 dB/dec
f1
2.
3.
Introduction to Electronics
175
RC-Coupled amplifiers:
Coupling capacitors - capacitors cost $
Direct-Coupled amplifiers:
No capacitors - bias circuits interact - more difficult design, but
preferable.
2.
3.
4.
5.
larger
than calculated
Introduction to Electronics
176
RC
Cout
Cin
RS
Q1
+
vs
-
REF
vin
RL
REB
R2
CE
vo
-
VCC
RC
Cout
Cin
RS
+
vs
-
Q1
REF
vin
RB
REB
RL
CE
-VEE
Fig. 253. Generic dual-supply common emitter ckt.
(Let RL = RL || RC , RE = REF + REB )
vo
-
Introduction to Electronics
177
RS
+
vs
-
ib
io
+
RB
vin
ib
RC
RL
+
vo
-
E
Rin
RL
REF
Midband Performance
vo
RL
RL
=
Av =
, if >> 1
v in r + ( + 1)REF
REF
Av =
s
Rin =
vo
Rin
= Av
vs
RS + Rin
v in
= RB || r + ( + 1)REF
i in
(261)
(262)
(263)
(264)
Introduction to Electronics
178
Design Considerations
Design Tradeoffs:
1.
2.
3.
Gain Stability:
Note from eq. (261), as REF increases, Av -RL/REF , i.e., gain
becomes independent of !!!
Introduction to Electronics
179
RS
+
vs
-
Cin
ib
Cout
io
+
RB
vin
ib
RC
RL
+
vo
-
REF
fout =
1
2 (RC + RL )Cout
for Av =
vo
vs
1
2RinCin
(267)
1
2 (RS + Rin )Cin
(268)
fin =
fin =
(266)
Equations for fin are approximate, because the effects of Cin and CE
interact slightly. The interaction is almost always negligible.
Introduction to Electronics
180
ib
io
ib
RB
vin
-
+
R L v o
-
REF
REB
CE
Fig. 256. Approximate common emitter sm. sig. equivalent at low frequencies.
Only the effect of CE is accounted for in this circuit.
Introduction to Electronics
181
ib
io
+
RB
vin
-
i b
r
E
RY
REF
+
R L vo
-
RX
Rthevenin
REB
(269)
ic
+
vbe r
-
ib
itest
+
vtest
v be
v
= test
r
r
(270)
i test = ( + 1)i b
(271)
ib =
RY =
v test
r
=
+1
itest
(272)
If RS 0, then RY becomes:
RY =
(RB || RS ) + r
+1
(273)
Introduction to Electronics
182
f1 =
r
2CE REB || REF +
+ 1
(274)
r + (RB || RS
2CE REB || REF +
f2 =
1
2CE REB
(275)
1
= :
jf2CE
(276)
40 dB/dec
fout
fin
60 dB/dec
f2
40 dB/dec
Introduction to Electronics
183
+
Vin
-
Black Box
+
Vout = AvVin
-
+
Vin
-
Iz
Zin, Miller
Black Box
Zout, Miller
+
Vout = AvVin
-
If we can choose Zin. Miller so that Iz is the same in both circuits, the
input port wont know the difference - the circuits will be equivalent
at the input port.
Introduction to Electronics
184
(277)
IZ =
Vin
Z in, Miller
(278)
Z in, Miller =
Z
1 Av
(279)
2.
3.
Introduction to Electronics
185
BJT Model
The Hybrid-
The Model
This is another tool we need before we examine the high frequency
response of amplifiers.
The hybrid- BJT model includes elements that are negligible at low
frequencies and midband, but cannot be ignored at higher
frequencies of operation:
C
B
rx
B
+
v
-
C
g mv
ro
E
C 1 pF to 10 pF
186
Introduction to Electronics
Effect of C and C
C
B
rx
B
+
v
-
C
g mv
ro
E
B
+
v
-
C1
gmv C 2
ro
E
Fig. 265. Simplified hybrid- BJT model using the Miller Effect and the other
assumptions described in the text..
B
+
v
-
187
Introduction to Electronics
C1
gmv C 2
ro
E
Fig. 266. Miller Effect applied to hybrid- model (Fig. 265 repeated).
(281)
1
C2 = C 1 C
Av
(282)
fb =
fh1
fh2
1
2CeqRThevenin
(283)
188
Introduction to Electronics
B
+
v
-
C1
gmv C 2
ro
E
Fig. 268. Miller Effect applied to hybrid- model (Fig. 265 repeated).
fH fh1 =
1
2 (C1 + C )RThevenin
(284)
fH
1
1
2C1RThevenin 2 Av C RThevenin
(285)
Introduction to Electronics
189
RC
Cout
Cin
RS
Q1
+
vs
-
vin
R2
CE
RE
RL
vo
-
Now we use the hybrid- equivalent for the BJT and construct the
small-signal equivalent circuit for the amplifier:
C
RS
+
vs
-
B
+
vin
-
rx
+
RB = R1||R2 v
E
C
g mv
RL||RC
ro
E
RL = ro||RL||RC
Fig. 270. Amplifier small-signal equivalent circuit using hybrid- BJT model.
Introduction to Electronics
190
High-Frequency Performance
We can simplify the circuit further by using a Thevenin equivalent
on the input side, and by assuming the effect of r to be negligible:
C
RS
C
+
v
-
+
vs
-
g mv
R L
+
vo
-
Av =
R S
+
v s
-
vo
gmRL
v
(286)
C
+
v
-
C (1+gmRL)
g m v
R L
+
vo
-
Fig. 272. Final (approximate) equivalent after applying the Miller Effect.
R S
+
v s
-
Introduction to Electronics
191
C
+
v
-
C (1+gmRL)
g m v
R L
+
vo
-
Fig. 273. Final (approximate) equivalent after applying the Miller Effect (Fig. 272
repeated).
So we have
fh1 =
2RS Ctotal
(287)
where
Ctotal = C + C 1 + gmRL
(288)
and
RS = r || rx + (RB || RS )
(289)
Introduction to Electronics
192
-20 dB/dec
f1
40 dB/dec
fh1
fout
fin
60 dB/dec
f2
40 dB/dec
Fig. 274. One example of the entire Bode magnitude response of a common
emitter amplifier.
Of this plot, the lower and upper 3-dB frequencies are the most
important, as they determine the bandwidth of the amplifier:
BW = fH fL fh1 f1
(290)
where the latter approximation assumes that adjacent poles are far
away.
Weve estimated the frequency response of only one amplifier
configuration, the common-emitter. The techniques, though, can be
applied to any amplifier circuit.
Introduction to Electronics
193
Linear Imperfections
Input and Output Impedance:
Ideally, Rin = and Rout = 0.
Realistically, Rin ranges from 1 M in BJT op amps to 1 T in
FET op amps.
Rout ranges from less than 100 in general purpose op amps, to
several k in low power op amps.
Gain and Bandwidth:
Ideally, Av = and BW = .
Realistically, Av ranges from 80 dB (104) to 140 dB (107).
Many internally-compensated op amps have their BW restricted to
prevent oscillation, producing the Bode magnitude plot shown:
The transfer function, then, has a
single-pole, low-pass form:
Av , dB
100 20 log A0
80
fb
A(s ) =
20 dB/decade
60
40
20
0
ft = A0fb
1
10
102
103
104
105
106
f, Hz
A0
s
+1
2fb
(291)
(292)
Introduction to Electronics
194
Nonlinear Imperfections
Output Voltage Swing:
BJT op amp outputs can swing to within 2VBE of VSUPPLY .
FET op amp outputs an swing to within a few mV of VSUPPLY .
Output Current Limits:
Of course, currents must be limited to a safe value. Some op
amps have internal current limit protection.
General purpose op amps have output currents in the range of tens
of mA. For examples, the LM741 has an output current rating of
25 mA, while the LM324 can source 30 mA and sink 20 mA.
Slew-Rate Limiting:
dv o
SR . It
dt
is caused by a current source driving the compensation capacitor.
As an example, the LM741 has a SR of 0.5 V/s.
This is the maximum rate at which vO can change,
vo
Expected output
Actual output
Introduction to Electronics
195
Full-Power Bandwidth:
This is defined as the highest frequency for which an undistorted
sinusoidal output is obtainable at maximum output voltage:
v o (t ) = VOM sin t
dv o
dt
= SR = VOM = 2fVOM
(293)
max
fFP =
SR
2VOM
(294)
DC Imperfections:
Many of the concepts in this section are rightly credited to Prof. D.B.
Brumm.
Input Offset Voltage, VIO :
vO is not exactly zero when vI = 0. The input offset voltage VIO is
defined as the value of an externally-applied differential input
voltage such that vO = 0. It has a polarity as well as a magnitude.
Input Currents:
Currents into noninverting and inverting inputs are not exactly zero,
but consist of base bias currents (BJT input stage) or gate leakage
currents (FET input stage):
II+ , current into noninverting input
II- , current into inverting input
These also have a polarity as well as a magnitude.
Introduction to Electronics
196
I + II
IB = I
2
IIO = II II
and
(295)
v-
II-
VIO
- +
+
I
I
v+
IB - IIO/2
i=0
ideal
op
amp
i=0
vO
+
IB + IIO/2
Introduction to Electronics
197
RF
+
-
RN
vIN
R+
+
-
RF
R+
vIN
Fig. 279. Inverting op amp
configuration.
RN
-
+
R+
Introduction to Electronics
198
vv+
VIO
I III
i=0
- +
vO
ideal
op
amp
i=0
+
IB + IIO/2
IB - IIO/2
And replace the ideal op amp of Fig. 280 with this model:
RN
RF
+
R+
VOE
I+
VIO +
Fig. 282. Op amp noninverting and
inverting amplifiers, external source set to
zero, using dc error model.
RN
VOE
R+
199
RF
Introduction to Electronics
VIO +
Fig. 283. Op amp configurations, with external
source set to zero, using dc error model. (Fig.
282 repeated)
We can now determine the dc output error for virtually any op amp
configuration. We have already noted the dc output error as VOE .
Using superposition, well first set I- to zero. The voltage at the
noninverting input is
v + = VIO R + I +
(296)
R
VOE , Part A = 1 + F (VIO + R + I + )
RN
(297)
RN
RF
-
Now v+ = v- = 0, so there is no
current through RN .
VOE
R+
200
Introduction to Electronics
VIO +
Fig. 284. Op amp configurations, with external
source set to zero, using dc error model. (Fig.
282 repeated)
VOE , Part B = RF I
(298)
VOE , Part B =
R
RN + RF
RN
RF I = 1 + F R I
RN RN + RF
RN
(299)
where
R =
RN
RF = RF || RN
RN + RF
(300)
R
VOE = 1 + F (VIO + R + I + R I )
RN
(301)
201
Introduction to Electronics
100 k
+
-
IB [0, 100] nA
vO
(302)
(303)
(304)
R
VOE = 1 + F (VIO R I )
RN
(305)
Introduction to Electronics
202
(306)
(307)
Thus we know VOE will lie between -22 mV and +34 mV.
Introduction to Electronics
203
R
VOE = 1 + F (VIO + R + I + R I )
RN
(308)
R
I
I
VOE = 1 + F VIO + R + IB + IO R IB IO
2
2
RN
(309)
R
I
= 1 + F VIO + (R + R )IB + (R + + R ) IO
2
RN
Thus, we can eliminate the effect of IB if we select
R + = R = RF || RN
(310)
Instrumentation Amplifier
Introduction to Electronics
204
Instrumentation Amplifier
Introduction
R1
v2
vID
vO =
vO
+
v1
R2
R2
(v 1 v 2 )
R1
op
amp
(311)
+
R3
R4
only if:
Fig. 286. Difference amplifier.
R4 R 2
=
R3 R1
R2
R
-
R1
vID
vID
vY
R1
+
vO
+
R2
v1
+
Fig. 287. Instrumentation amplifier.
Instrumentation Amplifier
Introduction to Electronics
v2
205
R2
vID
R1
R1
vID
vO
+
-
v1
R
-
R2
Simplified Analysis
The input op amps present infinite input impedance to the
sources, thus the internal resistances of v1 and v2 are now
negligible.
Because the op amps are ideal vID appears across the series
R1 resistances. Current through these resistances is:
v
iR1 = ID
(312)
2R1
This current also flows through R2 . The voltage vY is the sum
of voltages across the R1 and R2 resistances, and the 2nd stage
is a difference amplifier with unity gain. Thus:
R
v O = v Y = 1 + 2 (v 1 v 2 )
R1
(313)
Noise
Introduction to Electronics
206
Noise
We can define noise in two different ways:
1.
2.
Johnson Noise
This is noise generated across a resistors terminals due to random
thermal motion of electrons.
Johnson noise is white noise, meaning it has a flat frequency
spectrum - the same noise power in each Hz of bandwidth:
pn = 4kTB
where,
(314)
(315)
4kTR = 0.127 R
nV
Hz
(316)
Noise
Introduction to Electronics
207
Shot Noise
Shot noise arises because electric current flows in discrete charges,
which results in statistical fluctuations in the current.
The rms fluctuation is a dc current IDC is given by:
Ir = 2qIDC B
where,
(317)
Noise
Introduction to Electronics
208
Ir
% fluctuation
1A
57 nA
0.0000057%
1 A
57 pA
1 pA
57 fA
5.6%
Noise
Introduction to Electronics
209
Carbon-film
Metal-film
Wire-wound
Noise
Introduction to Electronics
210
Interference
In this case any interfering signal or unwanted stray pickup
constitutes a form of noise.
The frequency spectrum and amplitude characteristics depend on
type of interference:
Sharp spectrum, relatively constant amplitude:
60 Hz interference.
Radio and television stations.
Broad spectrum, probabilistic amplitude:
Automobile ignition noise.
Lightning.
Motors, switches, switching regulators, etc.
Some circuits, detectors, cables, etc., are microphonic:
Noise voltage or current is generated as a result of vibration.
Introduction to Electronics
211
en
Rsig
Noiseless
vsig
in
Noisy amplifier
Fig. 289. Noise model of an amplifier.
Introduction to Electronics
212
P
SNR = 10log sig
Pn
dB
(318)
v
SNR = 20log sig
en
dB
(319)
Introduction to Electronics
213
Noise Figure:
This is a figure of merit for comparing amplifiers. It indicates how
much noise an amplifier adds.
Defined simply:
(
(
)
)
Psig / Pn
input
NF = 10log
Psig / Pn output
dB
(320)
(321)
Av
RS (T = 0)
Av
Vn
Real (noisy)
Amplifier
RS (T = Tn)
Vn
Noiseless
Amplifier
Introduction to Electronics
214
Converting NF to/from Tn :
T
NF = 10 log n + 1
T
Tn = T 10NF / 10 1
where,
(322)
NF is expressed in dB
T is the ambient (room) temperature, usually 290 K
(323)
Introduction to Electronics
215
en
Rsig
Noiseless
vsig
in
Noisy amplifier
Fig. 292. Noise model of an amplifier (Fig. 289 repeated).
(324)
For convenience, we define the last two terms of eq. (324) as the
equivalent amplifier input noise, i.e., the amplifier noise contribution
with a noise-free Rsig :
eeq = en + i n Rsig
2
(325)
Introduction to Electronics
216
(
(
)
)
Psig / Pn
input
= 10 log Psig input Pn output
NF = 10 log
P
Psig / Pn
2
P
sig input Gp et
= 10 log 2
er Psig inputGp
) = 10 log e
e
)
er 2 + en 2 + i n 2Rsig 2 (326)
2 = 10 log
2
er
r
2
en 2 + i n 2Rsig 2
eeq 2
= 10 log 1 + 2
= 10 log 1 +
2
e
er
Observe that for small Rsig , amplifier noise voltage dominates, while
for large Rsig , the amplifier noise current dominates.
FET amplifiers have nearly zero noise current, so they have a clear
advantage !!!
Remember, NF data must include values of Rsig and frequency to
have significance.
Introduction to Electronics
217
Introduction to Electronics
218
(327)
Example #1
Calculate the total equivalent input noise per unit bandwidth, for a
2N5210 operating at 100 Hz with a source resistance of 1 k, and
a collector bias current of 1 mA:
1.
2.
3.
(328)
219
Introduction to Electronics
Example #2
Determine the narrow bandwidth noise figure for the amplifier of
example #1 (f = 100 Hz, ICQ = 1 mA, Rsig = 1 k).
1.
en 2 + i n 2Rsig 2
NF = 10 log1 +
2
e
(329)
(5.70)2
= 10 log(3.01) = 4.79 dB
NF = 10 log1 +
2
(4.02)
(330)
Introduction to Electronics
220
2.
The Art of Electronics, 2nd ed., Paul Horowitz and Winfield Hill,
Cambridge University Press, New York, 1989.
This text has a good treatment of noise, and makes a good
general electronics reference.
Check it out at
http://www.artofelectronics.com
3.
The 2N5210 data sheets, of which Figs. 293 - 296 are a part,
are available from Motorola, Inc., at http://www.motorola.com
Introduction to Electronics
221
VDC
VI
VDC
ideal
VO
actual
VDC /2
VDC
VI
222
Introduction to Electronics
Noise Margin
Noise margin is the maximum noise amplitude that can be added
to the input voltage, without causing an error in the output logic
level. It is the smaller of:
NM H = VOH VIH
and
NM L = VIL VOL
(331)
VDC
VO
Output:
Logic 1
VDC
VOH
Input sees
Logic 1
NMH
VOH
VIH
VIL
VOL
VIL
VIH
VDC
VI
NML
Output: Logic 0
VOL
Input sees
Logic 0
Introduction to Electronics
223
Fan-Out
Fan-out is defined as the maximum number of gates that can be
driven without violating the voltage specifications. It must be an
integer, of course; it is the smaller of:
I
FOH = int OH
IIH
(332)
I
FOL = int OL
IIL
(333)
and
Introduction to Electronics
224
Power Consumption
Static Power Consumption:
The static power is the power required to run the chip when the
output isnt changing.
It may be different when the output is high may be different than
when the output is low. Thus, we normally assume that it is merely
the average of the two.
Dynamic Power Consumption:
Because load capacitance is always present, additional power is
required when the output is changing states.
To understand this, consider the following logic gate model, and
presume the switch begins in the low position.
When the switch goes high, CLOAD charges from VOL ( 0) to
VOH ( VDC ).
At the end of this charging cycle, the
charge stored in CLOAD is:
V DC
R HIGH
Q = CLOADVDC
S
(334)
VO
C LOAD
R LOW
(335)
Introduction to Electronics
225
V DC
R HIGH
S
1
2
EC = CLOADVDC
2
VO
(336)
C LOAD
R LOW
(338)
Introduction to Electronics
226
tf , fall time -
tPHL and tPLH , propagation delay time interval from the 50% level of the input
waveform to 50% level of the output
tPD , average propagation delay simply, the average of tPHL and tPLH
tr
tf
vI
VOH
100%
90%
50%
10%
0%
VOL
t
vO
tPHL
tPLH
VOH
50%
VOL
t
Introduction to Electronics
227
Speed-Power Product
The speed-power product provides a figure of merit of a logic
family.
It is defined as the product of propagation delay (speed) and static
power dissipation (power) per gate
Note this product has units of energy.
Currently, the speed-power product of logic families range from
approximately from 5 pJ to 50 pJ
228
Introduction to Electronics
F
FAST
74F04
ALS
advanced LS
74ALS04
AS
advanced S
74AS04
LS
low-power S
74LS04
S
Schottky
74S04
standard
7404
unit
parameter
hex inverter
tPD
ns
10
10
Pstatic
mW
10
19
IOH
-400
-1000
-400
-2000
-400
-1000
IOL
mA
16
20
20
20
IIH
40
50
20
20
20
20
IIL
mA
-1.6
-2.0
-0.4
-0.5
-0.1
-0.6
VOH
2.4
2.7
2.7
3.0
3.0
2.7
VOL
0.4
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
VIH
VIL
229
Introduction to Electronics
parameter
unit
4000
74C
74HC
74HCT
AC
ACT
Ratings for IOH and IOL are given for the specific VOH and VOL .
tPD
ns
80
90
10
Pstatic
IOH
mA
-1.0
-0.36
-4.0
-4.0
-24
-24
IOL
mA
2.4
0.36
4.0
4.0
24
24
IIH
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
IIL
mA
-1.0
-1.0
-1.0
-1.0
-1.0
-1.0
VOH
2.5
2.4
3.5
3.5
3.7
3.7
VOL
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
VIH
3.5
3.5
3.5
2.0
3.5
2.0
VIL
1.5
1.5
1.0
0.8
1.5
0.8
VDC
3 - 15
3 - 15
2-6
50.5
2-6
50.5
Introduction to Electronics
230
V DD
10 V
9 8V
VGS = 7 V
R pull-up
VO
VI
Drain Current, ID
VGS = 6 V
VGS = 5 V
VGS = 4 V
VGS = 3 V
Fig. 307. Ideal FET output characteristics, and load line for
VDD = 10 V and Rpull-up = 10 k.
231
Output Voltage, VO
Introduction to Electronics
Input Voltage, VI
Drawbacks:
1. A large R results in reduced VO for anything but the largest
loads, and slows output changes for capacitive loads.
2. A small R results in excessive current, and power dissipation,
when the output is low.
The solution to both of these problems is to replace the pull-up
resistor with an active pull-up.
Introduction to Electronics
232
CMOS Inverter
Circuit Operation:
VDD
VI
vSGP+ S
+
v
SDP
G
D
-
+
vDSN
- S
+
vGSN
9 8V
VGSN = 7 V
Drain Current, ID
VGSN = 6 V
VGSN = 5 V
VGSN = 4 V
VGSN = 3 V
233
Introduction to Electronics
10 V
9 8V
VSGP = 7 V
VSGP = 6 V
VSGP = 5 V
VSGP = 4 V
VSGP = 3 V
The PMOS output curves, above, are typical also, but on the input
side of the PMOS FET:
v SGP = VDD v GSN
(339)
(340)
This means we can rotate and shift the curves to display them in
terms of vDSN. This is done on the following page.
Introduction to Electronics
VGSN = 3 V
2V 1
234
0V
VGSN = 4 V (VSGP = 6 V)
VGSN = 5 V (VSGP = 5 V)
VGSN = 6 V (VSGP = 4 V)
VGSN = 7 V (VSGP = 3 V)
VDSN (= 10 V - VSDP )
Fig. 312. PMOS load curves for VDD = 10 V.
The curves above are the same PMOS output characteristics of Fig.
233, but theyve been:
1.
2.
Introduction to Electronics
235
2.
3.
4.
The figure below shows the NMOS output characteristics and the
PMOS load curves plotted on the same set of axes:
10 V
9 8V
VGSN = 7 V
VGSN = 4 V
VGSN = 5 V
VGSN = 6 V
VGSN = 7 V
VGSN = 3 V 2 V 1
0V
VGSN = 6 V
VGSN = 5 V
VGSN = 4 V
VGSN = 3 V
Introduction to Electronics
236
Note from Fig. 313 That for VI = VGSN 2 V the NMOS FET (blue
curves) is in cutoff, so the intersection of the appropriate NMOS and
PMOS curves is at VO = VDSN = 10 V.
VI = VGSN = 3 V
VI = VGSN = 4 V
Introduction to Electronics
237
VI = VGSN = 5 V
VI = VGSN = 6 V
Introduction to Electronics
238
VI = VGSN = 7 V
Output Voltage, VO
Collecting all the intersection points from Figs. 314-318 (and the
ones for other values of vI that arent shown here) allows us to plot
the CMOS inverter transfer function:
Input Voltage, VI
Differential Amplifier
Introduction to Electronics
239
Differential Amplifier
We first need to remind ourselves of a fundamental way of
representing any two signal sources by their differential and
common-mode components. This material is repeated from pp. 2728:
2
vI1
+
-
vI2
+
-
vID /2
vICM
+
+
-
vID /2
2
v I1 = v ICM +
v ID
2
and
v I 2 = v ICM
v ID
2
(341)
v ID = v I1 v I 2
and
v ICM =
v I1 + v I 2
2
(342)
Note that the differential voltage vID is the difference between the
signals vI1 and vI2 , while the common-mode voltage vICM is the
average of the two (a measure of how they are similar).
Differential Amplifier
Introduction to Electronics
240
RC
RC
+ vOD -
+
vO1
-
iC1
+
vO2
-
Q1
vI1
iC2
v O1 = VCC RC iC1
Q2
vI2
IBIAS
v OD = v O1 v O 2
-VEE
= RC (iC 2 iC1)
RC
vICM
+ vOD +
+
vO1
vO2
-
vICM
Q1
(344)
VCC
iC1
v O 2 = VCC RC iC 2
(343)
Q2
RC
iC2
IBIAS
-VEE
Fig. 322. Differential amplifier with only a
common-mode input.
IBIAS
2
(345)
IBIAS
2
(346)
iE 1 = iE 2 =
iC 1 = i C 2 =
and
v OD = 0
(347)
Differential Amplifier
VCC
RC
iC1
+1 V
+ Q1
0.7 V
-
+
vID /2 = 1 V
+ vOD +
+
vO1
vO2
Q2
0.3 V
RC
iC2
+
-1.3 V
-
IBIAS
vID /2 = 1 V
-VEE
Fig. 323. Differential amplifier with +2 V
differential input.
RC
-1 V
+ Q1
-1.3 V
-
+
vID /2 = -1 V
(348)
v O 2 = VCC
(349)
iC1 = i E 1 = IBIAS
(350)
v O1 = VCC RC IBIAS
(351)
v OD = RC IBIAS
(352)
RC
+ vOD +
+
vO1
vO2
-
iC2
Q2
0.3 V
iC2 = 0
VCC
iC1
241
Introduction to Electronics
+1 V
+
0.7 V
-
IBIAS
iC1 = 0
(353)
v O1 = VCC
(354)
iC 2 = i E 2 = IBIAS
(355)
v O 2 = VCC RC IBIAS
(356)
v OD = RC IBIAS
(357)
vID /2 = -1 V
-VEE
Fig. 324. Differential amplifier with -2 V
differential input.
Introduction to Electronics
242
RC
+ vOD +
+
vO1
vO2
-
iC1
vI1
Q1
iC2
Q2
vI2
V
iC1 = IS exp BE 1
VT
(358)
v
iC 2 = IS exp BE 2
VT
(359)
IBIAS
-VEE
Fig. 325. Differential amplifier circuit
(Fig. 321 repeated).
v
v
v BE 2
iC 1
= exp BE 1
= exp ID
iC 2
VT
VT
(360)
v
iC 1
+ 1 = 1 + exp ID
iC 2
VT
(361)
I
iC 1
i +i
+ 1 = C1 C 2 = BIAS
iC 2
iC 2
iC 2
(362)
Introduction to Electronics
243
iC 2 =
IBIAS
v
1 + exp ID
VT
(363)
iC / IBIAS
vID / VT
Fig. 326. Normalized collector currents vs.
normalized differential input voltage, for a differential
amplifier.
Note that IBIAS is steered from one side to the other . . .as vid
changes from approximately -4VT (-100 mV) to +4VT (+100 mV)!!!
Introduction to Electronics
244
Using (363) and (364), and recalling that vOD = RC ( iC2 - iC1 ):
v ID
v ID
I
exp
exp
BIAS
2
2
V
V
I
T
T
BIAS
=
=
v ID
v ID
v ID
v ID
+
+
1
exp
exp
exp
exp
V
V
V
V
2
2
2
T
T
T
T
(365)
v ID
v ID
I
exp
exp
BIAS
V
V
2
2
I
T
T
BIAS
=
iC 1 =
v ID
v ID
v ID
v ID
+
+
1
exp
exp
exp
exp
V
V
V
V
2
2
2
T
T
T
T
(366)
iC 2
v OD
v
v
exp ID exp ID
2VT
2VT
= IBIAS RC
v
v
exp ID + exp ID
2VT
2VT
v
v OD = IBIAS RC tanh ID
2VT
(367)
(368)
Introduction to Electronics
245
VOD / RCIBIAS
vID / VT
Fig. 327. Normalized differential output voltage vs.
normalized differential input voltage, for a differential
amplifier.
This transfer function is linear only for |vID /VT| much less than 1,
i.e., for |vID| much less than 25 mV!!!
We usually say the transfer function is acceptably linear for a |vID|
of 15 mV or less.
If we can agree that, for a differential amplifier, a small input signal
is less than about 15 mV, we can perform a small-signal analysis of
this circuit !!!
Introduction to Electronics
246
VCC
RC
RC
+ vOD +
+
vO1
vO2
-
iC1
vI1
Q1
iC2
Q2
vI2
IBIAS
-VEE
Fig. 328. Differential amplifier (Fig. 321
repeated).
RC
RC
+
vo1
-
ib1
+ vod -
+
vo2
-
ib2
-
+
vid /2
-
ib2
ib1
vid /2
+
vX
(+1)ib1
(+1)ib2
REB
Introduction to Electronics
RC
RC
+
vo1
-
ib1
247
+ vod -
+
vo2
-
ib2
-
+
vid /2
-
ib2
ib1
vid /2
+
vX
(+1)ib1
(+1)ib2
REB
v id
= i b1r + ( + 1)(i b1 + i b 2 )REB
2
and collect terms:
v id
= i b1 r + ( + 1)REB + i b 2 ( + 1)REB
2
(369)
(370)
v id
= ib 2r + ( + 1)(ib1 + ib 2 )REB
2
and collect terms:
v id
= i b 2 r + ( + 1)REB + i b1 ( + 1)REB
2
(371)
(372)
Introduction to Electronics
RC
RC
+
vo1
-
ib1
+ vod -
+
vo2
-
ib2
-
+
vid /2
-
248
ib2
ib1
vid /2
+
vX
(+1)ib1
(+1)ib2
REB
0 = (i b1 + i b 2 ) r + 2( + 1)REB
(373)
(ib1 + ib 2 ) = 0
(374)
249
Introduction to Electronics
RC
v o1
v
= o1 =
v in v id / 2
2r
(375)
Avds1 =
v o1 RC
=
v id
2r
(376)
d, differential input
s, single-ended output
Avdb =
v od RC
=
v id
r
(378)
Introduction to Electronics
RC
RC
+
vo1
-
ib1
+ vod -
+
vo2
-
ib2
-
+
vid /2
-
250
ib2
ib1
vid /2
+
vX
(+1)ib1
(+1)ib2
REB
v id / 2
= r
i b1
v id
= Rid = 2r
i b1
(379)
and
Rod = 2RC
(380)
Introduction to Electronics
251
RC
+ vOD -
+
vO1
-
iC1
vI1
+
vO2
-
Q1
iC2
Q2
vI2
IBIAS
-VEE
Fig. 334. Differential amplifier (Fig. 321
repeated).
RC
RC
+
vo1
-
ib1
+ vod -
+
vo2
-
ib2
+
+
vicm
-
ib1
ib2
vicm
-
(+1)ib1
2REB
(+1)ib2
2REB
Introduction to Electronics
RC
RC
+
vo1
-
ib1
+ vod -
+
vo2
-
ib2
+
+
vicm
-
252
ib2
ib1
vicm
-
iX = 0
(+1)ib1
2REB
(+1)ib2
2REB
Introduction to Electronics
253
RC
+
vo1 or vo2
-
ib1
+
vicm
-
ib1
2REB
RC
v o1
v
= o2 =
v icm v icm r + ( + 1)2REB
(381)
Eq. (381) gives Avcs , the commonmode gain for a single-ended output.
Because vo1 = vo2 , the output for a
balanced load will be zero:
Avcd = 0
(382)
Ricm =
v icm
v
1
= icm = r + ( + 1)2REB
ib1 + i b 2 2i b1 2
(383)
and
Rod = 2RC
(384)
Introduction to Electronics
254
CMRR =
Avcs
r
2r
(385)
(386)