HERMANN FRANKEL Early Greek Poetry and Philosophy A nistory of Greek epi, lyric, and prose to the middle of the fifth century ‘Toandad by Moss Hades and Jones Wile (rau)epg @ aby GH, Boke Vetting (One Bs) ast ean copies & 9839 Ba Mace petrol or wane fro bys ose Contents Translators Prefier Publishers Note Pree T Baely Grock Literture: Survival and Oxtensible Origin 1 Homer (2) The Sing nd heir Epi 6 4h) Language, Fae, Se 25 i) The Material # (€) Gade end Powers 3 ©) Godsend Mes oe (6) Haman Ma i (a) The New Mead ofthe Odyeey and th Bnd of Epic 83 TT Hesiod (a) The Poet 96 (@) Togo 96 (ec) The Blotl and the Pest-Hesode Shed 298 (@) Werke and Daye ta IV. Ancient Kyrie (a) The Founder: Arc tga (b) Miva and Pla! Bog: Calis and Tle 58 fe) Aloman's Cort Irie Bo () The Eris of Lebar + Sappho 0 2 Aleaeus 188 (6) The lenin Midi Caser 1 Semonides 200 2 Miners toy 3 Wipponise a4 (0) Soma Aton ayLV. Peviod of Criss, Religious Litersture and Philosophy (a) The Grins of BellaLties: the Seen Sige; “Arstas and Pheer (b) The Homare Hons {e) Pare Ploy Thales, Asanimandr, ‘ad Prager VL The New School ef Lyrists (a) jee (and Sustchra etroe) {b) races (e) Simonides 7 VET Philosphy and Empirical Science atthe end ofthe Archaic Period ia) Keaplons () The Banning of the EmpiralScinces: Mein, Gvgrapy and History fe) Permenies (i) Horeca VII The Last of Archaie Lyric (a) Pots ofthe Teastional Peisd (b) Theanis 1) Pinder ond Bucbylides “The pacts and their vocation as choral Tyee the Epinicians of Simones 2 Two shore Victory Odes by Pindar 44 Myth in the Choral Lyric 4 Poctua of es serious cant 5 Some Pindare ways of doought 8 The Bowers in Pindar 7 The Art of Pindae TX Retrospect and Prospect X Indies m5 9 3 am a a 15, “a7 7 am ai a By 309) Translator’s Preface ‘The transtation of Dichng wad Philephi de rin Greets was firt undertaken by the late Profesioe Moses Hadas, and all wi regret chat his untimely death prevented him Jrom completing the tusk He Tet behind him @ typescpe translation of the fist 273 Pages-—up tothe end of the chapter on Solou. Ihave carried on the Fendering from there to che end, and have revised the fit part, Which had not reseved the saandarcwrar which, Profesor Hadas would have given tof if he a lived T have generally rendered into veise the wanslaions fom the Greek poets since Profesor Prinkol' vey rendevings into Geran, scemed coo striking and charaetersie a feature to be neglected in presenting the boak e an English-speaking public. ‘The exceptions to tis practice have been the Isic poets, since Tdi net believe that English Sapphics or Alcaes could be recognized as 2 verse form. To avord the danger that succeaive translations might move to9 fat from the original tex, I have consulted in amo all eases the Greek fiom which Profesor Frankel was wanslating, A debt 9 Diele Frooties Yael waltion of nda il be oes to the reader, yon watPentusine’s Nove "The publisher's hanks are due to Dr Sabine MacCormack fr editorial supervision of this Book at all stages, ‘and for preparing the index Preface — The present wock in eddresed to aymiea ay well sto specials Te attempis to preteot in readable frm the history of Ged lneratare ftom Homer t Pindar. Les important author are disregard a5 ace those beyond our interpretative grasp becase too Lie of their tools have navived. Another sonsderton led me to exclude the drama of Epicharmus, Phcynichs, and. Avshylus: a sataactory treament would have overseached the intended compas ofthe bok ‘Numerous original texts wil be presente herein taslation and diseused in deta What Wwe are sugyig Is ther content and slimate of idea thc atte sm, andthe lunedon a a given werk In contemporary lie. At the same tie, we ae also trying to exploit the tents a dovuments of thet age ‘To ascertain ih a cea fence the frame o mind peculiat to the epoch, aad to Slow up the changes itunervent ithe corse af tine, as beon one of my principal concern, and the procedure 1 adopted was deied for {iis purpose The rather general aud abstract nots ed Wo Asx te spire ofthe er willbe les ely to mele into vague lmbigutes if they stand bore the ceader's eyes se by side wth tte concrete material rm wie these aouons at extracted, wile their light in tirm carer the deoper import of what te text happen to say. By this method, in and though the iterary products of the peso ough tobe poste to delineate wid some degree Of accuracy the important ial pve of our western czaion, Gh the histveal perspectve ase to ths book some remarks wil be found ini epening and consuding chapters 1 aim iy not fo ‘amine the early period of the Grecs a ainerved hy one who lots the ell period in mind an expects to witness the masons fr fering epson is way to that ulate fal I such a view {which may be legitimate ina Camework witha dierent orenson) Greek man ofthe catly period muse appear as a person wo Ot tte te wo he and haw es pponed to eh nevertlesduty prepares the ground er the higher end of hisor. Actually, the Grete ofthat epoch haan uncommonly ear vison of thet So steuaton and a song wil wo rama hee iss int rel i ur am the, to nerpct he ae, eter aswel an enc ott verge age, junta presented folate owe yey Salus wil be soit here ie placed them ively regret of heer later succenors continued fo clvate hen or allowed them te longus sed de, With auch an approach, the sing Povo any wie tng nef atic einen rogesion, wil soque, is hoped, archer diveriy and 8 ‘hates relat. Among ott thingy wl be sown bow ee the “tpe age te ‘archal’ came forward in violent and deliberate ‘poston tots pedecewor evens, tbe laeal period ins tart lec sponancouly arise out of logical development of acini thought, but was et oni oure by proteg reformers. Ste cotinaty of Era gente, whore stony bas tomctnes ten overenphasied shee ubordizated tthe Bw of historical Cle i ome ng rhs, ae tempore Simonides and Xenophans suck ot in nse diet ia tha dren eye, how the paper casts with he dctise of oppeites gave anew heer foundation Yo mode of thing nd feeg wich had payed tlminant roe fn pets fr geseraios Thvennee of testment has ot been pursued any more dhan commlctons of any sor. Ihave rather wished in dacsing exc, Seo, © oder whatever appeared owt approprist and ttl tin ky porger of Homer ave quoted. becuse the Mid and Giiyucy a arable for everyone fo ead and appreciate on his tvenyon tether hand asc of Bidar tanned sl oman pon in deal AL tartans are meant serve oly az props hv well aware Gat their quality ir uneven. Preference war given througout to fe clas possible rendcring of the immediate tents! mening. Rey words wich have no equivalent in a modem tongue are ocexinaly Tepretened by varying creumlocusns Hann car of phrae ere no avoMod i sodher rendering ‘oud have enaled a decepveanachroasn ser owever which rund amachronitic when put into the nou ofan ery Greek weiter nay be adm, or ever nee Sany when weave no foger tlt Ge text but alsin tnekipng itt or cur own beni H seem obvion tomy or nta tiat in one io unennnd certain pager fom Hesiod, weeramothetpspeaing of eng snd Not Being, sx Farmers did ‘ours ler Hess bo Acualy bed Pate, av Aral Ai in asi more advanced period and fame of min. T do not hereto the dotine thar we have nig to sin tw a tinhens “oti for the unequivocal expresion ef wch be puede hed peti tol Quiet he cota: iti pare nr ot {hi or that concept to have cated n't pers ina Tee dative fee long before some eeeoached iia dy aad set Dltnophiea phralgy: lciede tose thought opera the mem of mth; dil noe ju pla with mia at and yal deseo that hela wtrior meng for hn Th Weare prepare to fn in hiv wring ews siting we tral them ito ot vr frdlam, Avealzaon the is easy to ristandne os upon the ancient thinker ences bene hin tnt prevent som lewing an eues where ee sche len pointed dente cvesonsT should ony wh at ie endear ry moc digs nt the provinee of ate apy ‘eve othe et fom whch we stare ening say buck es ‘erwhatever he fas guinod oo his exeron, and fecing te Ba Sond ton oer tha te origin author Many more conroverial at re ncled inthe material wth whieh we ae deing: Yeti the take of rey and salar Organisation rch of what thi book proposes aes sugencd than agued ot nl, or tact implied bp mee anangenes aad scouring Since she eas have al en worked over by me eater tine, Pbeteve ean for a turer of pasages offer novel ines Dretony wiout bye euflning the fewer why The oped them: the achler, I hope, wll wc soe wat ak in ty mind have te flr owe of schotryHertue than the expe citations wold inst; thre mame oly seen oe ens {ovhich Famindeited Moree sens cannat neal cog ud label anda any poem sme certain ewe toe ise seems tinal om the rounding stem. Dut te doa. is ovelok or nepeted to const many jublnins by hick soy look might ave. profted gest there it mn spelt erate abot than th ndvist woud be able abs a 2 nile tiene, My own pubis are cited without thee futhor’s name To my Wige and Form feria Danes {second vion, Munich 2965 here abbeyiatel Pokies, Deco rave had to fle more rest than aoa have ie te atelesaleed in ds vn he fel served elena to thi prwwt Ikon ths haf ha paces ag ein bee wes ie ety expat tere aly ahoul ke ell tation to tnd A, wih wl bend near the en of the volume, Pom is ase fonction a a ‘Rott of page munis i Knex svat een cbt {Grn pat where ite more ot readable i te hope tht he Sie adrvey can now sand a's semivindependent adjuncts til Reever understood that dh summary condensation cannot but {retimpiy the cmmples fact, Tae purpove of uch am appendix Grinilaacery Wl inthe body athe book, with Ta eomeeutive ‘Reoult af authors and. orks, oor iadhidial bwervations a SGircd ond widely watered, the Index bring togeier cera Tent of our divene inquiries under peseceble rubris and in a tye exis em er ogee Zihiue a eierect complain and revel « ove cet ey i hereby not ns their Melty but rather be ane fully define. reparation ote bok ha occupied me, with interrpins, fra area bumnber af years Teva fe publi under the ie Diane SEF Puophie de then Grndentne, st Neve York 195 by the Ameeen Pillogeal Asacaion, with the generous, and by no ‘Nouns rely financial asstanos of thar Asoration. Eleven Yeas IKer new edion,exiensvey reused, was brought out by GH Beclche Verlugibschnandlg in Munich, Germany. The presen English rendeng ofthe Muni edition fd tothe iniadve and ferent tvors of hei Ror Wola of Mw Heken ato th ator of tro tatty the late Pofeur Moses elas of New Yeu, wo watkel oa the lata sedan and Frolesor James Wills of Nedlands Austral, who ale revised dchat nnd ben dove by Proto Lieda, The aoe i elighed Uoiee lds work nade accuibe to Use Baglspeaking public rato atz0, eastrona arn 1968 I Early Greek Literature: Survival and Ostensible Origin For us Greek literature bogins with the Homeric Mad and Odie ‘Why, unlike the literatures ofthe peoples, does estat at once with svch brilliant and mature eeatons? Why dost not craw! patna into view out of murky depths, gradually gening surenest of for 2nd clarity of content? Why ate the eruder and duller ealy stages, Which must have existed in Greece asin other land, not Brows to sand not preserved? (Of che writings f ancient times we today poset some which have never beet lost and some which had ben frgotten and lotto xghe fund then tscavered. Oue knowledge of ancient Babylonian, ancient Egyptian, or Old High German literature iy based exclusively upon documents of the second category. Here blind chance determined wat it woud deny us or what fe wuld yield into our hens intrinsic value ofthe work is nota factor, With Greck literature i ferent. The Greek wadien hae nover been wholly severed in eur ‘western world, and hence many ofits veritngs have fund readers — and conexquendly copyise and Inter printesin uninterapted Suceession down to our ow day. Our possesion of such witiage 2 ‘due not (othe accident af physiea) preservation of materials or tothe Finder's luck ofesearchers, but rather othe lively interest which the bok has been able wo arouse in a lang suctesion of yenerstiony, fiom the day ie was fst published unit the present, Only books of some real worth ean be preserved inthis way. Ofte Which our book is concerned there Inve reached tj ‘only the Homere iad and Ode (euch in twenty-four "buoks thee ' sections af up ti a thousand lines or ao), these books ot Hesiod, te book mf Homeric Hye, te hocks of Mhcegnis and fe books Of the Iyries of Pidar. All ae perishes betas at ame pol iquity oF the Middle Ages inerest waned All that yar ableto mnintain il? unt the Renainance was saved permanently “To sktch cven an outline af he sory ofeany Greek erate would be ipo ftagments Tea of the Wx works had ot ‘ome down tom Many er sur ef angi whan wing we {toposes ete ples of ancient texts more o les erbalm, wih oF Wwidhoutrellng us the contest of he quotadon. These Ragmens ae Toled most very shore but the esnyIteratre se compact abd [iver sn such che haony hit hous, Sat mach may Mn be dedcced thom 2 er words, The ehoit of fagment dcrmined by the personal Infor ofthe author cing them ‘Nthnaeus’ volmintur Dapenitee dele with wages 3 ince purses century ano teats about Sato gens ncene with eating and eotaking are particulary numerous A tok of the gruznmaran Apollonius Dyson deals wth pronouns Inde saccattongee andthe dae, and cites lines of verse in which pronominal forme occur. Systomatectatons and eeenees ishith the conten of works lotto ue i ithfaly repreened tre available only forthe philowpia! wrgs of ob pend. Ta the school of Ante works of healer philesphers were stem aly excerpted ot ony fom the pain of ew of Det Teac timp to Ansiotean. protien, Yo amader.tmes all this widely eatredtagmentary material has bee eactlly brought {es and no incement one ats om tn soar tbe capectd Mn tecompene a new mine of Greek tradition has been opened hung the pat cencuy” Excavation in ype have Drought Greek paprit ight in fuck abundance that scholaip cant Xecp paces The msjonty ofthe texts are nonerary—Utigaton, Secu eter, amd the likes but some pat ofthe papy derives irom mantstrpt of book, and of tee tome contain erly res thay Ang ath the papel have wowed oe agments of Soph nnd Aenea, a luge plece of Aleman, pans of Pindar, and n xamous quently a he poss of Bacchyits Sines papyr ine and Spt crumble, Completely preserved poco Sr 2 ‘ception; aro of the zed aback ave severed conan of trons an pats of ling, and to complete and Snterpret ae tou them seqirs patent labor. The rele are tewertekes iva and we tay be conden dat a constant increment of = Wea paper wm nafs onto heals of papyna lane Beatne vai dry rts ogy ths aut deay Ae the nda Aenea iy Ala the Get yp was von eee healer Grek rate wan wey veal i rclted In bck ay meee prey tmp a EARLY OREEK LITERATURE 3 ‘new material in the farure will enrich our knowledge, widen our horizons and clarify or views. ‘The Greek papyn found in Faypt were writen, at the cain, toward the end of che Fourth century nc, or (was at this ne that the heilenization of Eeype began. Heno: all older literature which ‘was not presurved and transmitted down to that period by the Greeke themselves is definitely lost. Te wae the Greeke who exercised the first choice of what was not to perish at day's end. The sing war oriented otherwise than among other civilizations, Other nationt have preserved saved boots out of gray antiuity verbatim beeause ‘hey believed the text was a zevelation which might not be altered. (Or they preserved eutsong, prayers, magic frtmulae, or ksi their precise formulations because they believed that to change dhe form ‘would disrupt the magic or sender che Ia inefetive. But the Grecke ‘were no worshipers of the letter in their creeds, thir ritual, or thelr laws, Always aad in all rear they expected to deve the appropriate exprevion anew while preserving the desied mesning. Everything therefore remained fluid: and since i the early period to which we now address ourselves value was placed not on the individual sey of the pardcular arti but rather on the quality of the wore, there was no occasion for preserving texts uncitered, except in a’ single situation where a partcslar artistic form appronshed the end of it fareer, Only if nothing but progresive degeneration war #0 be lexpected did it make sense to halt historical change snd tant works of iterature to succeeding qeneraticna ia their actual state, So it comes about that the Grecks did not preerve the antique snd primitive; for example, they abandoned their eariest lyric poetry. Thstead Urey made their national Kteraure begin where the fast, leading gene, epic, had just let i fast and great height behind and had began it descent, “That is why for posterity Homer alone sands atthe beginning of Greek literature. Since the gaze of mas looking backward prose to peresive a telologial ores in what he ses, the Grecks themelves constructed a theory according to which all Creek literature, indood Greek education and civilization 4 whole, had itsongin in Homer and only ia Homer; and modern scholarship is Similarly inclined to follow such views. The very gzeat influence of Homer on all succeed. ing generations of Greeks ie beyond question; but it iy nevertheless ‘wrong to believe that straight line leads Grom Hlomer aero: eaty Greek cuttre to the elawieal age of the Grek Suet a picure is baseally enbistorical, Straightline evelopment snay in fet ect hes in marron defined ares of haan acti, Init never fora tre historical whole. No geierstion iscrmtent merely4 BARLY GREEK LIDERATURE to sspply the preliminaries for itz descendants and to leave to them ‘end fr which they wish to employ them. Insofar a8 an age aimee at permanence it desies to perpetuate its own tendencies; sind n= Sofas as these tendencies prevail, they are changed by their victory, Mainly, however, every period sotke its wm pevfetion and ts owt system This system must be demolished by i ucresors inorder to Dill their in, for every esential alteration brings others in ie train, What the cucoesors ean us they do not employ inthe sea of thee fates, but do violence to theiz legacy ta order to adapt i to their own ends. The historian of aa epoch must cherefare not regard ‘ana preparation for whats to came. How an epoch influenced the Future, and how it war constituted and understood itll are very lifer thing, “The early Greek period, as we know it from its writings from Homer co the middle of che Sith century, ved ts own selsuiient lied thought its ow independent coughs. 1 brought to matuity ‘many high values, which pevshed with it breause clasieal Greece ‘could no lenger cope with tem. In the following pages we shall lay special sts upon ehow spiritual and artistic Values which ave ‘characteristic ofthe early Greek period snd havenever attained equal Deauty and seengti: elsewhere Tn dhe span before us—he may style i he here age of Greece — things were often stormy and violent. Positions won throug! hard Muggle wore soon. surrendered because development siddenly ‘hanged dieection, Even sithin the svetch fiom Hower to Pindar the priniple thatthe line of historical progress never conciles with the shortest distance between beginting. and end is applieable Immediately after Homer there follows so sharp a break that we are ‘compelled to divide the easly Greck period into two agen he epic fund the archaic" Here Kterary history ie instep with at stony a Which similarly the geomewie period i followed by the ‘oriental ing’ tyle and the new archaic period of plastic art Tin dhe Homeric epies we ean see for ourselves that che pion they ‘vecupy signifier not a beginning of middle but an end. Instead of ‘ontinvng Homeric poetry aud attitudes with aight deviations, the uechaie period whieh followed rebelled agsint them and begs simost wholly anew. This revolution as ane of he mort dramatic tune athe entire history ofthe Greek spint, One who ignores thie Dphenomeaon and instetd sees Hellenism marching. armed and Seat npon a once determined path, cles his eyes ta singular Feature af Greek courage, whl was capable of searching ot ad siting clear new pat in the might of dark contusion Uae atchaie age robbed els propor character iC we harmonize EARLY oREDK LITeRATERE 3 itundaly wit he tv ages which preceded and flowed it But even omecie pocty ives inadequately understood ive drive all ater Hesse oun it I then becomes a junction for al the ines hat verge ftom i Bot Homeric epic never deliberately chose ite Som a conter of gravity for ll the faces and potesialiie a Bony Hllewim, Rather, athe ostensible inepton of Greek lteraeue thre stands poem which gives exieme and enesided txprsion to certain paises of Greek character and suppreser Sthere with partion bas. Bor example there vray othing in Homer of Creck philosophy anc fe preliminary; and Homeric Felgen expreses tly ove sie of Greek piety, vt tbat one ith Srervelning emphasis, During the ene apan of thelr naconal fxntence the Gredi sullered rom eh state of offi. The Homeric lonages of the gods were always erent cin for them, but accepted alway wth nghingII Homer (a) The Singer nd thir Epice (Of the many early Greek heroic epics only two, the Mad and the Orgy, have come down to us. Despite their great length —134 and 12.000 hxemeters respecuvely—both poems are enly pars of larger whole, the ‘Trojan eycle. The compete cyle cotssted of tight epicy which went together without gap or overlap. Five epics, tf which the Ziad was the second, veeounted the Trojan War from its beginaing until eke captare of the ety the ist, Nast, reported {he bomecomings of thave who sled to Troy, with the exception of ‘Only; the seventh was the Oayvy; and the eighth dele with the Garter travels of Odes and he death. The Ihad and Odsey were ‘sbviusly the principal pieces in ee series, The Zag alone with Its twenty-four books was lager than the other our Trojan War epics tagether {twenty-two books), and the Ody abo in tenty-four Tyas, was ive tines a Tong the poem which dealt withthe Bore somningg ofall the other heres (five books|- Along with the Trojan there were other eyeles, notably a Theban one ‘According to tradition the lia and Odiiey were composed by 1 wuyfaring singer named Homer who came from the Toulan Bast. ‘ther eps were ascribed ta ether poets often the ascrption varies, Horners name appears more often than any other, and is also ued rolletively for all epic poets. ‘his all that the earliest radon ean tll us of Homer, There ars no eaternal data to determine how fr the persoa and authorship ST Homer ave hstorial. Tt posible that tradition, simplifying ‘matters a he Gress often did, Used the name of Heme to cinbrace slide terry a ‘Tlomer Toke lke a genuine personal name, not an arifealy ine ute aymbil, Probaby, eretore, « man called Homer was con= ered wi de compigof epi in some way which gave oecasion 6 wownn 7 fo linking his name with dhe works forever, Nonetheless Homer ‘cannot be the author af oth principal epes because the Mad ane the Gdyuey differ too widely in language, style, and thought to be ascribed to one and the same author; here the tesdivion is mere legend. Furthermore, the Homeric epics arose uer conditions in ‘which one cannot speak of literary property im our sense. Every epi ger freely took over the work ot his predecessors and seed it a he Wished, Hence the question of Flomer's authorship eames down to king what part he tok in the composition, Two pasubiles are ‘open. Either singer ofthis name laid hold ofthe fluid tadtion with, partcular energy and impresed its strongly withthe stam of his Individual are that later poets, in abiding memory of is contribution, ‘designated and transmitted as Homer's the work which Uhey recited tnd eventually wrote down, Or, secondly, the Med aad Odsiy tentered fistory under Homer's name becaue Homer gave one ot both of the poems its final form ants definitive version, The forthe ‘question must remain open for all ime: Did Homer change much o& Iiele inthe epics when he put the last touch pen them? Was he a ‘creative sprit a skillful reve, x virmoso pevtormer, x busy eopyit, ‘or pettaps only the latest edior whom no succesor deprived of his {dle of honor? Since we have so Fle information, sober crite eies hale whem Jccomes to questions cancerning the person of Homer and his share in the iad andl the Odyse. Of no single lize ip the epics of ‘Homer can we say that tis surely Homer We know nothing ofthe ido- Syncraies ofthe man, and if ws use his name hee it signifies nothing ore chan the notion of epic compestion in general ay Ut presents itef tous ia the Had and Od. ‘But this doesnot imply that no individuality can ail be seen in the epics. Net only does early Greek epic as auch have a pronounced thacacter, but withia the epics partons stand out by eeason of thet peculiarities, 20 that we have grounds for acrbing cetuincomplenes {as far example the Telemach) to individual ports, There snavdonbt that epie poetry profted fom the participation of nomerous individuals This erated, howeves, various Kindo uncvenness in ‘x it is practically impossible for a new piece to fit it th precision into oder matter: singers were ot dound DY it consistency, which woul have Fetered their creative Spirit. On the other hand, the incongrities provide ws eth cerasonal jnsighes nto the complicated prebistry of both epics, for close ou reveals clear signs o additions, omision, or alterations Inv piece, On this bass sells have often tried to srork out the story of eier of the epic atatum by stratum, Somme ofthese8 nomen reconsructions—those that are titel, fee from pedantry, and Thin deas-belp us to understand the gence and he parte texts Decawe they show By specie example how our eps might iar taken shape sage by sages but a no eat ean we Ulive hat the development wat prechoy antmed. For probity aka "pil noe ure hang po neh atl ember caual pote becomes legion “We only rarely phen ny thecor, co ace Behind che individual epics; bas glance ino them reves: talplity and movement Many pans ave obviously snore mode than others and hence Dresumebly younger, Thor the Odin, ten ara whole, decidedly hore modeta than the Hag, shen ss schol, The sing difleence True between the elder epic and the younger takes sa once oa world al seeping histor charges, Even f te prehistory of the piss shutoff rom un deta, the contradictory force within the poem compel to consider a brosd vin of atrial event ‘Ben the ertotc precise fo whch our epi ace ditiled ir one Wvhich ebange nd inovement are character: Whereas teratore Normally Echioned wth a ew to completion and permanent Fetention of fr, epi pasty remained Hand and transient by Ge tention of fs ceators THs fa Kind of poewy which & pod, linue by phrase, verte by yen, Between enduring eadion and fy improvisation, This Tends a parteslaey acnating {um which continues fea ad elective even when the Book ‘rentaly reduced co writing. To appreciate the special quay of Tlomerie epic we mast therefore pete for ourselves the pecliae tre practice out of whic it aprang snd for whieh it was adoped Scum, we man snk what changes Were produced by the eduction Ia fui dition to. igi booketen, Carrying the art over into an “icy medium was Bound to have consequences "Tue genera! conditions nse which the ancient epics came into bing can be luminated rom are anges it, fepie themslvy tin certain information concraing siges and ep etalon Sevond, lier Greek ration hax mach cel of ancient epic poe} Inn dnd, so-called folk epic wong other peoples provides analogies ‘What the Homers ep tif tells ws espsally vlanble becae it inauthentic; butt eaves very many gee A tc richer pete Sih ly the late Biogeapties of Homer andthe Wvly Couetof Tomer nd Hes; lt tse writings are rornaneerathe tha Ms rfl pt tt pve by compare wien ldo, It cant Kv how’ much of tn ay be applied to Homeric tt Un any cane tte to conn curves ts single analy {on to dual tai et of wring elles Bs sted 10 nomen 4 ‘our purpes isthe Sesbo-Croatian epo, fr itis nearest our cultura rile, ft reaches dows into the present andi has been thoroughly {investigated by a solar who was href a Sls, Mathiae Marko ‘Naturally, ve shall not overlook the great efféences, In literary ‘quality the South Slavie epics are Sar inferior uo the Greek, both in outeat and in form, Nevertheles the analogy i= of great value ‘Confronting 2 tangible realty affords a mare accurate piture than eorizing at desk ‘Whereas the written book must sek ite readers individvally and pévately, ancient Greek epic addresed itself to wide cirees whieh hailed it wich pasionate interest, Te developed among the op social cases and flourshed. predominantly, if not exclusively, mong them (ef Murko #73, 25). It war poetry for entertaioment, hence pure’ ar; it had netther rtcl function noe any eter abjec tive. It place in life was Titre, AC meals and particularly afer ‘meals with dink and deseere, mex sot together and listened to the recital hourlong sad night-ong. Ie was always a single person who recited, and the audience heasd him spelPbound, enchanted, whelly absorbed in listening thus the singers of our Ode (e7, 5r8-21)> describe it, The song of the Sivens who entiesd voyagers tod en- snared them to their destruction thi song i an epic revitaton, an account of the Trejan War and of all else that takes place on “the arth that nourishes maus" (Od. 12, 89ff); such power docs epic tong wield over the hearts of is Ieares. The modem witness ean report the eame of South Slave recitations.” Word are dowiuaat i * ato’ wrkispablae in Scupeitde Win Aad pili lane, sp No- 5 (ois #75pNo-2 (ia) 79 Not gn) (heen ced only by ‘ili ammay i Ne Jeb 19, oft Shebewars was snr Sead by Hh Grae, Msn Pers nl 9B Lor (Tr dr Pl, ry Eps po and seas nl epee. ewe the nen eck ps ts bec tdi el amped it he Homes. So for arp the chan a ‘Toourumthootd cate tl eect neon seer, bt Hage ‘btn move yeh a hin ends tat ace lH ed ne ie ‘len the id of his eng. Paral phsoens th werd ovr ren by CM Howra, Ht ary [Nee ork ad Londen, 1922) Tint ak Saft he tpl at foe gence nhc rer ary lace date “avaity of ype poetry ang eter ain Ser twa A,B ae Th Sg of Tos (Cambri Mawes 3). "Dust the sein» on eo ds cohen mars ease general stron wan ors on the singer (0% Uy a #330 8 90 93 Teer esa he Ce mare) low Tene fp tat aeaily 2 reece prep he ‘Spreng fel up ae and tater amen (Muko 7542)‘hie ‘tng” which eather arectatin palate. The singer accompanies Iimselfoa «stringed instrument. Al eres have tesame sleuture ten syllables among the South Slavs si units of either two or caret Sables among the Greeks, There are prafsional singers, but many members of he company ace familar with the art Later the profesional clement war stengtkened, and social and other difer- nom developed between the singer who lived by his art and the Public that received the eatertasnment he offered. Tn the easlor period, however, chere was anly a omogeneonscirle which pro- Wide its own enterainment through the voice ofits specially ged members, Eple singers are never mentioned in the Jad; only once fee heroic Lays sung, aud dhae by Achilles. He sings to dispel his Teg en while he fs resent and sefises to participate in bale Helge for ie oom amusement and his sole nae i hx fiend snd comrade Patrols, ho will ake his tura when Achilles rows ‘weary, Though there is no singing elewhere in the Zed the heroes {lo occasionally tll storia of tine own and thee Kinsmen ives; 10 tome degree thee are preliminary stages of heroic song. In those tlays the Heroes themselves recounted their deeds, So the poets af tbe ‘iad saw the picture ofthe olden days, when thelr owe class had not 7 uing: are diferct inthe Ofsip, which is younger and more ined to reflect the life of sown times than to sero a picture of Us seme past Men at their drink ace entertaved by profesional singers And whereas in the liad a man like the aged Nestor or the aged Phoeaix may occasionally speak of ever times, in the Odsser the principal heros imsea great storyteller and makes ari se of Iie skill win the epic, whedier in the court ef the Phaeacian king, iter he enchants the gentry, or in the bare hut ofthe swineherd, ‘When the epi singer delivered auch pasnages snd eendered the long hreadve of Odysseus in epic verse and style the situation reported ised with the present. The singer became Oayieus, whave vole be ‘nicted, and his aucience fet themicles tobe Phreacins ovine “wtineherds™—Inomble ane needy, to be sre, but of noble temper ‘Many mighe even dream that, lke Eumeus, they were tray ad righfily ot royal bet and that only a contrary face was responsible Tarde poverty and dependence of thes hard lives. Bat the varity goes moh farther. Odjeous isnot only sll in elling ale “hud ledgeable as singer (21, 3683 also 1, 518); 4s ey wayleer he mst depend ar te singers themselves do, ‘he chaviy of eine wh reeive bi, Small wonder, then, that "Thin van cin pore of the Sth ler eae san may ee fr bie iy Youre ie elon og arey the singers of the Odysey were expecially sympathetic toward their hero apd identified chemselves with him, and thst they even trans fexzed to him and his tale items of their own experience which are ‘wholly inappropriate to the story. In this way’ we recive inducely an intimate insight into he lfeand character of te waylaring singers particularly of: darker side. For when the singeer describe theie ‘wn class diretly, they bring the bright side forwntd and depict the ideal Demeddocus and Phemius alike are described ae permanent court singers; it must have been the dream of every wayfaet 10 be fable to remain pormaneally at the same royal court aind to be treated as respectfully as those tro were ‘But surely the raley was very diferent. The singer moved from place to place, He tort hefore many stranger! doors, never knowing Whether they wonld open to him. Irhe were admitted, he prodably had to remain atthe threshold at fist, the place of beggars, and wat tlle was invited co sit inthe room. So fr mamt of the time we see the table ofthe lorde inthe king's house at Ithaca through the eyes of Odyiscis, from the perspective of the threshold. In gratiude for hospitality the wayfarer had te accommonlate hime to every whim ‘of the master and his guest in order to amuse the company.« ‘This ilzome humiliating treatment must have been experienced by the singers wth ll the greater bittsness bees they considered themsalver superior to their temporary employes in edseaton and tanner. Being much traveled, they had, like Odysseus, earned the minds of many men" (1, 3); every page ofthe Oyiy shows their subte distinctions Tn pacticular they had occasion to study and form ‘moral judgments upon the alttudes of various ingividuals toward vwayfafers. Ths interest they projected int the ation of the Oduey fo such 2 degree as to prodace contradictions According to the stry of the Oise the astors were all ela, without exception, beealne they Woord a woman whore husband might sul be aive and becaine they taok frcible poweson of a stranger's house, wasted its wealth, and played the master int. That Js the simple sense of the story, and Penelope, if anyone, shoul have so understood i But when she receiver word af the deatractin ofthe futons and eanaot yet believe that her Insband has returned, she thinks that some god must have slain the ators because in thelr arrogance they showed no honor eo strangers who came to then es indctive that peopl in the Oy very fen ten 2 wha ig senda aa oa gh 9854{24 62). Once even Oeyseu express himself inthe same sease (Gh, tna) In We preceding episode we are wld: ‘Ate erowed SSipeao beg beat of every tan so tat he could acartaa wich er seme a wich lawiew” (1, 90); but the poet conser: "he fe sone ed destin ag tate sepuradon ofscrs int oul and bad ran coumer hetero he ey imal in op, The wafting singe hesele to te pects othe tinny people they eam ta know inthe practi ther prsion, Once wnderstanding suitor makes a sigiicant ‘erm tbout Odhses: “Who bnew whether the stranger no a fd who goes trough the wor in ht gen order raped e's Sijdceds ad thee ighteounes” (19. 483)" Tow the performances ofthe singers Woe place we can deduce fr what the Ody reports conerniag the sien of ong and the tang of tales, For what we ead in the epe concerning the relation Sip natasha san ou ona rant Usage of epic snd thee audlence* “The singers pesarmance dd ot low a Sue program but, an doe epic became rid bookie it reserved the etal harater Sita ee convertion. It is conjectured tha rather les than cor fesfois soa sage bok the epi was delivered comtnuouly and wridiout pause? Alera short pice the singer broke of al ding Ne interapton the tener owmed and drank thei wine (Od 8, 89) tnd spote with obe soother and withthe ainger® During che interruption the snger received endly words of hank and pra, tr perap a tidbit of ood, 2 garment or the promise of» present {ec Oa ts $8), ogether witha request fo ing (04-8, 8790) Aon ena gi ng a4 aa wo chateSeonSew "te ouas ul the Us, Toe pt dep eel neato and sec ne a me ng ay eb ae! ports $efoie deaet ev el yh peg fmt ey Toe thn tc any on aca nba en he din ees ns No eh we me wo Bea one rasan ed le le sce hs eel pine id) tere re eyo von or urd sd seg sh emt ne x er gee ee trek end unpues e ee he e hey wre grved ete “ie eden te lf ng eae, 08 3,218 a1 agp. tins a eS Sa te pos he ep pe Hugi (asic Rafe red thee keh aes Sicilia rs en ay Sop rt cnn natin nase og ot omc i he) Pe ny sie deity ge by pe women ig “Plesse el us aso this and tha (Od. r2, 370). Or the lineners might put question ike thee: Say how did Agamemnon die? Where was Menelaus, that he did not help him? Did Aegithut behave dis: honorably? Had Menelnis not yet retard hore?” (Od. 3,247). At the begining of a new rectal the singer imight put a transitional question” himself fe, 16, Sgel); or he might direet to the Macy that iy, the tradition Rom which he received his knowledge, So the story proceeded by fits and start, a long asthe hearers were pleased (02.8, go. If the hour grew to Inte for continuation it ould be postpone forthe next evening (ef. 4 1, 428). In this ‘way the Same fabric could be spun oat for weeks. When Odysseus Vat Acolus” guest ie tld him all through @ month ‘of Troy, the this of the Argive, and the return of tae Achaea’ (10, 14). Tat fs to ay, he dalvered the Trojan epic, ovt of which the catalogue of ships (ls) wae specially selected, and aso the Noi only a ‘mall part of the contents of which ought to have been Familiar to UGysens)—in & word, the entire Trojan cycle up 10 his own, siqvation at the moment, This rectal was kept in it channel by (questions and iaaterially supported by heypiable entertainment "And he (Acots] entertained me and asked me about each thing? At Bummaeus" howe Odysseus recounted hit tale for three days “withowe eling hie sorrow to the end which et say, exhausting his repertoire (04 19, 513). ‘When his sudieace’s interest in the aasrative of the profesional ager bein to ag, he fad to Teave his hort and eke out precarious fuistence until he could find new refuge. Tt was Userefore of great, Eemportance not tallow interest to slacken, At interludes in his Gelivery or wien he stopped forthe evening he managed Uh inter ruption so that it constituted no real conelusin, On the contrary, fiom the end afone section he gded! quickly and unobirusively to the interesting begioning of a ew section and broke off after the new beginning. One sees ia vain for an antsically staying conelusion 14 06 1, 213-4 Olja ntertethe mre of ha morn (otf) with reskin Sly lene en nav thn of hws he mae Se nt Hi ppp. The psge des net fins the ote nhs tay bt throm ph on 2 tard sation ith x ankaen eevee ade ‘Gea the hint 0 vote ‘tind the sng ol naucally hip (ore) 8, 42 pg ced oes aad Te a pigs ein sy teling thc wad ove The amcor sara of Tae Tse ed Os Ne elt the aoiety ofthe Aa stir over the Rogge fit Sdn Sehavestae ses her ea et whe by tng her tor cry eur abet ae contain Saunt) the fawn ara ‘he "Tah Paracas ofthe Inn Vliet ‘eet igh ea,4 wouen st he end ofa ange body of material inthe epic or atthe end of the ‘tole For paced ressons, and alo tn Leeping. wih own deliberate ste, the artform i vay alate for continuations i docs ota a oral eonclsions which is movement come os Bue thee ca developed at of be at i there 2 developed act of begining, oro beginning anew after an interrupt. Tk the poets rel ofthe cen begat ‘Mera prayer o hymn (sc p.248, below witha st proc, From ynany cxamples in both pia we can abstract the sere base Wo these pron The singe (a) begs witha rma reste est sod others pein, abd (b) prises the horptable boued and the Plewures i provides Such words include thanks Lor hospitality {wu dct expres is tw avoided} thanks ined inthe tume ofthe entze company. From ths pot the singe makes is taint own design (0) How axenic to sat ie ‘pred table and Teton tothe snges, 2) as he reports the ram afficos snd dests of prowes which he knw how 1 Aisrbe aly, (0) how hey af came about by eve epee tin. () OF the many deeds of Gaya inte Teen War, () Uw rot hat wh ea he theme ee rection () may alo be announce by pray the Mie toning ot lege hm, a4) then dee queen S Aree io he (by means of whieh the maraive bogie t move teas 05 2, 7s 10,246). ‘The poems to both Mod and iy ate consisted according to ths plan, cacy at ie writen book the ade to the ltener de rrenee to the Juaplabie boar had to be omit. iis third member () the schema of the proems contains @ onmendatory indiaton of the benaty of He wos come Deas vary, but the commendadon ayaye coneudes wih Wee though iat the narrative wll desl with “many ations In the fir plce otis given tha the mate wll be abundant the ‘pesto the iad pes os ohacend woes a wot soe andthe poem the Odap speaks oft man mack dsiven shout, te ees The shoo specilly oon i the dy introduction of O84 ae "ewe wea (a) seesyO4 9,2 a 2 05 (0) rae fe ote a he ako wih open ex: i rtd the wi ef hey Oe tg 1 a iy wi O98 24d Me a7 ay) eel tes hc ag ag Fa pe eve cg pra fru ts 1.) Nitin Teme The age the gue Rep icity eral owan 5 ane miads of mary men, and many woes upon the sea. Secon, in the opening and elsewhere, the singer and nacrator rarely gives his fmaterlal a'newteal name tke information, story, or deeds; as rule he designates them as afictions, sorrowful woes, andthe lke, OF the war at Troy, dhe mater of the four war epies, Nedor ja the ayn uses expressions ike micwabl wel, and continues indicating the abundance of events, “vhst mortal man could tll ell? Even i you stayed with me for many yeare and inquired in detail what fisforcunes we sufered there, you would return to your home sated before you heerd al” (Od g, 193-19). Similarly, the content of the djs iso described (04. 23,398) “Then die Zeuetorn Odes sreoint the pain and the sore Whisk le flict on nen ane thaw which beefed in mngulh She took pleasure in hearing i ale, nor cee di shee Fallon her eyelid ll exe hase long tle wa related, ‘And before Ouyereur tlle hie lie story Eumseus says to him (155 398) ‘Wie wil rake pleasure in recalling he past woes that Bese ws \Whileestingand danding thome, for ageeemerbered gives pleasure ‘When ene har sufeed much and seen snany land i one evel What che Homeric singer aimed at was to arouse feting of fear and of pty through imagined participation in tragic events!'—fesr more Dprominenty in the older pieces and in the Mid, and pity in the Inter parts and in the Oaysy Inthe younger epi there isa general tendency toward sentimentality; people weep even in Ue greatest, eladnes (04 1 4155 18, 249-19) and they ‘enjoy even laments for the dead {JI 23, 10, 98; Od 13, 212). When Odyaas heaes the Singer celebrate his own glory his face does not light up in bapy pride, but he weepe—as'a woman weeps whowe husband’ i sa hreforeber eyesand an enemy lays hands upon her shoulder to take her toslavery (04 65215 cf alo 8, 898. and 577-80). Hence only what ie sorrowful is worth preservation in song (Od, 8, 599). In the Hid Helen says of herself and Paris (6, 957): '—upon whom Zeus has Impeach we ty become mater fe sng fr ‘The most imporcant characteristic of the unwritten bookles epic it the fluidity of wadition. At every performance the singer was at liberty toler the text in any ways he could even recite a quite new x Ea the writin ext ofthe Jada the Ose this earactevitic so mane erg han what pred) sre, acaangy, mene pt tesrswe een 04 $n tweao 4a CE Marta 190 4 eae ‘une wove ii the ee a he ld Nea hy ep ove hee”6 owER anno ad drct xprenon Al he more valuable for the, ae {holeertsns mire have been nace in ving pies According 0 Mork tation sgt te able to improve new song inthe trtpnal yes fr tiem sone os, a nage, i whieh heya abie to ape freely, Ava tle, bowerer they rete exiting NE Bailar ongvor mutevale 04 1997838 np) Even so they ve about fou inthe oda seer, the singers have Bebe tut hey says fshon thir cham anew, though hey Sane they arabs tetanic tat hey delivered hem as hey iad "taken them up or "head shen” Huscnbeg Staroelné Uchanded of fe unger, “Preie tbe bao and prase_his here; serie gang to buy tum hin! «" Threcding common ibe hater text wa tee ten cow bore the sound PrSeding wa made ‘There licvered that even fhe same singe ‘Tauted ule smal agents ofan epic chat (ome twenty ver) stone ayant ater afew minutes deen n pacing wth he iramoplrone hor and agen sung i fell atthe rearing Shee Thad weaugraplee vee ny cena journey fs abe taste, i one eve even fy paral tex. Deviaions wee wottimged to changg nods or attng word onder Rather, whole ener appesred in wholly altered form or were omitted, stat, foe example, ite dictate vere led oy eight in the phono- fruphic reeling. A god sige fom sorte Bos tard ost te ene vr te ety Ge ines He deed sig Omang rans pois Ceg Onna arone ay in roe ear maine bj (BO vac svat: and a the seceding Beg Oman dene Pl {5.0 loka down onthe land te Sava. Las ety om ‘hy experience wath the recoding chat T drew the unguaiied con- “lao hac al Serbo-Grontin oping presnted in boos ere Sumungar diated only one single tine” (Murko 1919, 28sf). $0 {ety of he same song sy wary greatly in size, beau the Inger vealed or lengthens tat wil He sinply aided inselh tytn tener At ue fn put of bre and may actually be ‘ponte upon te fds ouch ei (13,1) he Matin Hite de Croan Archive} had the ong a twenty five-year {hl erie recorded tram to tore than qo wee, whereas Bis teacher ean ost 300 (919, 85)" sam aie hn hee veo epee tes acceding ge tne wel aed dene val anda thoy Se ond eer tn dao tag po rr von ina tinh ara o ema ia wo eon ae owen ty In the South Sa ep, therefore every new seciaton sige 4 ne ahioning of the materi and we have no grounds taste Gi ieoyas ober ith the Homers tings Nuching as tepeted verbatim, forthe min ofthe eer didnot repent ext Elchancaly, but womusnaied the sony” aehn Every opie Feitaton wat an ace entrpretaon of tadional mater Sy he proce ofthis conning trasirmation the poms ned in eng well depth The tendency length iacrent in the Sharacter of epic art The same evn tv constantly we nth with crewed preduion and adorned wih sicher deal" Apart om the trestle each poet con iene new minor pero a tvelop more ily the minor perionagssreay in tera = Silay nev pees el ener the general fame or pie ar antral teeny to forming aol epider Sd the whele to which they belonged were Caborated imulancouly fu wih mca inuene- Attn all Groskeestionrse hereto the fren of use organization beatlybnanced he tendency town expansion, Each ofthe Greskeyls has simple basi ek ‘Kemet ing (nb, Vel, Ne 6, Sori 3) ooo {Codey Moy Wa Nog The wanton re enter han ld GSecpeied ht wtb he ee eon rk wore fal of gage SSIS eit tinue erm enn nd oe Ppclon aeipee ha Slee bene ‘fungus ca ae eg Larrea ta eed Reto pe pr ca fa vena (ssn 2 He ig come Perfo ants GC Ca Mass Bi Ni Sas ‘pmb te tans song ti a coed soe spe peten tS The hon! preted ah mesma ‘Seneca tin el a ingen lw aie Sy aoe ane “fnr ca wn he te kee horn aos waP5 foal beech ie epi oy,‘ da ane wf Rc ne TREC pln fa nile cil ly oom scien head nig ele a let ‘hue geet fe ey acerSng ce Horr Seve w Basak font dace eel oS ‘se Gg aoe y sees Oe send Ma Se tan 65) ee our Mt arenes sepa fom the Tan ee art eth i’ tel tea: Red ici ioonmn en He wer onc es e SE a a en wh SEW on Sone eos hn ts Wed We 3,58)8 owen Which permeates every part None is planlea and amorphous ike the Mekabhavaa, and never isa series of unconnected storie arily bald together by a contrivance of purely external framework as in The Thewsand aud One Nights Side by side with lengthening came deepening, The stage in which heroer were diferentiated only by thelr ames and deeds did not last long; soon ach war endowed with special charscter which ‘corresponded ‘nth this special achievement. Similarly, causes and fotives wore cubeoquentiy attibuted to evenge tnd actions, where previonly the bate statement of fats hed sufBoed.® Such alter ‘ons gave the story 2 firmer bond; but it could also easly happen thatthe superimpened motive did not agree with the exlsting aerial at all points. Heace, asin any fluid prediction, the epics are ‘onsitet at many poine. New inconsistencies emerged from changes {elles and custome and from developments in men’s ution of hhoman nature. Hence much that had prevouily seemed simple and right became improbable and objertionable. In order tac Conmodate the new belie efforts were made to revise character, land motives 0 far as posible. But however much the stories changed in course of time, the singers themselves surely conceived of thet Tquovations nota wif inventions butasintulive interpretation af tradition. Ts the ond the latest stage of formulation was followed by pheno- ‘menu of weariness and reaction. The powerful forward march of farratve Began to halt, ad space was found fr treatment of toad in whieh the substance of the story is sampled at leisure fr its most Aeliate nuances In ths later stage there & nothing lee forthe pictorial Imagineton co do for the principal personages and +0 ‘occupies ise with te subsidiary gues. sketches scenes in which Use center ofthe stage ie occupied by the son ofthe hero or his aged father, the household staf, che suitors, cr the people of Ithaca help- Tesly torn between conflicting anxieties and inelinavons ‘Farthermore we now come ro retroactive reactions. After the basic line ot the tory has been followed through withowt additions, i seems too mattenottact t0 yield further illumination and too familiar to ve excitement, There comes time to relieve te inflexible mone ‘offs rigiccy and restore tof at least momentary motion, Ay olin acon tthe try af Odyeca” many saigs hy ats aa ‘he wen of ht eet spt oe hen tetra of Ppp, ‘ttc od oe ah ng 2 pena ete Stow rusty sheen sy styrene ies te “Taenaciy wh aban ies satire wir dnt ance heen the ajay nthe at ee etn the Tea ren tae eng del sed hin ti momen 19 Achilles fetlbefore Tum asa gallant warrior i the bloom of hisyonth: 0 much legend knows and tell tie Ibteners know it as well asthe Singer, even Achilles himself rows it for his mother had wld hizo. How effctive the shock, how lteratiag amidst conviction of doom, ‘when the hero eies out in anger thae he will no longer rise his only 4nd irvtvievable life for the sake of the Ataidae, no move epend, night without sleep and days in bloody hatte! Bary on te mortow the wil be at ea, on hit voyage heme; he deies along and peace lie, not an early death... (Ug, go7it). Actus he vil do nothing of the hind, andthe poet need waste no word over the possibly But the ruth has acquired fresh strengeh by dhe Greumstanee that i has een for once expoed to real daub ‘OF the two factor in epie recitation we have sought 0 Farm a clearer notion of one, namely remodeling. Bue what of the preserv a= tion of traditional form? Dsl the metnory af any man talice 10 retain whole epics, indeed whole eycles? The investigater of South Slav epic has remarkable accounts of the retentive memories of un leqered men. One would be tempted to doubt i the irastworthines of the reports wesw not above stupicion, We shal! let sober Rgures speak ‘Musko established thatthe singers of the Bosnian Mobammedans fs trule have at ther command more than go or 40 chant, some more than 8o or 190, seme even more than 10. Some ofthe chants are two fo thee hours fong, but most are muck longer. Many Last Seven to eight hours, with pauees, and sequire one or mare might until daybreak for thee performance (173, 18; 178, 1; 1919, 289) Forty dees-hour chants means a repertory of 129 hours of recitation (ineluding pauses). At Agram, from Januasy 10 t0 Februsty 17, 1887, Salko Veinikovie dictated go ciants with more than 89,000 tensyllable ine. This fled tevenflio notshooks, the equivalent of more than 2,000 pages of print, and represented 60 hour of vecta~ tion, not counting pares. bul 8,000 tenable lines corespond to some 52,000 Homeric hexamter, that Se almost twice the Thad and the Odes together, or some t5, books more than the entire ‘Trojan eycie with 1s 77 books. “Jure Juri of Gromilak sang to 2 Pasha in Banja-Luka for three montis, from evening to midnight, and was ceriaaly noc permitted to repeat mich” (176,19) ‘The modern analogy can alo serve in the question of how the teansmision of the art and the material to the nest generation was managed." Te ony pasag in ha Oey which apn ras sna 2,296 ‘ere the her Manis bus th bean pit ns al rh isi Fan eset he ct onl a eee at‘When Murko inquired at what age the instruction began, he ound to his astonishment that ie began in dildnood, Furber questioning cited even eae ages, “The age at which singers begin to “take up” {hse ongs was lowered fo eight yearsin 19:9: indeed many Begin 10 play the uae” and t0 sing while they aze on the Knees of the Tithe: or another relative, Earle, ee playing and singing were fencally “like a school?" A member of the Orthodox Church Kemacked thet at the age of eight he knew his guile beter than his Paternoster, Next to a Musi singer the eofleehouse at Konjic iMere sat his nine- anc) ten-year-old sons, of whom the frst was {eputel to know ell bs songs, Even i 1913 the usual age was ten to Iwelte up tofiteen—the golden years “when one has not begun to think" Many Linie the eapecity to remember at twenty-four or twenty-five years.» Th youth a single hearing is sufiien eta langoong.. One took songs up even while asleep.” All peak of a Fetastble preature {eljo, mers aeichns ro ste ca psmon) toletthesongs “penetrate” (176, 2)‘ doe ages detect a gifted pupil dey il him with 2eal for song. Many are themselves driven to le by an iresstible urge. So Muharem Holi explained it wo mein Tila: "From dheage often to twelve I went along with the people in the Cara (market, bazaar) and in cofleehouses and would gladly tv stened to songs al ght ong, At home Tet wot ll sep hnll [hae myiell sung the song, and when [fell asleep the song ‘Mas written down is my braun.” For most singers a singe hearing of Chant was enough ae only had te hear a-song twice, beeatse of jie; another learned song imperfectly from a singer he was 5 a) rm ater, bates poe by insta compe) ng ‘any dared coment A thwuaton i ofered bythe it bk he Oye tareyagesel bee Phen ge avery ew" sng which deal with he Soha i ede, Oy ee sages cont ary ch aoe csr leno fyFhe apie cinnbthcyand a ea on) vey seul adtion ee aly Te athe eet on aes ow thee tee plemies fare We epi adn aly eioc rom man wan i eared che ty tive ine oie rm i te ime is et a tec he Phone dr ars the sng ethers tat ae Ire are ry hs 5 Ms it eM Sl Bate 9.2) tried “now near if te UO ae 0 tie Sot Bo a average Boa ie re diving nase Ne vas oo dunk and dere iene a aleep” (173, 17). 1 aii tae tw ree pst an tm which anion Greek epic share with modern Sic The epi lofevens ot alone Pa ye iy tcpodce he contin ae oi tc nendang Soc oreumpl rele Siva sngen donb ec fa in a Geer eee eden trelacngal examnaton cons hesonnychhedectaina Hie leo nll prone menor fan ele clean isn ar ey cio sah nor generion eo pin saber treaty the ont tan ha psy Sette bat man ny pi ger sel arg te a pny ina ofthe alae ening toate ete eos eee Celt seen codes ave soeames om Sen oy ou Pint eps a gto tai Sas gern ng hen ant iat om wot orto ere ney mei oh log csonen See Bi el rece of pn ee oe ad iivmesap soma ieee tne ak beet arte be ot in th) Tic sh ecang ogy wh tote (yy 1) Ge gas ae witha hlag te ie thames Se and ey Pen ee tes ee ce cnet ihe Caf ete agit sad oe of ee Spor ay bce salen er concede ew ee eee Sich cd teed respi appurtenances calha chm Wises whe ie cold be hy Sp site evr and herd. Ho ana sg tae Stoo sant aha ea eae mary Oe spa ney, Br ve weg tte tee, sings ses ht on co wore ae (ing) We bon hese inte Orapy Snges wal a sa ohh ny nt nin ey ee Me se sn aig why 8ters were summoned st mood (17 385) scans scr, or arpa . Peet the Lng of tae Phacaclans oF the lords ia Odyaves pene fee anges in hei seg service, “Ae Late a8 1983 deg Ps ager wi into Bod Reh Sauer (1910 27). Deny Cana was one ofthe las great lover of heroic song, wie rere Shake erally wits hice every evening after he table Wed'ieen sewed an aay other Fstenes might be present oly ate pect grace OF entrtathment other than the aging er sal finger he knee nothings was as neces fo Bi, ie etn, asthe rung of hin et by servant (170, 48 and ae a) Court snges were alia drawn ito many other dues, ms ve bon ato he Gil ain : hie tans why tay made a prefeson ofthe singer’ att ma uw lincs various, One may have been motivated by bik superior tes aad cvespowerag pasion forthe at ccers ray have beet Taka sand by Recuity, Bemodorue in the Osean the ger of teen to Apolle were blind: among the South Savy also there ie hed ingete (17a, 6). Many may bave become wandering “Ten been they had lot thee property, oe they hed had o leave IIR estse ofa ue, o Sr pola reasons at ater happened {6 Nenoplne af Colophon row the porelomtrie period we hear of cote of Sages at soligons fats ov funeral games, Aer the eple bad ceased ¥ trolueds geod vey Gre contin eke eae sng Jt the ne nge favored Iie song Yther that epic chants, The Hint shapes tured ino mete recites who declaimed and Intec the xed text, dtd eventaaly inc achochmastes and Spoken pics trted iat writen books when the die constant etiarion nas ehened; and in return, writing fered the Teekthc cary wit hd fong enjoyed seape in re eompesion. ‘nthe other hand, a writen wore ers the osbity of earl Si test imprenement The fie writen copes nese perbap nt iid othe genera pblicbutonly served ava help fr tering, worn lene wished to rly on tnemory and improviation, Lo any ie Gang swe sea crn today ented potty lng Texulr book een, moe i he frm of gers texts. Nien sas the eer fey beds eb ose re ven so, the writen teas till show trace of the old uty. Books tuansmited the beginning ofthe liad in two forms as the start of a new poem, and ara continuation of che preceding epic. Thesiger Imight choase one form or the other according a8 be perormed the Thad alone oF a8 part as 'arger whole, The fist books of the dye present «compromise: they provide material either for an independ tnt Odhses, of forone to be recited én connetion with the preceding pic. The rst scene ofthe Odysey a0 attached wo de last book of the ‘Nosh, which depicts Orestes! vengeance upon Aegisthus, that iti inadly fneligibe unless recitation of the Nevo: preceded all through the opening books parallels are drawn between Telemachus und Oreste. On the other hand, the compener of the Telemachy Plandered the Naso and incorporated central sections of I into the third and fourth books ofthe Odjup. For an independent Odyssey Ui isa gain, but alter the Navi the repetitions would he hard lulerate, and in such a exe the singer cid well to omit the doublet. was only natural that the siagers should tanspene thsi material Ihe way of Ut at occasion demanded. Oden narrative of his wanderings did not necesarily require the Phacacians ac an tdionce. Actually our Odjsp tlle hove Odysteus agnin prevented the same report, enriched by later experiences, to Penelope. In tht passage the text provides only a dry summary of contents (2d. 23, {Ho 41) a5 a surrogate, #9 (0 speak, for a complete account by gg who began i! permance withthe Ber andi agen Freedom of choice explains «structural weakest in the steond pat dhe Odie). Several times the station is constructed with the ‘ransce objective tha te saying of de suitors must follow at one, Inu thi end is postponed by the intervention of farther and further hiaevial, Preparations remain unused, ries are not relive, a0 Ihe heaping up of similar epiedes spoils the effect. ‘These troubles far eh part th adda vr of ie wie OF the Hd and che Tine tir, ony mane senso a ped Goons aces Ae itn, nigh amon, ae slye confined to sgl nse sng wy, sh meen ere pan ha ei rt be me feo than came ieee et hed opting, when he ae 9.46, bow) to Apo ‘Sonn recede tc ee sare Hi : ta 4 ely "ont 4 he nin 9 do ot papery St iC rn ob apna rvs the nrc nde. Tavera Cate "wich eesu mower disappeared ifthe singer did not use all he episodes each time.” “Theta yields insights even more valuable. Every singer was naturally enacerned to nchide at many attractive pieces as he could Ie framework he core, Within the framevork of ‘the wrath of [Achille our led inchudes portions that belong to the beginning of dew (like the gent march to batleand the eataloguein che second ole and al the events in ghe tied and fourth books) and events fom the end ofthe war (ike ehe death of Hector). Similarly, some Pooks are filed with fresh memories ofthe prehistory ofthe war, while fre He under the shades of Tun’ iment fal. Tis procedure Foe correct realistically, but ics artstically appropriate so long Rte Read beard or real by tae Wiehin the segment it offers, the ‘thle long war i reflected, But for the eyele a6 whole there are UUrawbaels, En the epic preceding the Ted pieces which properly telong there are wanting because they had already found a place in the lua. Obviously the Med became a book before the other eps Uf ke Trojan Wer so thatthe Inter authors could consul it. We ‘tay explain similarly the disproportion in size ofthe epics (the Mad Ind clatned mest of the material), and the fact thatthe Hid bears a ttle to which it has no better eight than any of the other four epics inthe fall of Iivmy The competition af authors for the best pieces to fut in heir books bs pat ofthe reason why the ancients thought that {ine poetic worth ofthe other eyli epics was slighter chan dna of the Tad and the Ody. ‘The other authors came to Late. Only subjects ‘eles ad an onaterable place inthe story, a8 fr example the sac, Wr'Ttoy, were sale fiom covetous hands” Natural selection had ‘anutave effects With sure judgment the best singers chose che ina ame and packed it with the best scenes and episodes; they gave Use atesal the mont finshed poetic form; chey met with the great= ‘Se applause, and so their works established themuelves as norms, Tae the public wished to have the stores recite a they recited them, With the lp of election, and thats tothe sil oftheir arranger, iad and our Ody ace reasonably if not perfect planned in Uhete general structures” How similar previous Meds and Od trom bestow tha ou Oey pees a ref erative preparation SIGMA’ aga ich nny ae dened fra diene ero of 1nd a which di ed ao the Oa bone tock cant be cane sty. Tay hao eo he eho De event ety. rien went onstage of he we sev ha Seppe nine pt eto teen cae ee cram pat yc inde be ables By he ‘Mabe har, aly ht ogee vated oa wt ened owes 25 wore to ou wo pics, a how original the Gl arrangement was, chy he ail inetd eis ; fall we can ondertand why tanions fom one eps 0 aoter in bth epics areequently unable to wivtand pragmacie crc Since the epsodes alten had to change place connections here and there were ery lowe or ere le th a pled ie toucince turned a The pis this have on'y «genet wy. Sta of varus eo on he on erm oe Sater with some ming and the seca slr of indus ‘sho conributed tothe watdeful work ae entangled together, Not ten elauieal Grek tragedies are ure, though exth at wien by one man wit a sort space of ime nal comprehensive some Pitonr eich pen ast own tendencen every ear every Ino every character. A peda eomteny witch cael el sated evr pow conie would have devoyedorimpoverthed ts town ereauon. Hence ie epics ae note of partial or compere Sentra nda Pt oer he whee = dominant tiny, foreach poem and exch section bas a sinpae base though Miceove, bate te sprosiate unity of wea te saa tv eaiinal iy em, In ange, and ves and sy (0) Language, Fos, Sle Al Gk ration eae not nly he ener alr o Crk haraetes, Beach afer ty ova ie na incains ts appropriate eye Invaditon to fs own characte syle Homeric epic has orn age, an artical language whieh never existed cutsce ei, and slick elong only fo ep, From epe tis special language was evi yey ah tn ws oe woo fr or ‘ive i Inguage an epic estoring and to conjure vp eple aoc tin sides the sntral Lt of a, te acdent of Rtry alo te in xing eh Creer il inthe mother country, ee paid en hove iwi tages Te etn of ep language shows tt the ctl and development ofthis oetry took plac in the clonal sven af the Baa, on the wet cout of Ala Mir and i offre hes sete there toward the end ofthe second Dorin. The epi dec neatly Aca: scoring ete tse it eleaed he ory the roo ef ancient vat pes Sand ar ata oc nt6 oxen ‘roy. Epic was taken over ftom the Acolian by the Tonians; Homer imeif was regarded as an Tonian, Now Ionian Hogustic features Were chaneled into the epic islet, but without displacing Acoli ‘Words and forms completes. The Loaiaa singers had no thought of ‘ptematially eralatng tne songe which chey fist heard and learned ow the Arclians into their own dialect. Te do so they would have fied wo surrendee and destoy many useful ecinages because Tonian had nothing to cortespond to them or because the conresponding Tonia could not Bt into the vere, Thos a maxed language came into ining, Un the course of time the Tonic ingredient was strengthened, Dect dhe end fonian singers never sorned to use Acoli words, fem, phrases along sith Touie ever for thei own compositions, A (Relea break with traion was alien to the Greeks; and thete was {practical advantage in having » choice of possi, (Grosk epic reached inatarity, therefore, notin che Limited area of tte slfsuticient motherland, but abrosd in the colonial azea of the tao Ofall the Greck tribes the Tonians were furthest advanced atthe times and during the whole srchaie period Tonia was regularly a age ahead of the rest of the Hellenic work. Alert, receptive, and lemtrprsing, the descendants of the old emigrants developed more tiekly than those whostaved at home. In the new country chey wexe Mail imtercourse with several foreign races, and the Phoenician imerchang who touched atthe hazbors on the seacoast end islands Ite hem acquainted with wates, people, and ideas from all the ‘Mediterranean lands. Trade routes between the Asiatic continent a te Hast and all regions of the West, between Egypt in the Sooth an the countries tothe North, all cresved in Tonia, Toward the end ft the epic age the eastern Greeks themselves took an increasingly Sletive part in savigaion, 20 that griealare was reduced to second place, Soon the Greeks of Asia Minor suceseded in wrestng primacy fea wade fiom the Phoenician, From the eighth cencury ona new ‘wave uf Greck colonization was in motion; a single Ionian ity, Milews,sctded the cout of the Black Sea with a whole chain of trading stations, Ie believed that an echo of diese nev interests may teeaonally be heard ia the Odor. An abundance of fresh impulses must have steamed over the eastern Grecks, Bat le Greck chasaeter war in ive strong enough not to succumb tu Ue alien inllaeners, What came from Without was either eejected for adapted and assimilated? Cultural development followed ts cays canieef te Clopes nth dy ee ofa ma set ott te reorient (1-4) rere ae oman fe the on oA Miva ‘nits Sata eg sera he ip owen 7 ‘oma laws, promoted but not eramped by incon from without, ‘Aidhough came ito being at the ovat of Hellen during conan neste, pact an waite, with many eh faltwres and much alien crudenes and barbara, epic became omit Semi, snd ply Hse and retained o i SSaracter and language; to 4 large degre, indeed, i helped form Sand ereate Greek fe and caleare For te Tonians epic ar sigaied& ind of eetawacenes: nen cone quietly together to tun the lance ssvay fiom thesurounding word andthe presents wo fad rhage in'theofd dion of remote antiquity, before the migrations ‘The epie poetry thus produced wae then cared by traveling singers everywhere Greek lived Psshaps in the eg, and a atest inthe seventh century, te ees gon thei vetorous arch through Greek land, a march vile to our sense inthe pated vases with their endless abundance of pictus out of the epic? 80 the cpie sli ett et od motte eae lonian maturity snd pefotion the enduring pouosion ofthe Greek sation. After te reeetions turned into book, Homeric epic became ‘tunivrsal tem of education forthe nation x lange sod an ede ional free for one geaeration of Greela afer anotier tect so enduring cn he enerted ony by ereston which chem selves rested fom eorsant development, by means of which they Tecamae treasure chambers of sowly amassed riches Only when the vtiloa and art of many men, working simaltseonaly of in succes ‘in, i oneentated upon the same entepeie can a nal rest innanlypefet as omer epic be stsned. Next we shall examine Meal and vere othe Homeric pies The lingwite tock of epic verses shot through with obetinately surviving archaisns. and. wits foreigascunding Aeolis. The “mle nate rected wupordons, or ele ditinated in varying concentrations accord tthe content and mood of sene, Seton and pasges ef ember Aten ke he appearance of he vag goa Inthe ibook {Wile Mad, maintain more rigidly the dignity of the old traditional Syevsh, wile ively and vigorous pices, ike the recriminations in thst ps oh ae sn appar ah ent ‘wrnarulart On the whol the epic language alvays remained ea Tutligile to anyane whe hed once listened to attentively. But tz dr aes st ye ewe of nn er sve apy sb pot that sy a he ane a Bt vetting rss 4 1a rower fn details many an archaic word or xpresion became mere sound, in dr ma hots god became aoame ore which was wed wid ma Mog awoclted ha preche toeanng. There wae also yi aa gh whch amcunted t0 productive nasunder- ar ot new word were constructed in what was belived to be Teal ye on te model feasting frm oe orc annie element of epic se Porton of ver ve tape of wees appear again se agin [ deaial for. $erec Rand a permancie reserve of eniages mae Saprovin- tn cacy tr ti singe, Bue to proce aratags at ly ee ty excuse, nat explain, te extence of furmulacs 4% aren out ef plc, for elven alatr agect art Gade lt sedan Phe ancient ep pets ne eeaa to be onal see would only ween ihe expression, o to pat the sate ipods ino stren wrappings everytime, On the contrary slong fone utr and inva he hed to ie expresin tthe wermanent an ical in frm jst asin mater, Perth toma! ves the esence othe act which is thei anbjeet wang fetconventent form once and foal” They reso diately carpe ay workel oot fast i wort whie to scale at sae le in detai-the couple on eating enc’s dinner, int there cae aon by the howe and hr fouschold, and then, bterally {eR Od. 17, 986): 1 qs put fh ce hand to th less tha ay rend Fee ener hed ade ni dee fr di and Spe Tine iis siking that nothing se of the actual eating took pit “unsing, beeen the two veces, The anal actity of TAN ae and Satowing i decoy pssed ove” Noshing i aid of See ne rsh pues om lies gue only of the bunds that areca and afthe dere which ght be Geely grad? hr rane, arn’ Pah J. Waa (gs) 4 The we ee tte aon by Man Lear, Tie Wir Bae, 936 "Draper verona enn er. Rink ng ou med yt winrar — sarees inte tient mad soos cbewhee ef J. Waker, A ee (ia eum 2 Sins he Dl andthe Os) 1 Lane swans td alan tesa 3 St eee nna ra bu dein. Wr he bets aes tt al ml we they weve nt cerned se ih mouse 29 ‘The meals decribed from the viewpoint ofthe pleasure which the host prepares for bie guests. Ta this respect too the epic i wcll poetry. Bech ofthe formulae performs its special function most pty. ‘Those which ioueduce a speeck pruvide, by thei easy uaformity, © convenient neural fi for the dramatic speech which flows ‘Mest of the formulae do not make up a complete verse but only ppt of one; and there are hesameers eompored of v0, three. oF four formulae put together; for the formulae are so arranged that they ft each other peeciely* They obey the general lates for the Internal structure ofthe hexauneter, to which we now tin, Epic verse 2 one of che greatert achievetnents of Greck artistic kenlts, And though tis generally impossible to attain a fll apprecia- ‘ion ofan attic form through intelectual analysis, te formal stem tthe hexameter can be completely mastered by ralZonal means T. is therefore worth wil «enter int tebnical deal ince syle and ‘ontent are inextricably bound up withthe stricture of the verse," ‘Asin all ancient Greek vere form, eo ia the heassueter mhythan ie Induced by a regular pattern of long and short ellables.!? Tn this Fespect ancient vers s'moce mechanical than medern, which rest ‘pon the rhythm of stated and unstressed sable For whereas the siest aid on a Word bear a eevtain relationship €0 the content of 3 text dhe Ieagth or shortness of sliables has nothing to do with the ining of words or seneencer, But in the hexanctert? this di ‘hing wpe feng Rater he ph meee‘ es he dese ot allowed fee cn (a pative este) ens tty el back i ea” (plenary gy Oy 05, Soon thee rma se) pena 436 fe" ang a) ie est epee Sn lt aot Stephene, Oop to rae sheers goad nag. The ere of orth ef gh pes OF eae venta ae enugh een o tinge whee ike wi te ace ta even ange than in war? The thaght wuld be stn he sro ected to ecm fe of re fem hae kwon Wath ntl tat er tine on df te age tan en the pre pat wih te ope Ferma. ta Ie sgh Alec wit (You ace 0 wear). 4 rls har ine ge "ne eo re Sen Th ike n aye he sd Senso Tr wba topo tlre th ead fon he bide ls prone ad ead logs ad sor pecs. Ou gn ig ata rr an hg aig eat ve0 nomen vantage i outweighed toe a peta manage SaemeEE ye verve the ene fe ore the cement cariy spe apnea Sel aein by rmetaung te problem whch eee el treated language ody Ue uecesions of words ow nan arse ete lc re ean am ve sot, ud aaa mir nad os tng ore ates pact rane ester imine don and basin othe wine ander to oe easing word sy cote mbes SET Cette. egrted suty, epecaly sow and ert tamugh suger o weaker interop othe SeeF asc a the speth the boundaries between members. At ea se out ely te) there ao a pase nthe ih Se en tent ameter compan nas sh vane ether ad ow te astral ee areuaton fe xe so toe teen with the pred succor of lenge aed “som evan ese rane yt ns sot se Ms ye or ror cach wheres the meatng ae everest ome tonto seventeen bes acy seated hee or the, whwe dane spat fo eve sot rea tray detmined. ‘Tis produc onc wi ll sompromie ‘tre cer the vee ld allow oe ee naa yen seqcace out eho consirton of imate che vl seat ou be seid wth marie a ondng os do be ok no waynes ‘clone atta ow aha i ee ne Neer taker asta of the eeqement sen icetton nna vee by tefae aeach vee oie “toeanen thiazole extn seni te meating. The fo efen begins a ee Feet Ge uceding tla sth 4 Prep it res an me cmt fr peng he caste ae eh Fee ean e caeotoianep aE a i a cand ong yer, Te Gk pny weld be do i wn ns sol vas eed i begin as very teen Soh Str ond Sigel aber “ns ne ad She wera epeion ra oe> U iy ten mle Logs pray ft ea Tif seeinatt net ours hy a yh oi ch hey ith, hua tse ow wowrr 7 that its vee is subdivided according to harmonious relationships fore et iotrrapton thre se foe cole (A tg) for both ar svo each (By tn and, On) Phan tothe Reem of ‘hee the pow not uncalyconcced a shaping hi tex sl there {Ps no monctony, a there woud be all he vere followed a iemeal pattern, Oh he other hand though the ves srctae can be varied in many wae the sve emai ple and ual ‘cis woes ar dele no wld og ‘cording ete acura the Hence at once sna the roglaty snl {he harmony between the hth ofthe ere andthe rythm 2 the mmeaing. No erste] ehriicaon of the applcale rey eceary: chat i why the ol singer id not elaborate theoreiea Subdetes and pase onto thle psterty 4 pace ef tt rae Rather, che oem was imple in te Calon rectaton a ‘ene: ations incame neticeale bythe fact that a0 fy nee Could be seated inthe tadional tanner. In the madon of ‘estan Ge aricltion of the hesameter wae maintained by the eck fortwo thousand year war rae, he cour fe, but never overthrown. iver hexamer therefore @ miniature soph, and the over taying ache mechacial yi of lng aod short by a2 audible seme siythm harmonising withthe meckanis, gave the Crock texamettr more thas ove additonal element of sexe eatsactin, The ar, et, seceved a esr dbnension. Vere al eontent mo FHAp A Be ‘Travnet imate xepins sho. Expl long and ingore id hi wan paca hs ce Sd snk an Ata Ci eam A 1898 {agora aged SD eto te yong a ick acdc tn se tr aa ee a weigh se ei gia fr ae wl ei ad ens os amg sR uate ager ef rmeiePoeu (C0) elie ch ne he ony af "ie maaan tucbed, ba 8 mening yn vie lund ‘he pm fe cnr Ep rereasn mabe hand prt eof {ste Sel ents bt an que ene the pew a ing ih ase word at the verse aso thee cla tne or “pie he Dears ded oe (0) he vene Seg) he ern of cae ac of the ae ener with 4 2, 20 = pom ‘at Sr pie aaa ie ri eng hy the aivy of pyar ewan Theat ad eave eng he a ary wl ac pagese owes ‘words but only experienced by intimacy with the original text.\* whe cree a a, “se ‘Lok: : ye kan: il that how Bes longer stand ny etn iy senda Spt 7 rr na ete sucjroa aces sb Ag a Casa Age Cay ag BY Ce age eG Sih Agta as Av Wega AQ a ‘2 UE Raer at ad 1 neve rouen os cilden,’ “Troy's holy city," ouser of terms’ ‘that T command him ‘down into Hades” The four others begin a litle ear ia th Tine! ‘to pray to the highest” “brightchelinetsd Hector, ‘dark- tlouded Gronian,’‘Athene the giver of booty. The concluding word Df che verse is frequently the name of god or Kero, fo give the verse a weighty conclusion. But since mest names ate too short to ll the last thied of che line by themselves, the name i lrequently preceded by a tratonal epithet. For example, “wiemoving [ri leet footed Achilles, lard ofthe storm Zeus-This prevents breakin the final portion ofthe verse. For in the course of the tarrative the ape pearauce of a god or hevo & a dedite mark of a new beginning by means ofthe epithee the new penonage ir announced in advance, 35 C-were, and the vere concludes without a distorbing surprise ‘The asuzed completencs of the final third of ita verse gives the epic hexameter a saber and solemn character and differentiates ie form the hexameter in Hellenisé poeuy. Callimachus, the Helleniede poee who lived haifa millenniam later, was mone concerned with the Mexiilty and point of is verses than with spacious dignity and 0 did uot hesitate to introduce new idea at the conclusion of ine Tn this and similar ways verse and word alike profited by thelr alliance with one another. Ava variable miniature stropie the hens meter did'not run a neutral and uniform eourve to earry desired matter in 2 form desired is four members could develop a life of their ownsa powerful beginning to initiate the lines a factual secon colon, a frequently emphatic third; and 2 rolling, resounding ‘ourth—such i Ue unsal pattern, There are many other, but in all ‘eases the verses animated and planned as whole Since the cola differ fom one another, and since each of them ‘states or can easily sasume a character af it own, the location of & word or phrase in & line fs not a matter of inliferences a certain ‘usloemity arises of itself. So, for example, the third member ef the verse, which may be ae short a two syllabic andi partial to marked sires, is a favorite place foe che name ofthe highest god (dls oF ‘he fk} or for the word ‘god” ar “gods (Big, el, and the lke) "ise formulatons which recur fequenty have taeir regular place Within the line into which they are fited bodily according to theit ‘Joe. An since the expressions ae adjusted to the general laws ofthe er, no member intrieres with anocher; they ate Gite together ray ahve 9 igieant concede with oe ees hgh ive dare fe aa wns ea“ omen tke bing Mock which bind and complement one another The fjuument akeplace with no content nor any absaltely binding seme in good tse and. wih effoess asuanee. ‘The whole Wid permet yh ep stony ant all hse element have {Pee moton fits and relationships “The iy of types shown, among other examples, by dhe fact aust the ae eps ave sepetelysppled to person amd igs tautomer parca suain. bo the pot ape of {erty shin when they are drawn upon shore and of sifooted ‘Rei when hes ting tle Ths may be quesionale vo modern Cy ao bs een ire that te pce wa loved tfate improv sation. Bu ts explanadon fe hadequate Dense I Geko tll nt ni ana ate he le Mtnger erployed sanding epithets segalaely and eousitenny t0 Tae eels nate of ings and the oustancing tral of a Ensen hip are vl for tavelove the pate sea! "yh ature Ailes ys sit tnd stormy. Epic arrauve “Mle sto exes ibe permanent esde the momsntary and #0 moo cite wi hee ee Tom the properts of epi style va lnguage and verieaton we sc tre tenis wer sere the tendencies which governed the preeatation of he narrative “A peste and concious se 10 rigorowlyprevals in Homeric epee we may propery speak not merely fw je but of slzation Ththe alder porn ofthe eye slieaon pecially power nd ‘else if the yeunger ste countertendenee have beg 0 i hs olerrgtty Th only what we sould expect ina kind UM poetry which ae ow lyf ast stage when corruption hat “hes tis Fe wich tae the set andl pure vtines of ‘Mesetepeayzaen thecory we mut rely manly onthe ‘eh Ey and lage repesents he older stages MC eature charttee of Homer syetion iy the deliberate sniglty ofthe ents nara a the coins described (ee arr abore). Toe song which cari the speaker and his Hnene She nalae which a the claw af a yor te ape oe ur Mie atau Fr Any soy far Asc ee bea one Os srt in er ees tet ype. Al women ae bode ‘yen ke Ailes ad Apes ally he hard we Ox dP are Mac ni Ts ne Wen auc she wa ces pie pemonage 4 Dawele Tamar). as aang rhe Gr skips “eo repaid ji ie Fen 8 nomen, 35 hack to ages long past is carefil to obseeve the dinineion between ‘then and nov. This applies particularly tothe exterals of eivilization (pp. 456, below), The heroes of the Trojan War lived in the Beonze ‘Age, and the singer therefore has them fight one another with \weapons of bronze, though in his own daily fe he had long been luring implements of irons Before an audience which was ured to ‘ding and Sighting on horseback, the singer has the heroes go out to battle in war charios. Furthermore, though these poems had behind them a long period of maturity in the Oreck East, they ignore the ‘overseas migration and the colonization of the Kast. The epic knows ‘nly the Greek world of the motherland with its old capital cities before the migration” ‘The singers retained the picture ofthe old forms of Hie with suck fidetiy because they believed that the age of which they told ws, despite is techniea! backivardnes, grester than their awn, Again and gain, when the prowess of heroes is reported, we are tod that ‘men such 6 live today" could! not pesform such feats. The historical pespectve is one of steady degeneration. And just as the pie Figures wanscend modern men, sy according tothe frst bock of the iad, were they themselves infviot ta their predecrsor. At the same time this pasage (1, 245ff) shows wherein che higher searth af calier generations ‘eas thought to const, There the aged Nestor says to the quarreling king, neither of whom will yield: “Once I had {© do with men who were better than you, with Lapiths, against ‘whom none of today’s men would be able to fight. They respected me tnd listened to me: so may you to listen ta me. You, Achilles, are food, ane yet you should accept my’ advices What do “good” and rower mean here? ‘The saga depicts the Lapitha as vigorous, n= yielding, and overbearing, and here Nestorsaysor them, ‘hese weethe ‘nightiest our earth ban noutshed; they were the mightiest and fought sunt the mightiest, against dealt beastsof the wilderness, andslew intheievage™ Brutality hardness, joyinconfitandbattlo—obviondy ‘his comprises the greatness of earlier humanity, In this sense the vet ofthe Had advertises as ste great subject the ane (dover) ierand strife, o which an untold number of Greek lives fe victim. Ter the romatkale contrat tht wheres Acs aves Hee ah nw wi once pinted spear eb epoch by hs ding he a 8 stan wes eat fw ia ga 5) Fo th eal pel wy the “ti dg th ino 8 ete aa nin Rane Rh styl eet ora eee “nein, ro sre fl of Mycene is bep ueive), beater)8 nomen Adwication for animal savagery, obsesive pride, wholesale slaughter, sno longer naive inthe Mad but fs aw romance, forthe Singers ard in general ‘the men who live today? are ofa diferent ut. [Nestor with his advice fora friendly econelition epresents madera reasonableness but ifthe quarreling princes had indeed listened 19 the volce af reason, as even the Lopith alegely di, there would have been no anger of Achilles and so Mid-'The mature and late ‘pic art of the Zed, which owes ts perfection to humanizaion and ‘spiritual porifeation, glorifies the wiles ad eruer type of humanity ‘which it had transcended; and yeti could not but Tend ots person ages many of ir cavn trait. Here the cleavage characterise of all romanticism is revealed. Thos i the Odie, aswe shall sce (Gh. Thy the modesn sprit gains che upper kand, sod thereafter the epic age naa whole comes toi ond The world in which the events of tue Ziad take place is also idealized, and its laws are diferent fara thove of ordinary reality Gods al great herors lie in sphere of their own, which they share ‘nly with thei equals. AR thst impinges wpom their soverelgaty Is seit wore ered and extinguished. Their actions are not subject {o Timitations ot space or time, and nature does not gainsay chem. ‘here js no summer or winter, no bad weather, uo cold. The ‘rej fide omy am arena forthe Trojan War, nota countryside. Alwcys preset isthe shore withthe camp of the Achaeano, ad the Inlty ety of Tam. Oceascnally there i a landmare at reed, 2 bill ‘sg tree or tomb, and ifs ea has need afta boulder is ready for him eo ov. Ta the fst book of the Hada plague befalls the host, sd iti snied a obvious thae only the eammon seldcey wil be isved by it. No one imagines hat one of the princes might be slited te goa punishes he king by making his abject die- Once hie rivers of the Trofan landscape, here conceived of as gods, enter Tato Uke figit, and chilies isin danger of drowning. He complains dat he must end like @ boy who Keeps pigh and immediacely to ets om Olympos rand beside bien to cure him: Te is nat fated {hat he aterm averwielm you? (J, a 2798). Only respectable and ‘wordy ores ean exercte thie eflets upon great personages, for we ve porte worl in which nothing is mecbanial aud coarse ful essa Ta a dl hegween to searior the decbion vegulashy Tillowe the relative wort of the opponents, and in the hand of & eat ev the weapon itll carrie inetant destaction if se ealy fecal vecnn serially. A Fate re fe bale scenes i nea the pi Dae rates ssp, Diodes tack ty anh aaa: You be mid ye ee to fn tr hago nae a te el nowzn 37 that there ate no slow deaths and no serous wounes; The principal heroes de oceaiomilly afer slight injuries, which take them out of the battle only tempore fat ll: in general they are either unfure (of killed on the spot. This later simple alteroatve applies to theless ‘ures only. The poet wha wines to ure the Sigure uf a warefor once ‘ony, decides his ote simply and fvally. Half measutes word make the baile seene less monumental “That the compulsion to extreme solutions is a matter of style and not unfeeling savagery Is indicated by the Mads consistent autude fo baule ‘eh in tears? The feeful serioumess of war i always prevent, aud over every warrior who fall the terrible grandeur of Rt overshadows the clatering arms that encase his dying body. Even to the undistinguished warvior who are included enly to ssaceumb to their betters, the poet often gives wor Which endow the ‘itim with a persouality and make his waged’ felt “He was a great Dunster snd a disiple of Artemis, but che goddess and his avehery did tot help hi’ (U5, 51-54). “Hi fae begot him outside wedlock, bt his tepmether teated him Fike her own children, to please het frosband” (5, 7of]. "He was rich, hospitable, and fad! many fiends, but none was now there 40 save Bim fom destruction (6, 14-17). Al these comments are ealm and factual in expression; but though they ave not emotional in language they are so an effect. This cakes ut to farther hallmark of Homeric style: restrained objectivity an aloof detachment. The Snger reports ut he does not reflect, At a person he retire bchind bus subject complecely. He Pstes ne judgment upon his Agures,* and does not indicate his own (pinions oftheir character; he allows i to understand them only trough their actions and speeches, Problematic questions are never raised in the narrative. The epic gives very few descriptions of inner [Nevertheless the poetry is replate with differentiated characters, wirring problems, and teute situations, For the epic developed its ‘own af indicating by other means matter which, by he rules ofits ‘syle, might not be uttered dicts: Much ofits details invented not ‘much co lutte the ation as t illuminate its background by ‘eae ofindinee lighting. Tithe passage ofthe Jad where Helen i fest introduced in person (5.425) the poet wishes to set the theme which is to dominate the len, For dl the wonpon of sur, wore a Tee es pad iy a # rt eal ti? ut the fly on jective xa, Se eed the ck wer hi tom a 1 1)Fy Homae scenes that follow (10-28, 156-60, 164-85): this isthe woman for ‘whose poresion nations struggle in Bloody war, and she i ware of Ther great and temble, hough pasive, role, But instead of poiating a her wi his ger and analyzing her situation he tells ur Trt ound hee inthe hall eated at the foom, working on a purple web many pictures of the sferings of war whieh the hand of Ares ime psed upon the hort-guiding Trojans and bronae-clad Aehaeans for her sake Asan example fom the Ody (2, 45-29) we may take the ‘naner in which the complicated and conse situation in Thaca is represented indirectly. Anxiety and bitternes bad spread among the people from the time when no more had been heard af the men who wailed to Troy. Some Ithacans sued for Penelope's hand; others ‘ttende to dcr affairs; many persisted ie falthiul loyalty to thelr fing Al this the peti able to make plain brefy by creating a maa, ‘wh is personally involved in all the Contradictory Interests: the fssmbly the hero Aczyptis, bent by age and keowing many things, ‘eg speak, One ot hi sons ad sited with godlike Odysseus 10 taming Tum. ... Three sous more he had, of whom one, "war one of the autor; the two other steadily eared for Ais paternal poses, But Aegyptus was not forgetful of Odysseus, Inut moened and grieved fr him? Tike actions and persons, 20 fon things ave used for indinect come jeaion. The discreet but ineligible larguage which lifeless Uisugy speak in Flomer must be learned and derstood. 1 the poet lingers ver objects fe does so with design If te weapont ofa hero reese in deta, the sigaicance is that they wil son achieve sereat deeds, At the beginning of the eleventh book of the iad Agamemnon arm bimsell for his forthooming aries, The thought thir Gime iti the geeat Kg of the host in peroon who vail Hiking himself by prowess in ms the leader ofthe mat glorious ‘campaign in history, a man whoae enterprises the whole wide world Tillows with inteest—thie thought the singer incorporated the flowing form of te desertion of the arming. Agamemnon, he say pt upon his breas the armor which Cinyras (uler of Cypeus) Find ent hie ara guest present; forthe great dings hed reached ype that the Acbacens with tele ships would voyage to Troy: thstefire Cinyray ant ehe armor to the King to give him joy Ul 11, toll}. Then the elaplay of olor ofthe vaious material ofthe armot indexer flees “Upon st wore tem bands of lack enamel, twelve ol gel, snd twenty a Hin; woukes enamel stretched to the ner, ze cn each se, hike the sino wei the sn of Cronus rains ince elds ng men” The ‘naventinal prgtesion of wurmeras, 10-12-20, ender reconstruc nomen 30 tion ofthe armor, which has often been attempted, impossible, But the poet i aot concerned sith literal repetaentaion: it the werd which teaches understanding. Saakes are symbols of uncanny blood lust and lusking death in Homer (et. 93-97), and the rainbow isnot bridge of peace for Homers people but an sul prsiestment ‘of approaching horor (fl. £7, 344-58). Translated into speech the escription ofthe amor means? Agamemnon clothed himself with = ‘sovage urge kil, and dreadful deeds a war were in preparation, ‘Such tall, amoag many others stamp Homeric nazrative with ts shacacteritc impress. But do they entile ws to speak of slizaion instead of merely sjle? Did they etal impose constraint upon the ancient poet? Perhape the singers saw the events of the pas in all Simplicity and only from a distance and sae them ae cbjecively and Ingenuously a they reported them; perhaps it was impowsible for them to represen lit in any other way ana peshaps ther language was incapable of speaking of other hing. ‘These doubts can be resolved. The late form of the epic which we poses ie anyehing but naive, even in ts at; it nrchaizes wot only in Tanguage but alo i thought. Por within the epic there ae certain ppssages in which rulas that apply elsewhere are tangrused. The Sig's could do otherwise The restraint which the epic poe impores upon hint in set aside n the numerous speeches which he weaves into hs wuxk.!* Only $0 Tong as the singer is reporting events does he remain a mere shadow, discreet andl neutral But as soon ashe impersonates one of his figures and ters thst figures words with his lip, abr his Bicod and himelf becomes @ penon. In the role of an epic personage the singer may and doet reflec, he can sea and ecrnmest ov whats raking place, he ean describe and expound a sitsation, nd the cam even supply masterly characterizatons ard eealuatons >In, The ele of the tid of ests oe Ch IL blow) can they, ‘weap soir fer Acta dds wer sin devoted wh ‘abot of eh sore Miceanen daggers with Sar httes apd bear 9 Dey Eig upon the setene ace anaages tthe Homers nan Ode cle (08 1 296-1) wich bas Aeering garment tgs eas te Pe dog ate throat os lverng nd Cy etapa yu aed {0 noah a sin wernt Gea yada ee 3s ane iy Sk Bn et iden key A tenon: damn Nero wil Swept tse he you 9 ep) Bere os ty bd Tallow, wath te help aa nai Cn soo atresia of Po0 omer general the speaches are freer and richer; thei style and their mode nd course of thought are mare modera than it narrative. In the Fpeccis we Gnd. quite fen ‘ideas, reflections, relationships, in Contatlicton ¢0 those upon which the narrative and action rest. Te is as if forces bela in check had here broken out with elemental strength “Just asthe speches of the Mad in contrast to the narrative, shoxe ‘ha difference between relative freedom and (aditional stylizaon, fer in the next place, the numerous similes supply insights into the earal woild picture of the post which deviates sharply fom the rileial one ofthe namative, Alongside the heroic subject we have here a complementary pendant it te everyday world; alongs the pocallar ad unusual event is fil inthe eutomary and false, Fro the simile the rule of sletion which governs the narrative does not apply. Hete the writer does not archaize or stand on his dignity, dnd le doesnot ignore the forces eh environment, Here there are Simple people of humble station with taee work and care; there ate Delty aud Fancorous squabbles over tny field; there are animals ‘whieh are complete ving beings snd act and fee as a maz or a god Aloe; thre it tre inthe glory ofits blossoms Broken down by a teuel storm; there ave storms and seasons and sickness. As the sles {lo not merely clethe facts ofthe pase in words but rather duminate ind iustate the evens 0 the speaker is no longer a mere report. He adds something af his own and places hiwell in x manstooman Felatonship ith the hearer. He enters the domain of his own ine ad ordinary expecience, is order vo set che ancient things for with renter clarity and falls. humerous similes constitute one of the most striking elements ‘tsp inthe epics, especially in the fad. Their nature and function hve often been misceneeived; we shall conclude our examination of she syle with some seznarks on Homeric smiles Th te midst of a narrative, abruptly interrupting (ts steady audvance at an exciting moment, an "2s when? will introduce = Simile- A seen is built wp equently wis sumezous details so that ‘any smile equites a whole series of verses, until atthe end when, the peture hae been ronnded ou, ehe narative resumes its advance wits hie fer nk fit ve up at et ily, Lo) Heirs ‘en ane (6) aed rca never be wre ow, He hea rr win ted yeas ad ese tas Hon ha coh se tne ay ie te ai vy avery eens), whe he xouER fo Ancient epic inew only linear representation, and the smile provides a steonéy paralel Loe alongside the narrative. Doabling es the metter easter weight, and the reader who i required to EEmbine dopaace picture stimulated to think te statin os tooughly. The sontaiy ofthe two pictares nt Limited to single Usioy eather, there is resemblance ithe stuctae ofthe soe oF our ofthe acdon as an entre." The stereoscopic double vie. produces a new platiciy, The more 4 sino ie elaborated the Ughtr the light it throws oo the total situation for all he parte nse: the ineply ofthe bro pete, he mood and temper Tr the actors ave Brougit ito the oegeound wih renter force than {bnceand etceat erative Hope, greed determination, anxiety, Searing fea, claconmen, dea: eae) ever do these spring Trove ely rom the person ofthe stor tothe srapatiei hear Chany the niece working ofthis ortstc desc’ these “The sles ony suggest the paral, wiiowtseening it pet for point What sing in one of the pictures fs plied. by fefecton fom it coutterpart. And beyond What is expresed in ‘tod on gh sde ad that ich more adumbrated in the ache igrurd of the simile. For tout of the mies are typieal, and the Feaer stare with he type Jur seach porto uf ananative {aly us more in iscontext than coud ia old, v0 he inaividual ‘Ete gin in content fen theft thatthe hearers eal the fasly Sennectons ofthe Petre "A arg famiy of smiles has we shepherd and bis epial ox rience atts theme. tn is shortt fort de comparon bewween Toro and shepherd te suggested when, a often happers, the heso talled shepierd of the poopie Aw) Isause he protects Nisimen from the enery a the shepherd des the cate entasted 10 lnm om beast of pry. In the wars cf the Homeric pviod the roles ef leader and af his men were apportioned very erent rm ‘wha they are ody, aly che Teds, wealthy nobleman, was uly equipped wits cosy cHasive and efeaive emt and had ac his Gfpeal a var chart to give him mobsiy- In clese bate the Sriary man wat viraaty deenscles before the chazpion of the hemytike herp belere Hons. The mates therfore mostly kept i the background, at ong space om the enemy, wile ween the nda a en re warn on te marae wb le een ees fot se meally 7s so cn ht the Se ict ede ie lla pe eta or en pec. Ch es Dionne Cole (atime eo eso rd Oy he ner he2 nomen batledines the champions fought their peer, Often a champion Mrould try (@ break into the enemy Ene with a leap and create ‘Gamage. The oppossig champion had to ery to protect his people— {Sth Shephed his flock frou the lon, he filed todo so they were Tot ‘Now a simile. Diomedet son of Tydeus is lightly wounded by an arrow, 2 eomrade removes i and Diomedes is again hale and ‘Often the masse line f commoners ueceeds in Sending an enemy champion olf aud prosing him eck, So Ajax was once forced 10 peti le 31, 54835 White he dre back be glared ie a beast onthe ranks ois orem, Turning and tern sa, whe tep by step he rereated ‘Aswhe a ced of mem and dogs are diving & on ‘Bac foe the igh pom and wil not il and aw hits ‘rely to ea ofthe fat of ee cade; hus they remain dere ‘Watching droughout the nigh but ke in dhe greed of hi hanger Gees spring et say Bere e i for #9 any ances Tio by waded hande ae everywhere fing about bi, Map fina on, whee fase spite of Ms ange. ‘he ay dawns be slic cst daa ane woubled pe hin uf he ss nth pt he wither of he fos he osu ar tthe nm, Cnseueny te aon 60 "SFr at pase ters a a dep Ga i sonen my So did Ajax seret with toring heart frm the Trojane Slowly, consumed wth care fo the threatened ship ofthe Agnes Shepherd and bess-of-prey miles are all similar, and the beast slmles are in turn related ta images of the chase For every situation Jn Homeric battle the large faily of smiles has picture chat will Aor ean be made to fit. So, for example, warriors ighdng in @ band are likened to a pack of wolves or to hounds that the hunsmnan {Icades) urges on against the beast of prey athe game, and 0 08. In pictres from this familiar circle afew hints are enoigh to build up @ ‘complete situation, ‘This remedies n weakness of the linear sive, ‘shiek can ordinarily thrust oly aeomall segment of «total event into its picture, Similes broaden the hosizon by bringing the headlong ‘ction tos momentary halt in onder to introduce a denied reflection OF the situation, A second sytem of sires days its images from the play of ator forces, Wid and wave, lif and peak and cloud, serve as symbols of determination, thrust and eountershock, resistance oF compliance. ‘The champion is the cowering “ci” against which the “sori” of attacker breaks. Or the steaming borde is seen as ‘waves which protected by the “helmet of Foaming Whitecapr (cplocera, Il y 4424) break furiously against the ‘elif.’ The "wind™ which drives the breakers agaist the shore becomes the driving wil cither of the sees themselves or of the leader who nseope them slong. From the ‘assed saldiry the picture can be wanufired to the mated oll in ‘he asembly- Agamemnon had made a aggesion to the ambled army, and the masses scepted ie joyfully. ‘aroused iike the great waves ofthe sea which the stormy Southeast wind has se in motion” it's, 144). Shorly thereafter the mood fs reversed; Agamemnon ‘kes a contrary proposal, and this too is accepted with enthusiasm (ita, 394) So he spoke, and the gives shouted alo, ke che suet Grashing oa rocky shore hen the south wind lo, which impel Raging again some cif; the breakers never leave it Driven by al We winds which are Biwng om every recon ere the visible link between sine and narrative i the roar ofthe waves and ofthe masse, The “elif is now the leader himeett This Tine the simile cloves with a remarkable gentence, In view of the ‘dial changein che popular will the language af the image explain: ngewe the wind may blow, alwaye the master leader (the luring ely eared by acelamation (the rosrng srt}. Once the to the asa (ora Ge 0) vine gh all igi C4). ty Sy dd (Deki pthie nomen because its action itself in larger part moves over the free and open ful of fae and “As wes wan at «bright lasing Bre corns ping ul of TESTA and thar tape to oar i ley o Be turned his wap oP chewing how to lay ands upon the shamces itor, he wae find thoy may” Here the scibe lnk between simile and narrative is dhe reales a be which sik te taeting of the sausage ovr dhe Se ee 2Ghcpded isthe ring fons ts way ad ht Sane thoughs andthe inpaince with which he awaits th rer mament ris vngeuncsy = Rory man ds che rae tren empleo tne osnsonal decadence of Tiomaete ye inte Oday. Ae the snes of te Had dexcend rom, eeieie level to tie commonplace, £0 the sausage sinile of ‘iiyseu vohericstvation descends the vega (6) The Atari ‘Whence de the material which make up the subject mater of our pic nlkimately derive? Av carly asthe sith century m0, there were er akepticn wo bed thatthe content ofthe epics was pore igeteu century seholas were unasimus i van War nl everything eonnected with it LILI cag wore than poe ale, The question ws reopened {Hn tthe tary fanatr fm of «layman. Ridieled by special: Se yet ushkaly Deiving ne tral rah of dhe poetic word Neto ‘hia owen 4s “lnvich Sebliemann took up the spade ia the year 1870 aad found ‘Troy and the age-ld city of Mycenne, He found more indeed than dhe sought not one Tyoy, but the emaine of seven oe nine or more cites, one over the other. But he and his succrsor ako found lee than they expected: Ue Homeric Ithaca, for example as te ayy describes it, never existed. The quenion in ts simplest fret — 1b Homer narrative eve? cannot be answered simply First disinction must be made beeween the truth ofthe general conditions and that ofthe particular events aud person. The action ofthe epics takes place in the remate epock before Greek setement ofthe Ease, where the epics were created Is the picture of the age and its civilization an the poets desribed and supposed it corect? Or was it only fre invention, based on a dream ofa good olden tie wh In hard fact had never existed? In general, so far 28 history ean be ilominated without writen roo, researches allowing ip those of Schliemann have to large extent confirmed the accuracy of the Homeric pietuce, Approxic imately feom 3570 until after 1z00 a.2+ dere flourished in Greece & Uufied, advanced, and highly individual culture, Te this bronze {ge culture which is vellected in Homeric epic in the poems bronze takes the place occupied hy iron inthe poot lifetime. The center of thatearly Greekeviltation was Mycenae vichingo,” When Scie ‘mann opened the six shaft graves atthe ancient royal citadel of Miyeenae in 1876, the yield of golden ornaments sad veel fora the xteenth ceneury amounted to fourteen Klograms. Such were the treasures which the historic soil guarded for thvce and a. ball millennia and preserved forthe man whose naive rst in hs Homer, {she understood him, gave him the courage to seutch for and bring Inuck confirmation ot his faith in the form of heavy masts of said sold out of the earth ‘Schlieman was convinced that Homer was contemporary with the vents be narrates. This idea we cansct share, For us the epics are hun verse chronieles which fx recent expetience for al utate ane, 1am no jae fb fa writen vdeo ewan sileniu 2 fom Mpa egypt, he and of he Hite a tool pon ee Crk Tl toc tay asa above all othe exrurdlany aise rrp i day thi the hf he ch ery Geter Mperaran cate have on fet a unsenon, Fhe Inti he le weasel in Gre ach wok he fon be ne and gn oy the hear he who le ta the deipher dure eek hor. eal cases ala Tigi ea! in nine if wa i a ey "Following av, A Sup Gyre nousn Paths poten dee ey th se Sgn ca ee ge See a (da Gd tae saree te rh cn fe Sel id ade Rk ree wn de cael ce ay atte ep task es vues noo ed nits eieRepan oc te Set cacy iy ok Sepa enh i al de gt Fee atl gta hat yds pt at ow tae ran acs a Sh woe pects pul te li Seti at's on ofa Gc Beco eects eal re at ete Gs Dia lah meas abe hee ae Sih evsdan Bh Coe ooh it Mem aes ose Gat Be Seis i ete theme Seton of cer er a ia tine Seen Ge acs age ‘aa pao an Sel eeepc he Sue a ys i Niners Hed rarely Gael ee ictal ok efmene dp anton oa des tp Say et veces by waned a yet secs ei eae pital son aes Wigton ae fg ted eg ee Mt en no do hs St le Spt Se jon a nos, cam rt Hin Ace Woe and FH Stubs, & mpc wma nowsa ” consquered, plundered, and dearoyed the furishing city on the west coast of Asia and, after heavy lowes, returned to its mother country ® ‘This happened late in the Mycenacan age, before the whele culture collated. Thu i is easy wo understand that, as de lst great ded of the Mycenaean age, the expedition against Troy was fixe most impresively in the memory of generations fllowng and that the Iriliance of high heroism in epie was favored mith the gloom of approaching destruction which gives the poctry of Troy is somber grandeur. How far individual personages in the epics are historical Js questionable, and the probability of conjectures varies fiom case {o case. Cetainly some pre inventions were added to the hvtrical ‘core, and in general the picture of the expedition became more ale ‘embracing and more magnificent i the coutse of ine: Much shall true, According to the lid (5, 5278, Tlepolemus and Sarpeden, leaders of the Rbodiens and the Lyesane, fought one another before ‘Troy, Lycia is the mainland region opposite the land of Rhodes, and Tlepolemus isin Greek legend the leader of the Greck setters wwio occupied Rhodes. So the diel between the tw inthe Iliad may reflect s historical batle of the Greeks of Rhodes agaist the ite habitants of Asia Minoe; onl later was the battle tranapased to the forth and o an earlier period, through the magietc power of the pie which attracted all pssitle material o the gieat expedition inst Troy, itd and last, the question of historicity doesnot have the same signiicance for the Odjszy as forthe Mad, The stories ofthe two "pics are wholly diferent in theie nature. Even if everything the djs nactaves were we the event are seevant to history. History isftde concerned whether Odysseus reached home or not of whether 'elemaeis or one ofthe suitors wa hissueeeseor, On the ther ha, « historical atmosphere breathes through every episode ofthe Hind sverything that is dowe or sid is of immediate signifance for the late of nations, Here the personages deal with one anather as princes, several and alles communicate and treat with one another Inthe Fhdysey the relations areas father and son, man and wife, quest and Inst, wanderer and shepherd, master aad slave, beggar abd Begent ‘man is related to another according to privare and accidental ireumstanees. Even where aceasons [or political formulations offer lenseves they are not exploited.” Obviously the authors had no. vs ov Ieave the sphere of private lie {M6 Nikon Hem aad Sue (Lath, shy 20 sy 208 J hte ah ate Zt the ait ead pe! jue a nig nlrb etl coder eel ce wear a ame lac snd thee mouse ari Bet he rte elmo tyth ae fy tale The not require comment oF analyst. But myth and fairy tale do demand ver ceed ge em ett bina ey aoe a en the apt ht he sow te Kap TR's he by eh) fo rule cnly concerned for mastery of is ov, GRP etch cages tri etre 4 a a get a te and te iy do the ats min wae aged and fr rj Cape yw wr ob we viene a ‘i a came hogar adn tae ey seh aa Ue il cya een ae pew aoe mourn ie ‘There is much wider scope forthe miraculous and forthe fairy-tale lement as compared with the Had, which admits the former only rarely and the later nt at all In hit adventurous voyages, which carry hima to the back of beyond, Odysseus experiences fairy-tale Wwouders which are not only unhistoical but whieh fave lite to do ‘with geography or ethnography The poet hat to interest in tlling the eader where o look on the map of ewen in pretending to doo," he wishes only to entertain, surprise, and aston. These stories ave only looiely connected even with the romance mistrial inthe Oasn ‘Almaat all wavel adventures derive fiom the fee fancy of a sexe faring population. Anxiety dreams play = part in whic the fuher ‘plays the part ofthe fish, Jost asthe fisher hauls his prey out ofthe Sea, so the monster Sola seizes the raman sailing by in onder to Swallow him up, On dhe coast of the Laestrygonians the comrades of (Odysseus are eaughtin an enclosed bay wih ¢nareow opening sins trap; the giant shatter their boat and hunt the evimming ten down with spears like fs’ (Od. t9, 124) in order to devour them, ‘Another group af mots derives not from the epee of men who sal de eas themeves but from their kinsflk. Many a sailor goes £0 sea and nothing more is ever seen or heard of hen, He may have perihed, or be held captive far avtay, or have remained there ‘voluntarily. "To these whe vainly avait his return all that Tito brood over the los. Their imagination fils the grim and shapeles void of the dimppearance with conctete images whieh, in part at Teast, are deawn in Eendly colors “He has not cturued” was exe peste in early Greek a5 He has forgotten his homecoming’. Tri Jn part a metaphor but in part alo fir tale when hi Kin say ofa ‘man long abveat that he had eaten ofthe plant Torget-your-bome.” Odysseus and his comrades arrive ata country where wel: a plant srows, the land of the lotureater. The Ognny actiber na magic Powers to the lotus and no evil parposes tothe ltuveaters {oy 92) The flowery honeyaweet food was #9 delicivs that for its sake the «comrades ‘wished to forges their homecoming (9, 07). Inthe sory of the Sirens (12, off, 19807) the enticing charm which holds voyagers Forever on foreign stand is thesong of women, criginally,n all prob abity, choral lyric, but inthe epi, naturally, epic eecitation (oe p ‘above, The effee ofthe song ofthe Siren that neither wife nor shikirensustound the returned voyager and exjoice’—which i the ‘viewpoint of those ef at heme. The cvental ate of the vit Ai ary the Laren 0, cen er Aen tr tyre met ae ‘ett boneverlaicl i yb ndaa ome! ec fc nal cede to ne with hos fever. Nymphs Torests, the elite ofits hills. The landscape of Calypso'siland is fine ‘hename ‘Calypso’ is obviously derived fromahinrey,‘toswathe, sa een eeeton the sasng were es soe he seer a sr othe ve ea MINCE K, Meu, od Ags (Be, 19). now st for out of themes of romance or fairy tale, the opie ali include ‘material which accrued to them in their latest stage ot of fresh vention. A new aye gave currency to is nev ideas and tendencies, fr example im the travel books of the Telemachy (Od. 5 and 4), the Bumacns idyl (Od. 14 and 15), and at the conclusion of the Thad (ook 24), which can be compared with passage from the next-to- last book af the Oaj9, "The Telemachy as well as the Eumeus idyl belongs to those portions in whieh the stream af epic action is halted and dammed up {nto a quiet lake (ce pp. 18¢, above, The Telemachy has a young san go on a journey to gain information, o he educated, and Wisi heroes of the ‘Trojan War. If Telemachs” modest herohm i still in the future, Nestor, Menelans, and Helen have their great deeds behind them: through the forunate eyes of the yout we ‘observe the domestic ie of the princes who reside in theit royal ‘eats and enjoy hig dignity, theone wich prudence and piety sd the ‘ther pair with wealth ad bpiliace.+* We leok upon the great heroes ffom a humbie level: the poet of the Telemachy may ell have lookel upon the glorious figures of the Id with the same awe a5 did ‘Telemachus himself, On the other hand, we enter the hut o€ Eumacus with firm and confident step, Even in its preeatation the wholly different mses, seth it simple wemth thd unadorned hhumenity, ouckes us much more nearly than the stateines of the sands. And when Bumacus and the wanderer speak to each other of thelr past, thee storen are indeed endhallng, bet neither pathetic hor herbie; the lives both men have been ruined by the treachery ‘of others, Just as the Telemachy Jooks back upon he prov kings ‘ofthe Ziad fom the level of the Of, 50 Uke Bumceus scenes look into the everyday life waich was opened vp for epic by the Odyiey. “The mood has changed, The romantic aide of shuddering sdmiration for aweviespiring mex and event is alo on the wane, gentler mode of eli asserts itll, and inthe end affects both epics, Teansiorming and reshaping them: hitter hatred & quieted before the ‘corpse of slain enemy, anda chivalrous code haste eet word, Tn the iad, the old sul the new stan se by side fn contradiction Ihre i no suppression of the horrible abuse of Hector's body by Witch Achilles avenges the death of his dearest comrade even om dead enemy," avenges it the mare savagely and erutly because he a S29 en xcs sc tt ee es a gl ag, 08 4). :“io demons the orespondingtandoroation toward ihe ie dy wih he lg waning of any me ee hand ‘Aer the cores ae stowed inte courtyard (2a, 448-51) Oxyseus 1s i wn impresiveconcuion for che grea drama, but in our jus in mated by being punted over and deprived of ef. he ivi longer a eal vy bu only «conning ik to acre i nen of the ain en and dt he ug ‘rn or Odysseas to prepare his eamptiga of vengeance. In out ‘pues the aged Barve not permite, when she sees the stg to ater the foud ty whieh women emited on joyou Sion (bau). Ody train er with words of warning (squall) in your ar, old womans cease your exling iy he cong of he aqui, the gods nal by ion pasion nose 33 In the Mad boastul exes of victory are constaatly utered over the body of an enemy, ard no one takes exception to them, The lance singess felt otherwise. These new piety spoied the fine ald scene at fhe bloody massage eastin the Ospig, and inthe Mad iercated te fine new scene of ramomning Hector, (6) God nd Pears ‘Deed f men aud of god’ constute the theme of epic recitations (04 498). Thanks to the divine Mute whe iapre ns the tot now’ oxt wo sng and tell taco of inne highe® poser whos doings ae ident the oxinary man The ichusoa aoe, dpa s uficieclymotvsed by the bleu e hehe sete ditect every phase of the action for long taetehey sed Ae ouch the hero ad hi soma ei ferent ava a Lai Ip heli, however the namerous sernesiniceg el tot to be undentaod in tis way, Hee the gots do Met eopeee tert ntervene in he evens he Tian Was at ona ae Bea in the word of gocs is for the pee sinioaly'a eee ‘keyendent eme alone the hima, The net take eee ‘wo fevels basally in Beaven aad on ert, and one othe peer wecatonly eat ino the bacpoue, Ste, te vine ‘one often contin no aeons propery speaking, but are deeipies in nator, lke the late dexcdptions of te heinan ‘len hone pug. And thirdly, among the divin scenes arse eae, lve cases, speed with lor aks sn aucoes agian Ge suscel with and deceve one nother, gre come te tees oc feng and whae eget length tion othe ound. Sek Inhavion of te gods among thenives must have heen oles fe thous sensi, begining with Xenophaney a shaponde of ke uth century (pp 230, below) If to Homerfe marlon wes sting but the tanterndental bate moral, the seg the fad would fave been stsurd aot iy objection a the to mcant not (ohm It the highest owen whch ae pinged fwectlly upon the fit of mas thee deseripons ofthe pou ee ‘ind woo tl be van sport withthe let fie, an the "hs happen y ely inthe mas he pet pc pennger ‘oun wihin the phere af endiry anova eae es see a 12 8 thin ne aha thera he senna oe saute pf went hve he ae the ee ee hen atc l,l The ey ea ee oe bats Bt only ney vp Han (Ok ast owen mrs ao rdigon develops consnenty out of one sole en of iene, The thee dictie can be cleared up together f we can ind pal an blowd: And when en ight for Hie nd deat the gods ay “Aman a wham ign sii pows rear od mii can be re fein te eas see Zea nooding sent cae mr ee ee tag olmak eral ute dak oh ( yal preven in deat "he gods dl im Oly inhi amc each te wo at the hurr earthed death 3, TAEATR, cto um te Pern mw Homer 7 and death in de end. But the gods intervene in human fate with a Tight band, lke a child playing te the sand, building tad destroying (dl a5, 361) Ie precisely the wantonness which we sense in the oars play of the gods with one another and ‘wth mankind that contibutes to their uncanny greatness for the ancient epic looks ‘with admiration upon thes lolly figures living thet» uncrobled and linconstraised lives. Whea the god has hed enough, he needs only to stop. Wounded Ares ascends to heaven; he is hesied i) a instant by the physicianegod; Hebe, the resplendent ence of youth bloom, washes his earthly dirt away; he crests atractve clothing And takes his seat nour Father Zour joyiut been of hs [recovered Aignity [OSes] (Uk 5 gobs e& agree, Denker, p. 3t4). The god. can return tohislordlines at anytime (04, 8, 362-46), but man rust. bea tothe Bitter end all that men and gods and he himself do to tn He is ted co is ear the gods come and go. They can participate jn the great drama or enjoy it as spectator; and they ean “it serenely in their chambers, where the hove of each is bul on the Hopes of Olympus’ (Hl. 5,75). What for men i the frst andthe last, the oue and the all, is for the gods an entertaining play from which they can look away i they ehooie, and have no peremal concern Per them the great war, a8 one of them remarks upon ottaion, is “ihe leser thing,” lesen, that 8, than te joys of a feat in jolly company (If 1, 576)" The divine capacity for turning sway Eom the ight ¢hings on earth and looking ahead rules av horizon and appoints boundaries forthe Trojan War and all haman existence, Homan suffering takes place only in the one. hell of a two-sided ‘word, In aa epie poem the other sie mut not be wanting, For ony by means ofthe divine fil, asthe logic af the age postulates, ca humanity be shown in ie appropriate place. ‘Gods who could shut themtelves away fom al elie and remainself silcient in their owa heaven did et have to deal with afar ofthe orld execpt according to desire and incination.* Thus this concep 1 GLP. Predindr ‘Lachende Gite,” Di td 10,200, The nls oan ‘ie ration mata ave ft Hk he gna wn i fd od ih they "hc infos hers Acie ta the gad (ey the i re nai den a) OR oe Ueivedyt aoy 2 long olay anor he ati wit on bre Toy went de sue ie Oly rl et statin ta en lane Only af he peal al tr he56 mower tion ofthe gods tans In iereconcable oppaition otha in which se eee tcc and decive power all earthly heppen- {RSS views exer i Homer side by side, There sno fot to ieeuenie tc, epic poetry sno die to go nto Ohecogy oF Tormolate a comistent world picture. It takes what it is able and inet 1s of the world the gods of Homer fisse ing a ony ohh te Inge ed be fren i etme ply o the gods ot ao in Ue singular, without Mean ston EE God" af Zee” a fm ble tt a at open tages its coure-acrordng tothe counsel ofthe gods? Bat all caer rofl a geerlten ate epi geerally sree ad incite ss toon at n personal element ceases to Spent in tangle form "ie iad tecomes aicelae and specie at once when the gods sept into pare, and favor or petareut= one oF tho eer of the ‘Rhhem parte Taitual heros ao ey have ic special en sa Ra gods Ths situation then gies eto many conics withe in Stat and clive novon of all that i assumed to be dctermined, without troubling over how’ aud why i so reglsted, Betyg ame of order or tate” “Ordee a) designates the wer Cele wien govert ochould govern the lacens of man roan STecmbaces the norms ad the fate ot avs cbic nd socal Wins, even sexual intercourse fords (Ug, 15), Out of eis Cpuregstion of ode, on inition sempiased in mand (ei NT pint coe relationship wit the gods and that i the Talis" othe Lig: his prerogatives 2h Birla ypon the com stati are eepentealy Gave fom Zeus, There no particlar Cerin tua or eng te ort tate Hlomere language has several names of which the most common, lteraiytrarslatedy means meting ke ‘portion (rio) The chee of such words nase hat twas not che {ei jc unersal aw, that was tobe designated, butte adaptation ike special eto an Individual, his personal ‘porn So ao thre alwaysspoen of fn the seaue ot producing an sroportant Fisted reewe Hoovers the whl of eh india tes ae tou named The gods ave necanaly deigated 35 jeer bce unin’ ats tl, ft, in contrast tow oie secon partis etl as ab ade fnce which “Ove iid Bt pat atts Reba ce ed i ‘tote 8 nomex ” fakes) tern? “sina.” ‘casts down, ‘constrains? of “las its victim.:© For fate & predominantly active in catastrophes, defeat and descruction. When it brings deliverance or seca, itis used ‘mostly in the negative (it was Hot yet hie fe ¢o fl postive form, Very often Tate signs ‘death. ‘There i fed ealed Dest Tn Homer fite is sometimes called “the dispensation ofthe gods,” and is thus in some fashion attibuted to the ods. In ther places however, the epic allows us to understand, contrary tothe frequent ‘expresed belifin a divine goverament of the world, tha the tourse ofthe epic ations predestined bya fat to which even the gos must Bend themielves. Hefare Hectors death Zeus consuls tie golden scales and puts the lot of death on both Ealancrs, one for Achilles and one for Hector, Hecor’s fated day” sinks #0 the depths and ‘appears in Hades. The god who had hitherto protected itn fevers the vet, and Athene comes to support Achilles Uke 22, 209), ‘The idea of predestination is 0 alien and unconnected in the spiritual world of Homer that it must have a separate origin of is ‘own and thi ie noe hard to Sad, Tn the moving account of Hecte's death the singer is convinced thatthe acwal outcome was nataral and logical: Hester's sense oF honor (22, 9-110) and his eicernment (112-30) lve him no other che bu de ws Gal econ ae Ace Wa the eter fighter (qo and 198). On the other hand, the poet openly sympa (ves with the serdogs Zeus himelé wishes tha Recor, would scape death this time (168-81); and ic is always posible for the sod to male even the improbable come about (ck 202-04). But here they did not do vo: Flector dit in Tact fall, Hence another power hich stands even higher than the gads muse be involved ‘This conclusion dean from a single example can be generalized To the Homeric singer the events which he reported were not sogs Jnut realty, The main oudines of the course of evests were fixed, and jw particular the catastropnes; but within the framework which limited him the thapzode might be guided by his own inspitwtion "The freer hit scope inside the frame, the more tangible was the rigiity ofits outer Liitations, Again and again conflict mast have srnca between the outcome of 2h epiode as the tradition laid it slow aad the outcome the poet wished —out of preference for ene ary, out of sympathy for man condemned ta tie, or Because in "HE; W. Gre, Munir, Ms see Hw i8 nomen his view, only his own outcome commended itsef as right, natural, pd areas, Tae actual outconne, he fle, wes other than it might ‘ive nen could five been aso Bim he wan which had predeiermined the outcome took on the form of « predestn fats Asa rule he ood regard this power asthe fate a che gods for his intusive inte: pretation of bistory could so manipulate te gods (ut they wished and eaused what eventually happened. But many times, a8 he knew, the gods were opit into warring parties; often they were not pleased sith tho tuz events actualy took; hence fate find eventually to be understood ap poster to which even the gods fuse bow. Te inherent inthe conception that fate absolute, that Fro say it stands in no organic velationship to other powers in the world, and thet it deisons are willl that isto sty, ot base om Joyge oF capable of being understood. For ths eaion any attempt tit gur part to rationalize the power of fle in Homer, and fit it ‘heaningflly into the Homeric world system, is doomed im advance, TKreprescnls the hard residue of fact which is insoluble by analyst of history and t0 which everything ee must somehow accommodste Foci it ia strange and selbwilled aust which the poet can only fe asa datum and which his gods ike it heroes must accept Pin fr the epic poet tobe driven back oa fte was 2 simple rwensity, and they could not do. much about it, but the actin! portrayai ofthe gas aroused theicaetve interest, We bave spoken Phun ot the Olympian gods ax ruler ofthe world who determi the ‘une of events either by ordining it from above or by faking 2 hand int But the conception af ede as bearers of power ean be fleveloped in another diecton also, The gods may each be alloted a ‘eck funetion by virtue of which they operate in the world fom WWithir-vas the goddess Earth and the god Sa, at sky and weather inl or at lve or war, Bot what does Ure Mia think of the gods as Spaate partial powers in the ie ofthe whole? The narrative of the Id iseoncerned not with the normal course oPatual things bat widh the yausuals and it is mote interested in [perms than in things. Where the greater Olympians are concerned, thrive, it pusher thelr practical ancons into the backgroune. [Revoning to his epithets, obese, Zeus is the god ofthe storm Dut 4-7 trom Se sme pli. Aig ad Hee te gaan ae et Ta roy won oe eae ene ees ety dateyt ened woe ero and Hk bak ‘tt nc tn neo ep 0 wn in at eed STi ome wy Tha Es oy vr (6-08 sas tga nomen 0 isactons are almest exclusively thas fhe highest ord ofthe wie word. He needs to crete no orm besser sight aways ‘fines on he bouts; he i master ofthe storm only whe he ule lighting or estses bloody’ dew 10 tain dow to cone tron oF sinounee coming woe orto ert the wasn in clouds and dust. Jost as Zeus has his seat ‘lo the bogie heaven andthe eos Penidon dell inthe gay sea (I-15, tg) Bat the sea vay more than hs reidence and rain; feb wot Ides! with the tlemeat. When his charine speeds over the waves cleaving ee wee e's ip, a ts dep spn abut the sx can do 0 tier than rcede and make way for hit $3,444) Similarly ‘Thetis lives the sea ancl sea nympas accompany het (il. 18,35: 24, 85), but there she i only Achille’ mother. The goddess Edheh appeats in the narrative a litle a8 Demeter. Thingy are diferent Inthe sinily, for there theater, utstyind wold sppearm in which nature and Ue are filed with eivinepresenes, Ins sine ‘Rired emt pris wheats ht he ing we ‘5, 500). This Demeter hs nothing personal about her exe he i hair shes in et ene wth the ay of winnowng For the leser nature ge the rule doesnot apply. Scamancer ist noe river and enon {Zl 21, 1191}. Hypnos ir both ep and a Berson (ty, 251), and the winds are storms and persons in one Ut 2g, 1). When they are summoned fom a feast by oeajer and divin bing and hasten tothe sk, they chara the elouds and thei oth wy movement whe the wi thr te orm rags eis otherwise with them than with Peridot or whom Iivelement makes ay pee “The greater a god the more heisa person forthe epi pes, and hee a thing. This in o way comesponde to general Grek belt: Uomerie poetry stylists godh onecdedly in 4 patiealar direction, ‘The gest divinities Arbene and Apollo appess here only 8 fee and independent persoalites. When Athene operate az & couter~ weigh to the god of waroa the oppo side (fg 499) oF aarbed ik him ay expert in warare (3,128), hat doe not make ber war it she only a ware godles who i active in war. According general belief Al, iain tothe specie fancots, was & sf death fo me, ex Artemis was 9 gen of eats for women} Tin the grad scene of his shooting aeows of patience inthe Ast "Cnty ce bee pata bewern he go ade clement inde Wie Rid eae io tae esa raat these eA the i sain, tt oy me ots pe risen coe be yr wit 28 16,3860 Hower book of in a ean be undetcd and april whoa knows Wg otis ce One oe hand he fhe Olin who Se ried an aco ome be ted hee rah (ct), e's mo scent that ete snes i aiayy Mephassthe sie Acs who ara aprote whottoney no nak sts ilo aad Hostel Grp ane ecpane a Oprper ere woe pecans oth eo obi» pesos et tte dr a ha oa lg! dyer of acts it esr Ohya aad aa iMiarRgwen hemes and hee aie ite over ten eh ne company och bg wh py pasts rien Crt hug tae tuo ema fone wee nen ‘i compel om bang oil ne 4h ove ati ie Tin aed Brg crtrageagetstone areca aye Acheane nd jee Stach tla the Opis in Homes, ca be rege asia prone can inte ove Ma wap Se Met hes tie ga fw can be weed in te, Nome ‘return oun men rs es ey ag thea of rs’ ad tt ruse tnd hy theory I ty Te depo howe ai an he pos Ae ME lg aor od yo psn expat St ataching sry nd se he aie rng ae ea "ence er gn en Gp ok Se enact i eaten Srna tet et ot scout of ee (ita, a6), Bat when phen apart Sarai, 2a ett matte a eos yom Eerenre neta ae ors ee ses ra eae eh oa ee REmintangnw iment ct aaa estat ant oe eee “A amen om i te ec sisi ail Prctecaag saa oon ees eine fre sly. hig kee ea 3 Moma yeh ass he owes 6 It is because “Ares is used indifferently of the god and the thing, that Ares function can never be forgotten, Ares has no proper namie, hae is not ‘the god of war’ but ‘the god war He i thought of as ‘operative in every warlike action, and the enetgy let loose in the hurling and thrusting of weapens may be designated simply a "Ares So ite said of the spe mill quivering inthe body of essa, struck, ‘here raging Ares telease his unleashed fury" Hl. 19, ets similarly 16,6135 17,530). Just as Ares isthe acto ofthe sear 20 hn i abo the suffering of the vitim {Jl 3, 567): ‘struck between ‘avel and genitals where beyond all places Ares comes psinll #0 pitiful mortals” Ares is wastferred ete fkom the weapon to the ‘wound. Along with Ares other related forces are at work i the battles of the Med, There is one desription af how both aries advanced! (0 battle (4 499) Aes drove ese on, ad gray-yed Athene drove the others ‘Terror drove them, snl Feat, and Discord tht never eile: ‘She the ster and fend of Ares, manclayng alg Small she fet when she dons hur ele; then vey sly Grows il with her head she stces heaven, hile sing he eet th hes fet ial She then threw down strlen the nd, between the two armies, String along the ranks, enjoying the gronss ule noua, ‘Discord the snmis’ will o bate, i slight enaugh when they are arming themselves in comparigoa with the extremity of fry tthe heat of batile tse Tere and Peat (Sues and popes) are inte finan active rather than passive sense they are the teufying honor that accompanies a charging army against i frightened oppenens. Powers such as these are neither allegories tor the creations of taney. War, bate lust, and the ror of an approaching enemy are ‘alien tis only that we are ne longse capac of speaking of thet si simpi.12 But the early Greek liked to think a termse! powees and qualities, and itis out of powers aud qualities tat earty Greek Dilesopiy built is pictues of the world, Even epic narrative Which purposely suppressed everything which was Ret penn OF ts pa at lot ena a yar fo # ee ch sles aap af nar td boge” fre © ae ge ae sn wo ty pi ants pasta nsel at rphsnettwe t ,fAennhte paie oan, b rebel ines ee eto ‘et an eae He wpe Hoke twa x tga lla "wc ot cg he ra ha et ninba xoune personal ees, was rer fo mk one consaion to tis ode of Trught: Hene i adopted Terror and Rear a powers in deveption of bite, Bat occenally endowed oth eh the hare ferns who could sometine do something other an pte far nce It sdf them (015,119) tat a servants of Ares they Td esos ark “Te bavealyteage posture ofthe iz allovs only dark power to appear tran wwe kn ain fr Hest Nik tery] a ine delete fot” And aside from the ew ower at we ave Imad, anothers ocr, excep br slight allison fn contrast not Uy wid Hesiod bt wih the ene body of ether erty Greek Steins se work fe Tet vstraint ep aratve ao ets upon lean and not nthe soppared crcunstance eat the personify” mode of hough trator rent among the epic poet Epic soceheson he cootrary, (velop iden oft tort fel aod with greta Mer Agnnen tol read that tas ly vo sho Achille, he dsr in {ha in the manner ofthe deception of Discord which we have Sin en the character and power of Zs une daugher AC Tt tn ott, The erase word até gain complex of indo sid ero and the mci that thi ale tgs With these Ars, wth etree to esters eal verenhing ngnnn Achill, seers ta speech ofthe aged Porn, and here Ueweappoar wih te the'Prayers’ the nly admonition wo under Soni and yielding, Agtnennon fas now offered Aches sbun- “Tan recompense, and the envoy of the comatander in chil urge ‘elites o accept the atenemen and give pis obit rent tment 9,500 Prayers are ako danger of Zest ter aig They re ae and wrod, so ety oy segs Sly te the way ate eh ie bln vie songs sound es and ene sh ok alays Far nuvun a Bayer and win never ouney “ce ne ay te te rays lw mel afi et {itn apt thse dah of Zea becoming, ‘inp peal ben in an en woe Tareas sey th, an harshly orm ones Pree, Sight oo fy and pry an hat ak Nay aber iat He le an py or ads seis ees wot stp ite et, the archaizing narrative docs, ti oer te ey a Jaunted Ores ‘the fr tert tc ets ee ae mourn 6 but in » modern spit deduces fm the experience & theory fom which Aches sto craw the practical application." Até unt be rift and strong because her vie acts vigorous and rashly aad ones great damage (Agamessnon'sveknce had eked Ackley to ‘witha tom bal and hens hea lose and defeat on hear) But the placating Prayers are by conta lame fr thy aay aecve too lat, and thy ae ria ike old worn, fr mild and percep fe reason is approprite 1 old people like Phoenix. They look ‘Edeways enn lr goal saan hey wh oer the tbo man avay fom his unbending path" AW and “Prayer expla ich other mutually by the Polar appostian beeween oly and Windom, haste and” prudence, eadtrong selGwill ad yeing ‘change at heat ;eich polation are typicl of the following pened Gee Pg, above), atl Werelore medern forthe epic post In ‘Agomempon’ speech Ati desgeated daughter of Zeus ohionsly Ucatse she is one of te great power im the world, Without ‘Agemcion's Ain the frat bok tere could have ben io Md In Phoenix’ speech the Prayers in their tara are clled daughters of Zeus, They are no, indeed, 36 proud and imporing athe edly ‘Ae but ite wrinkled old women they are however indertonding, ene and benevolent. The lst book of the lad stand weder elt fmgn pp. srl, above “AW and the “Payer ax developed inthe spechet are simply & paricular fore in; ae fom thei speealfmetion they have ro existenee, On te other hand the grea gods ny appear inept trative are fst a feet fee personales who afoot he tniverse eo ccharge duties they exit primacy for their ow sake ‘nly secondarily and ceeaonaly do they hep the word on ite vwayr Their interventions in earthly affin therfore donot need any ‘ref motivation. If the coune of events not potted oat By Teulos fe, the gods behave al (oo humanly according to that thurs, Hf Posicon opposes the Twoje i is cate a carly “eee (nea) ingame" Tonle Gun the fie he crmagact, Dri i) ow hyo crepe bl etic cing amon’ Cipeeehnnin (i) unk pains apie yh The ‘elon as as mdr antigay dyad Tn of Era dc Co eee eh, ae St itch sitar er he Ganges ta ety tha rn oe en eu of rt gee Te tet lar te on see se pred ari he srt ncn ae ith eran ge Mca ee se st ae whee ee6 owen “Trojan king deceived him (2,44). Toy mast fl not erase iste on thee ofthe Achat, but been Hera wishes 2, fheot hated for Priam an is ehilden and teeter Trojans U9, Suit} one of Pian’ wons ad afonied her (sq at). In onder, ita oy inay be destoyedn ace wich cou Lave been tt purpsely ciated bythe ge {fr} Ie love and hte whch {allt ine love and hate guest hole peoples x uch agaiat indoles, (6) Gude and Mn ee canay ttaleaclt Ihara ne mittee ital ugh been ee. ira te ody te goddess eid her tribe war cy, ‘Shrinking, and inn the Beast of ach and every Ackaean (Gane eat ry aad hatred and eager dese to be Siting. ‘Aeon cigd out det all soll arm forthe Dati Wie begga te, def ths pasage yield he eile lifrpation taae & new day dawned avd Agamemnon alerted his ny fora new battle. Bu the Poet has more to tel, Dawn brought hw aay ta ae a ons eis with the gods thatthe narrative Ingins. Accaning to Homeric belie ll nidatve is reserved for the {rns BF, fie racking to ain entng situation a mam aes boldly hott wimrting new and diffrent, be eeeiven it a8 an inepration fra, awh gal ec etal seen Al athe ‘moons Hn Cha ems and flr ei owes ae ftom above, 1 comes over him’ Te this case the will t armed confit which comes over the Achacans hasbeen set by Bese Vie word ‘eri’ denote any Lind of ducord or ures the qearel afte King in heft book “es” Since it war thats Sam these, Este the read print o warn er hand, whi tah smote precely as lr for baile. How ihe emer loko ea {ct a fortwo more concn! nn Ens hee Fas et “bane o ‘peru pyr) because would sooe poe beyond moral satre (4, Wats p St, shovel A baad oe when we begin it ‘ou Bat sor forts own ty tad soe {o morals san independen fre. Hens Erste nae eer lee se 09 hand seat fom heaven, whan st een Sete umaly considered only Agamemaon tes the order to eres bet rtaphycallyy and indeed in yey trth the ell sme than ay human ery. The phys sounds are human, but what they gett In ht iom the fous Tn the example jst analyzed human wilde with divin, scfaras that pase: The divine power whch impels deat ‘oo peas with the vice ofa man eaing to bee aad th oe ‘he came thing. But bow does it lok whenn is sees nen ra sims oer than tho of the gos we caused hin osc? Hae de the epi del with he working togeter of unequal partners mat nd wt ‘The fourth book of dhe Hiad prensa see of this sort a it pening. Achaeans and Trojans ave get selena soon a sacred pact, Intend of waging general bute and sosoeuringhensy tos, the dection wou be reached by n dual berwcce Mere, she oftuded haba and Par, thesedace he del sought and eulas clearly wie Here iter seater paste pos Between tie encamped armicr Trojans and Achat se the mirecilou sign and ask whedber i signifies ew bate Or Zem, the lord of Bas, ving Bein an peace? Now [odors Ante’ sony approches Pasar one fe Troan ladon Be ‘ropes ate thot Menta by dong wo le wuld pester a -estservce tall he Teyjans and eect te Pass The heeles Panda follows the advice He shots at Moneta ely sigh ‘wounded, The oth, however, knw broken the baa bep seo, {nd Troy wil fa Anon sla igure, hut hs ton Lacdoco ic never mene Sioned eee in he Mad, ad talon Knows oth of fe 2 he Si tad) Abe sb jot md th rat fl inary he es Cyrene oe ae ade ser ner oar haa ssh% momen sya who suggested the fel step to Pandas. Someone o other Ines a suggestion; one ofthe beck recBlelyteaites into “von; but tho ane tro on otherwise tan the Ato hough, sud the late of Troy i tealed This lathe physical aapect ofthe matter, tn i hat reveals dal conceals; what actally happened If sre ponder ower the real sighifeanee ofthe shot snd the power Impl inthe words of tit Laodocn rom nowhere, we seme the imacce fa god wor. The poet dors nt merely me fhe kaos Ii'itevecouets the events diferenly a more fly. The gods held ‘util after the duel sod sealed that Troy should nevertlest fa he Trojans had to vila thelr King’s oath. Athene was sent thinn cary sed hor path este th fa oft meteor. She epped ‘ong the Ivojan companies in the for of Laodocuay i wt she ih entced Pandar to his tate ey, and ae gue the fying eo Sly cuore to accomplish the Breath ofthe ee. Io thetic sractare ofthe Mad the epi of the pat and ts Ava nas sent effet The goal to whieh the action i diected is pt foto question belore it roeivesw firth accentuntion» The arene eto the two ares eavonae, and ae reson hie wo pee wo have rouge aw cnc {cul Ue Vong ncion, Bats happy ending i imperil, Trier tsa tration kos that Toy a urtermore, iriioeepi not bergen bat rage The pct whore theme wt tie pron of efecto hat ta sigh racially, but wrong ily, tht blest dl shold Bring comfortable peace to dank parts ater dhe giant effoe of maxeing Panbellenic host ses the sea AC he eel of dhe gous Zeus sts thoughts peaees ht lc wh we 49 Try, ete hin ith the snus Ugo ath Hera yn wih ke weed ae len ll hs endear [Ai ico that [sued ital nd ny hows exh ‘aeriagny poe tg detection Pram ad sce ‘Yew wepruscles ice wits seaseloes crusty, but he accommodates Iinwelf ta compromise and yields Troy. ‘This time, then, the poet thas lave recone to Fey ot maker Zeus yield anyway. TR, attest a er pret eure by he Jp tie see breath rings matter bate ino thelr old course ‘he gos fet what fs hecery or htory. Hunaa reasons formed thee soa was rng nde higher noes the gata men sw that dey Bly hea he paced i Uae her sense that i Fiqh Undeestng snd ex, oul aud ten, ply cea nomen & game, ut the gods ave always the winsers. The pocts believed that the saya was listoriclly rue; they believed that gods were wilful fn 0 it satura chat they clarify masters inthis fashion, both for ‘hemseives and for their autor, What tradition and net dictated ‘was sffcently explained for them in the decree ofthe gods, Inthe genera framework ofthe Troien cycle ius unseensary and slsterbing thatthe Trojans near gui forthe wat a second te But for the lind itt tae repetition isadvaatageous, After the part the “Trojan tale which he td tells had growen to fl epic, the eutorea of che war was los to it By means of this repetition we leara, within the Mad that the war began because of Tetjan guile: Tastee consistency the new sory of tte outbreak of war should be preceed by a new caus ul Likewise, Helen's amous with Parishowla begin ‘again as guilty a5 before. Accordingly, ouch a story told and here {oo divine power ineevencs forty co bring ic sb We refer back to the end of the thd ook (5, sof), Ta the ‘duel with Monelans Pars ie dares, but Aphicelice has spsted him away and taen Dim o is ageant chamber. Now the godess, goes fo summon Hlelen and bind het ane to Paris in love and desie. In the guise of an old save woman she tlle the lady of the charms of the tover who is awaiting her, But the disguise m poncerated, for Helen senses the stzring of love within he; she tecogizes ie goddes’ wondrously eausifel neck aad eating bosom and Sparkling eyes’ She safes to go, for se yeatt for he pares, her home, and her husbard {ef 9, 199f) % whom, according to the Poet and the outcome of the dud, she agsin belongs, But Aphrodite renters hee 90 harshly with her annilating anger tae Hlen frightened and starts on her way: “helene her went the demon, the odes Love, ere, unl inthe scene ofthe shooting, the human aspect cannot be disociated from the divine, for Aphrodite i recognized a. & goddess. Helen knows what she i doing. No false promises are ‘ecestary and no divine counsel needs to expla wtih bound tO happen, In her theeatening words Aphrodite points oat why Helen ‘ust be elueed a second time. One blessed with uch fovechacea by Aphrodite’ grace must play the role of lover and beloved 0 the fend Its uothinkable dat an epic character should prove untrue to storie tye Andee (5, 414-1 slo tise i ana Bn sl el ena he gene ese oe why rt any sv geal hed ae presi rd ie women bt al fey ee leet ay wi were awe ay ese hws, ey ya eae il wit ry gine fhe if6a women inl, or rather wo dhe god who has singled it out, Shortly before, Holes paramour, ike hers favorite of Aphrodite, had said at much (3, 65) He nets wrongly who spurs thas gifs with which gas honor mortal ‘Of ei own wl hey gi them: 4 mae cannot gaa ern by his ‘avin As the two examples have how, in hr pani ofthe gods tie poes have nontest poty ormontouespptions Or te Ciniraryon the are oecsions when agods vie speak to morta ‘Cie son the uapeetenesn covet ofthe commonplace, The ges powers seveetroaph tbe more tha faman ange ofthe srrdat Diese aud ‘certainties appear eal te ies ot teonsmaton i pun relia Sol te mplccions. In is spt the ied deer arvana Te oo tas on ha “ie only leg enought commueate the mpusey andthe Ire e borrows vo intent oat we do nat ak about Il we Bat inthe Op) AtteneATetor accompa her Droid alone samy: mater reah apse whee someone Ihr ovine two Meo sd draws te eonchaion at oe tem a have bem gd (Od 4659 96) Dvine prompting can oceur Chen without sasformation. The sok ofthe Psd scat with toe fete fn then Ee {ft bok (BHT) Acheson te pn ling Agee ‘iw ont i here the wha peep Should be suaren ism to poet fim oie he plunges hs word in Ager’ Inet ald he control ime? Athens comes om heaven ste hn! hi, gage hin and pal hn bask He ods td Achaea assy son rt bt andthe mph he yeni oh Teen te wo teense ens Pole ho ‘ha Nr sat neuter P7858}. Aca howeve, ee ne ma tra ht ida oe, voce fen aesearng Dna te Frnt wr urine espn he spencers "in tte she ven» proba hs oly te pening te ‘atin fe Tne War ad that eke nna tn an tae Bd : soy tc ret gra abner th tank yd eae en fe ‘Siw witha te sb eri ole Ai et lanes Fri Deni a nomen, % around, astonished, and recogizes the goddess. Asifhe knew nothing fof what she wanted of him he asks: “You have probably come a4 witness oP his affront. Surly ne wil oon pay fori with his death? But Athene admonishes him: for the proeat he must da no more than ssnswer with hank words; even so he wll surely receive satisfaction, “The gods must be heeded,” answers Achilles, and acts xccordingly. All his tales place ater Achilles hay already begun to deaw fis, sword an before he thrat it back int ts seabbarh, tha is os, brief moment; and Athen tis sag, i vsble to him alone, Athene isthe divine power which ators kis purpose. But atthe same time ste is present actively and in person; she actually grasps his hairy he turns his head to hee and eonvercs with her, The believing poet fl ‘no oreasion hereto keep apart the phyical and metaphyseal aspects ‘of the one event ‘The poser ofthe gods operates in lit, and the one way in which it accomplishes this is by working upon the will aad spirit of men, Words are neeesary ifsome communication is to be made and some new direction prescribed. But in the battle ofthe iad a god can ‘encourage a warrior to be brave and aroate energies whic will Be relessed in vigorous attack, withoat the use cf an epiphany oF speech, According to Homeric hele, every initiative must come fro {he gods, and Homeric tactics clemand great inidative of the leader While the masses tard in the background fr the mat part without rch co do (Il. 17. 370-75), the leadets observe each other closely. ailing an opening, of keep each other engaged yo thet sate favorable opportunity may present itself in the light shicmishing, Suddenly it cevurs to 9 champion ¢o charge his epponeat. He is riven ot by a free that makes him irvesiibi. The Bicker of at ‘unearthly radiance clings (othe shining bronze of his weapons and lows ovr his head and shoulder ike baleful tr, ad it dves him, here the enemy throngs crowed thickest (I, 1-8). Not it but rather a god! impels him. Athene bestowed upon Diomedes raging power (38s) and boldness, s0 that he was noticed by all men and achieved noble glory. Ik was Adiene who kindled the fre which tleamed in his weapons. Whether it wa actual fe end whether it ‘was miraculous is an idle question forthe poet. This same untiring Power, as of a devouring fire, will be asocisted withthe her's shimmering armor in his warlike achievements. The Homeric poet ‘docs not desere armor and Bre so piysical exes, fe speaks Of the force which is awake in the armed Diomodes spd which maifets ise co the senses and vera tthe maid fike a baleful sta tery ing the enemy. ‘The same something which, smnifets sel Diomede” armor as tame sows el! puns Agamemnon shiek serp owan {he Tkenes of polsonous serpents rearing up, lke @ rainbow whieh bodes impending catatrophe(p. gf, above) ‘Vasyiag images and varying expestions forthe same thing are a sure sigh that te image isnot to be understood too resisically and lhe exprasion to lterlly. Once Hector enye (Ul 15,728): ‘Zeus is arousing us and sorameoning ut forth The same even te poet hit ‘elf describes 28 olor Zeus ehrust Hector forward with he mighty sum and commanded the soldiers to follow hi (694). There ate many different expresions fora god bestowing courage, superiority (sabe), oF victory upon a warrior, for giving him energy (us), oF (or “inspiring? or arousing (Seer) him Often it said Uist « god { phially present among the fighter; the epic sngse as well a is bic were coavinced that a god is present at tke eres of enliven, The chooses to bel? Bue even then he applies the seme indirect. ‘uethoes to the course af events. The god eames sd etands beside a worte to Decow ideas and energy upon him, he confonts an ‘remy in order to hamper him. Or he tres @ whole army with real, li pes itt the atack, and he shoats che bate ey. "The poet hat fan ipobstructed view into this background of earthly happeniigy hot inteequently the great heroes have auilar insight, in vacying dlegrves of clarity and fallax. But never isthe daincson of the ‘les of being to which man and god belong forgottn. Even when a fel steps betveen men who ace ghting, he nevertheless dwells n 2 Ainwension of hi vn, He remaine vile (015, gol, or ear holds we fate, fr contrary co oreer for aman to touch @ god in ima Tate (2 385)" The gods do mare thas merely arouse a man’s will; they also give hui srength and skill in execution, and in addition succes or the rave. Ub all tres phases of a human acti, the ieational and wr uncertain are under divine guidance, for the Homeric poet: the inexplicable clement im the epontancout decision which gives us & sal ats well as Ue Smponderabe element in stecesl or unroceel ‘xecition and the iatalenlable element in sesidents which promote for frustrates Adhene ‘guides’ the weapoa of Diomedes, 0 that it Fits mack and ils (U5, 290). Aen, who had just Instigate Paucar to shoot at dhe specter Mela, so gues the bolt » te wet ately come ina we andar gine fi out soutmtnaag of ch i mpc: Riley» port there 5 ‘Sh te pc fe tnd apse he seman aes ot ea pi row) de eere pee oe foun Be wr hes ‘ey ia way 01 A agl t IW Agape pe egy Bel Thee ein id ae ata ele oh ato ray Ome ‘tomo ee on rn Ss "Ow exe we er a 4 ow omen n as 1 make it harmles, a mather brushes away a fly from her sleeping child (Zl. 4, 27M). Precisely how the gods nanage sich matters i always left inthe duck in the Jad * Was the haa ofthe archer not ay sure as a other aes? Did the arow have a flaw? Dieta gut of wind spol the aim? Or wa i simply a mizacie? The poet scorns such questions, The one thing fe know ad cis that 4 go was involved and tht be intervene! between he human efor and is outcome. The god may intervene even ne he start and "naim thebattesreadines of one party (I 15,467). Teacer has vewlyfited 4 welltwisted bowstring am his fawles ow, which tiouid have lasted for many sow; but when he am at Hetcr Zeus makes the bowstring break, Teucer is depresed when he zecognizes the divinely ordained mishap. Hector equally understands the sign and cals to hi peuple that the ga i many on tetrad (5 456-09). Tt now becomes clear why the Homeric gode oten help or kurt ‘human beings by petty and Cunning devices and wy eventally, in the Ody, they play the role almost of servants, Since they eatnot step out af ther own reali, they are debarred from diect contacts, ‘nal mut resort erooked byway through the will and energy o men or through management ofthe seemingly accidental Bt thi is not al. ‘The gods enerethemueves only whee nature itself offers eee acces, Ione diver lees his whip in a race, so that he tearfully despair of vietory, the mishap can equally well be intepreted ether as accident or asthe doing ofa god bette mishap, ‘wanscends ordinary experience when the whip wrevted from the churioter by Apollo is restored wo kim by Athene (I 1g, Hof) No sharp line can be drawn in the Zod between out-and-out miracle and that which is almost or posibly miracclous. Many Aivine interventions are on the boundary, nether wholly on OMe side nor om the other. And if the boundary is erosed we do not thereby st once nto a wholly strange world. For ons wha believes that a god frequently appears to we in human shape and speak t us iis only consistent that che god should be recognized for what hei, and that after he las competed his task, by vire a his divine power he disappears 10 inherent in the notion of miracle that no limitations are im pote upon it, ard che Indian epic of gods and heroes therefore ake the feet posible uve of mitac. But Creck epic shows great Festrint in this respect. No fire falls rom heaven to destrey lira by 1 nd 1430 St. he thr Band the pee ie To meng the eat finery Aj tat ks tut ena nbs hint {tibet race nee yo ae weap sk ‘Tan rte ge a ced des fhen owe, wll of che gels no dead man is brought back to lie. Rather, the raduct of the Homeric gods is reglarly ruc that things wel seem to ws supernatural or contrary fo nature are conceived by them in a Felatively abscare plave within the causal nexus they eke a detour, ‘ven ia her micnces, by way of human petsouages or eartaly things. They deceive a man and misead his wll: ac te final batle between Achilles and Hector, Athene comes t Hector inthe ive of Deiphobus, and the suppor of hit supposed brother gives Heetor enurage (o desist fm fight and face his supesioe opponent (F123, 4226-47). Sometimes the gods supply or withdraw Gem aan the Uhingy he moods: Athene, who sands by Hecior in the gui of Deiphobts, hans back to Achilles the spear which had mised its ‘matk faa, 2760); but when Heetor, wove spear had smiley been Inured im vain, asks i€ back of Deiphobus, Athene-Deiphobus has ‘vanised, Sometine the gods remove hindeances; Apello“smoethe the whole way" for the batde chariots, and he trampes down the cacarpmens of dhe defease works, as cally aa child at play builds tnd destroys fortreses of sand (Jl 15, 35540). Hermes doesnot steal Uhe body of Hector (of Il 24 29-30), but im the guive of @ youn IMycmidon he excorta the aged Priam by night te Achille? quarters, the sentries t0sleep, and opene the hectaly barred doors fom Without (Jt 2g, 440-57). Hidrances of other kinds als ean be Femoved by che gods. Gaaes, wounded in his are that he eainat ‘wild his spear, prays to the beating god Apello: e is obliged to Alvend the corpse of his fallen fiend. Soon the flow of blood des up, the pin passes away, and fesh energy floss int bis apis Guns, 1, gn 41). Hector ie hore in ate bate stoared out of deep revo; Apollo come and gives hima thes energy, 0 that he sin \iguronsly Tike a horse at his ery who then breaks his halter and Fpnds oat prancing over the meadow (UL 15, 243i). Divine intervention may aso take the form of a propitious or an unfavorable atmosphere. The Achaesns are advancing, ut the sur god Zeus grasped che aces (0 17,5034) Seize bic iteing sild, and wrapped al Ida fn stormclouds, Tighe an thundered aloud aid shoo che ile with the sre ‘| (Gave he day (the Trojan fled the AeBacan wid ar. ‘he lnc of the Inte chat indefinite but very seal entity whieh lets dente, Homers ngage igh or hesvealy altar ahs nin ick th eater sea "Tht (es) ex eee utp een ter lore vet ine i pel owen ee’ (ip, tn, and opm igh? “od? and ‘Gime ne hrm itn, gig 2 ries him to aay 1.20, 95). On the other hard Hera envelop the ating rj ins oo seat Uc Whee sco Zou len his ne eer emp the bate “Sats ocnbnca Ang moy abe acs oer he soap thn sso hve dt oon ag of (Sone wih ae a Saat aap ese) ‘Sn trate’ waned ih deg he Ste eee fees ae te in aryl sa tthe eas Sed sige of ote Wie the gi lov gt ad dees in hi shion, hey spnttesnns cor iouipac ainda eric dae Sa aothng noe gules alee ogee Hepes ee eta Hom sein Cy) Daag» bale bees SG tat Nene ono pots Sen oe dates oe ed Gian Acne sor gry oe Shh te prope ee ‘mi wc hn poe ol ike ea Changed oa pcr anf Os nd meposton toned tose ic tpt Semor Waray ine mot dager Sage ry vel Be Had reg bing eneapey spirited away (WI, 5, 380, 5, 311, 345 4455 20, 443; 21, 5075 cf. also. "Ease Oey Bandas ah Eo AS atone pc of the pnd aay autre he Eportng ty hc heen ie orm fh rege ed purl iby appa an) Bo batons ote pljed tore nen oc nb ty ae at ace pre aed ‘hits Tren te weer ar a ose he deh SHE net and fr hd ba eae thon ep od tat lve W'nuemy Hen dated canine is Hs, at) The knees tov by Sid heaton eae Soh he coe peo BY adi pgp above Ie ws tabi he eg Sry that allt Rw mt soe le aot one Fee Reeeeea at ae ett ee ee eee Soetuber ands (eile ear ee an ae at etbae ier Cort tacit ip malas CRIT i sar tne ee Sa eer aowen anther—and the poet does n fat have sucha meeting. Now acnord- lingo thelogic of epic Acucas would have to succumb ois fur greater ‘opponent; ut he did not, for he and his hildren and his ehaten's ren continued to rule in the Toad. Something extraordinary have happened-vand so the poet makes something extrord- hay happen. To the uneflecting poet, who accepted his tale face vale the Muse offered the tangled knot nd is miraculo solution taneously ard jn the same manner a the Pad the miracles are ‘hviusly conceived with devost reverence. In the Ose, on the tater han the poet ofen seems tc hard bis gods with careless dae fespeet, and he bos into thei miracles with an inquisitive stave, Wwe ak what dive intervention meant wo one ofthe poets ofthe iad, clear and magnificent teximony ie offered by the deeds of Patrocls (Book 16)-Patocios gor into battle with still defined npr Achils, eho is stl wrath forbids him to do more than rete rlove the presing need ofthe Achaeane. But che Hane of his searage eannot be quenched, and he does more that he should have de (16,685): So was he aiken with indies oul! for ade remessheres what Pele on had told itn sight have escaped fra the evi snare of death and destrcton, Yer will of Zum eteonget than the coutel of mortals vn the bravest af mene destroys and deprives hin of conquest, aslo he apie him aod mes Him mighty in bt, Jos he Kindle the fury f wari the heat of Paczoche ‘Wine was the fis, Patou, sd who the Ist that you laughere ‘When the inert ealed you aud led you to die the bate? Initistine passage the poe fst expounds the tradition, Iteondernned Potcveluy to death in gallant fighting, and the poet explains is ‘outevnue to hienslf and his hearers ae the wil of Zeus and of the sas generally But te tragedy ofthe situation sp areuses him that, feunirary to ile, he indulges fa a reflection: anore obedience and lew gallantry might have saved Patroelas. Patroclis now pass Victoriously on tothe walls of Troy, and the Ackaeans would have luken Troy that day i Phoebus Apollo had not mounted the tower, ‘nice Patroctus set hi fot upoa the rampart and thtce the god Urs the man's shield back with his arm. Her, exceptionally, tnaters came co a physica coefet etween god and man. At he ni wore al eeesey prntve Book the ym m8 gh ihe a li pe dm Ate roe Tie i ly chen nomex s fourth attempt Apolo calls out to Patoclus: ‘Resne! He not fated hat Troy should fall your spear, orto the spear of Achilles, who lsmuch greater than you (698). Flere the poet has 9 magnified the hneroism of Pattclus tht a god must physically take a han in ordee to help destiny back to its rightal paces “destiny here, f eaure in he outcome dictated by waditon, Further an the Aclaeans under Patrocle' leadership gaie the upper has ‘beyond fate’ (380), Never again in epic does anything happen ‘beyond fate'5 The poet knows ‘hat he is erangresing against waditon, ot his view of Paercla i 4 great that he hia no other choice. Pawoelas ie allowed final tnple course of vitory; then Apello intervenes, Weapyed in a cloud, he'steps behind Pateocus and strikes hrm with tbe flat of his hand om shoulders and back; tke hero's eyes rol heplesy, The god teare Patrocls’ helmet from his head, breaks his spear, ees hit shield to fall, and loosens as armor. Now the Trojan Euphorbus theuat hi spear int the back ofthe disarmed man shere the god hed lid hi hand apon him. Only now does Hector eu his lower ody through with hit spear. Patroclue does not end at anon defeated but at a victor misdirected by the supreme deity, phyically trast back by Apolo and physically disarmed, Te verses which describe his death breathe profound piety. No outward necessity demanded the miracle hee, Nothing stood in the way of Hetors proving the better man fn regular human combat—nothing but the heroic stature to which this poet exalted “beyond fats’ a Patroclus doomed to death The ‘unexampled miracle reconciles che confice between wo eully sovercign ents far this poet: heroism, and the will ef he go (0 Meme Mon Esch of the figures in the epics sis ova identifying stamp, though its peculiarities never harden into a rigid charscter mask; the for is ding y is det (406) thatthe ancient geddew Dione como ‘roundel Aprotie,The lads Diane lle oe cans in whi nord en ‘Spyosche te gods oo mesay (a) Te gene ch she oor re se Srp Reg ata aera po ‘Dut ie pisve sud to show mt wal ave pend x god ot incre 935 19. ts an go and 936s 2e 9 Waller Lal (nh ‘Smeary x ie Ml) wha enters Sy wi Lt 9m eyo te ‘eject bt hist ot ee rn “he "Tn hk ir iy allay many ‘rei, aa the ae aleve seed ihe ose Bo hehe ‘ise he cyan he pal oervetion Sse n.d EE6 owe clanging ply of vigorous ston conta rings new ras othe fore Bo ll are related to one ati, ke te terse fa erge fami the figures ofthe iad sty bonged ool ad tee the Odin eo a younger, generation, Winter the dtngiting mints whic ifteeite Homeric san orl others? Is he nave and natural? Ad ison what sen? Atal event Homeric man tent coed dul bt ar diel alr; he master of feline forme of soll taeroures he Spats wth stoning sil he is inded pasignte but onthe other Toi objestve that he often deseribe as "hncledge’ what we sla eal "eating" An attempt fo dscrbe the nature of Homers Tnust mole excesive sharpen of outine and overdmpliiae Tian donde mote itll. Phe premise must be tat Homeric tan i fact has strut efferent from what we know today. Man Ssh no means exertally the same in all ages and al regions. Human, nate ths history, and it vciitales are peshaps the most Inmet andthe mos interesting o al sere happenings ‘mnths sense our isquiry has to do with the way fa wich the soul ‘Tommie man is made'up, and the fist answer which oat texs ive us i tht the question in this fri i uteHomeric. Homer's faa sno woe for the sou ofa ving man, and eonserently ‘nf tbody ether ‘The word eh (pal) is uted only ofthe ‘oul of the dead ad the word ed, which denotes "body in post Homeric Creek, means ‘onpie’ in Homer. Not in his Hfetiney but ‘ty eat Gu faa files swoon), was Homenie man divided ino by also He Fle himetf not as acloven dualisy bu a a ‘itacy Using. And becuse he fle hse such, such he was fac Ii vas anc imperteet observation or undeveloped power of ase ‘siqsvaton> hae was to Ulu forthe absence of the notion of living wo, for in aetualcy Homeric mass had sou nour sense efihe word lamer an i nt the sum of Body and sou, but whole. But of ‘his whic spree portions, or beter organs, cn sometimes occupy "her te at ave al naar oe by a age wh one dy hin ire snd diate ihe ae an tau tat the te ‘Sy a etre eto Thi wl any a fln, Stel aor a ae the sg hepa wet Je Thre ie de i hrs (Le owen n Se ee ee Se eee aie scare 2 The omer word fr pean ha! Sine ee language of Rea aw apa pny ate we fe “pn? andro the py 0 {lg fem hh ed fo prensa a es Sretobeundanen ae ‘in Oa 6, 1g we ed “Aube put baa in Nase’ oe id fear tun br fn tT “Aste othe opi Atigboe we a sls cnn of te states ot pen Heras (Wome Oyj Ay: deal ago mo) ere we awe sa Tie rhe yey matte ey an tay a pe ory ee ee ier ioe awning apr) a eh nw ay iy wert may el ay at oan the md (eh ay tiny not doce concen of may a ng’ ay tthe spt we py sareaudheneapeea te ter fron the oe hire ptihnae me de fl ew per eae (le Ne wana at i re® kowan hnking Each @ pei con, ut matory the phere ition ahh bang the avons organs st aw onan {hase cnt Caled Sy apn and oy pn ard sa ipms it spprosinnty Temper oa ots ae ‘mts chm ton oe, ow) de on age tain ointment Ab nce eer Svein wich vena atl ean and eer tive onal cme, daly pa esr fag een yey dato ine Morell iv pein (geo tbe poral pen). Pica works over tags ad fide Tetris 2 fant aeade sed consocon te Vig, esi and tnoving ten Rana fe i et vlersanding, thought, and even plan. As “though and ‘plan’ auor can detach Self fom the person and in itself designate the content of though.° ‘Sox in man’s every action and reaction the appropriate organ dominant, no confit berveen the vatious ongans need arse Tat amcr—signifieanty, notin the narrative but in a simile placed longi the nareutive there 39 a picture of = man who, fa our angen, constrains his weary body to dificult eatk trugh hie juwer of will. The epi poet does not, hawever, speak af ody ‘bat of ds (the organ of fresh vitality) which was suffere ing fiom weariness and sweat, and of the ‘conquering. energy” (veep ues) which was “put on” Uke armor (17, 742-45) Seliloguie are ecpresonted ia Homer ae addceiee tthe Hymat of all gans af his cas the pmo the mest comprehensive anda the sane time the must spontaneous, Soliloquies take place only when {ttn wishes to clarify a station wd the action needed 1 meet i This isnot a real splitng of the ego but only discursive sinking 2 Sininy sh nba se eas, bert, uodetaosig. sen, ‘sar gna pei bt sta ry Fo here ary enn "on ie elber hed sow (rsa ae pores ees ota ‘ana or ec anne, aad more xoguewdeth ia Fd de nn ine x phe ege, ds iapbuagm. 21 ra yene cpowy. Taing dette ey ey ep ol it wet (ay dele agar Thee st PG dn ae es (Vie in eg, Nw, mown Hence the notion of two partners talking with one another i not Smal Sed in Homer" [Even if the organs do not vie with one another, the ego san ever: theless prevent one ftom achieving what it wants. Homeric man can ‘master" (Gouor) his Impulse (286s oF wives) ar “hold it back” llpyeden), Here alo the unity ofthe persaa ie preserve 'Scen with modern eyes, Homeric man seems macveiouly simple and elored, Whatever portion of his being sets or suffer it always {he whale man acting or suffering, There are no bounsaries, there is no cleavaye betvveen feeling and the corporal situstion; the samme word denotes fear and fight (90s) and the same word le tsed for "wembling? andl filling back (ple). fa hero mece with vuflering his tears flow fcly. Hence forthe Homeric man there ino threshold to separate will 10 action (rom carrying that will out, 2 theabold Defore which a man car stand heskant, ike Hamlet. When. be recognizes what mant bappen he does not requte a veoluton of his ‘own to proceed 10 the deed. The plan ivelf obviously impli the impule' toward its exeention, So” Homeric language segularly entploys words ike ‘designing, planning’ (utSoua in such 2 way that the execution ofthe plan i taciy imps, Ie what man will and i i atraightway and without hindrance transformed into action, then every human tat and every character passes unchecked inte outward expression and achievement; and the “ciety of the ad is 50 organized that it affords broad sop for the noble character, 30 a man and his ations become identical ad he foie hime completly od adeqtly camped i then hhe has no hidden depths. This sevation jason the epi i it ead inal form. In it factual export of what men do snd say every that men ae is expe, Deease they are ro more tha what they sdo and say and suffer. They are not insulated from the ouside world dn their nature pours forth into the world wih their deeds and heir anes. ‘That is why the goalies displayed in man sctions play a special role in the Homeric picture of hurcan values. The verbal cxprestions are hard co tramate, aed are often flattened out or fabitied in traditional renderings. Upom a her a god bestows nose, which is nat absolute “tren” but eanscendent power’ aud force’ {he coresponding adjective «pep ean he rendered By “vitor {CE Bs, 414 What we Bry na a a the sy laer dete she sl the tore ard at pnd iii dy own x Dra (Lig, 9), ae ‘ig gi Cation Was herent Tne ethfe rome violent, compelling? Another important word is wSor It desigates the propery of having stoces and gong forth as veto; Mut ie alee slesignates the “glory” of success, prestige, authoriey, dignity, igh rank If man js, as i€ were, a fckd of energy, whose lines extend into pace ond time without limit or reteaint, then extemal forces, for their part, operate in him without hindrance, and itis meanings to ts wher sown force begins and that from outside ends In what ey receive and suffer also, there men aze whelly open tothe ouside worl, so wide that our own basic anichess beeween self'and not sei doesnot yet exis in Homeric consciousness, Even what seen to ln highly personal achievement, a thought, say, or an imple, thoaglit of inthe Hie ay «gift received. A Dod aivance in bates i vouchsafed to the warrior by a god, oho ehaciael utiative (lve) him and ‘ieapels" (p00) bi, Similarly a god! may "Uhre a Warton into fear” UE 1 5443 18, 689-91). The decive question was not whether man is ee agent or compelled trom without ‘nut whiter his path led him to the heights othe depths. The power ‘the gous overlie was premised Irom the beginning, and there was » part of the zealin of spirit which a man could wish 10 retain for himself atone, The unsuceesfel and cowardly man is bee,” and he ‘he gos ast soos” and hold (Oa. 3, g79f 1,490 and 408). ‘The tacit asumption here is that the godt helpa only the man wort brelping ‘I he Mia, den, man is completely a past of his world. He docs ‘ux confront an cutide world witha diferent dance elfheed, but ierpenetrated by the whole, jst ashe on his part by his seton and Sindee by his suffering penetrates the taal event, Proud end straight Forward, te gives hime forth without restraint in action and speech, ‘even if Ue forms in which he expresses himself are regulate By the 2 Mag msc te sce oe prin Rat Fry ls a est psa it tie th no Hoel word ean a te 9 lel dicted mnt and nde a cet doc, The wading "mae: nor ever sigs te fee was pen of tvoce Fone {Ln site of Kins neon there EC Ber gag nad har Selo, ts Gee de rp, a ss camel speci nae Yo Fi east oy si fra Tat erstany epee o saeshn ef thr ytd a he Ose ae norms ofsristcratc decorum. Helding nothing back, he accept ll ‘ha fe brings him, even death. The watror dees indee! fight hard and bitterly in battle and in hie anger aguint other men; he docs sue agony under our general human neceatty; but he doce not attempt to ward necesity off orto ative ogaitat i He accep It Sorrovtully a8 what ie feted fee hi, Ho spoke, and while he apeke came death and cowed all about bien; Flttering fe fom his limbs fi soul went down into Haden Moarning over her ft, leaving youth and manhood behind be, So Patroclus dis (Ul. 16, 855). And Lycaoa, sill has boy, teal beseeches the fearsome Achilles for bie young lie, graping. his ‘opponent’ murderons spear; but when he hears these words So, fiend, you de alo. Why allthis outry bout i? Tao Patrocius dea, wo wa fa, fr eter than Fou ate? Do you not see what amas ary, how tall how spend? San fa noble her the iocher who bore me ire? [Ete forme wats death ant the ate that stronger tha T a, One hour shal come, in dhe dawn or the allrnoon othe noone, ‘When sone fc in tne fighting wl take the life fat me als, Enter with the spese cet arow fowler the bowseing “—ivhen Lycaon hears this answer his knees and hesrt are loowened, tne lets go his enemy's spear, he crouches dewn with arms outepeend to receive the deatlestroke (J 2t, 408). With the Sime conscious readnes as the boy Eysaon, Achiles too goes to meet his approach ing death Twill receive death 2s soon atthe gods ordain it (I 18, 1155 29, 95). ALU takes place not under the pressure ofa dull subsion orn 4 fary or primitive savagery, but with a radiant freshnes and an aristocrat clarity which lends even the glocmiet scenes glow of serene grace, Homerie man understands the good and the evil that but uplifted by chesocial rules, for they lend him nob He manages the forms, moreover, with » virtuosity which proves im Gilt ‘master, not thir save. This appears moat plainly ithe elegance af his speeches and the diplomatic finese of which ke is capabie.® But in anger he can alvo become coat or sarcastic, “These of one at ther door onan eco fla yap apy rea eo ey ds IEE tinting, wing wed wag, So ney hy ye ste ppl ape Re Em fit ak ea hn smouncome hat hel voy Berl cae aait oc h ene abe pr nls er nen mas sitewide ned th cue sn wat ecuaay gps ae evo inves tl Howe tine ntotodeaae heehee Err Ac Ove ep, Ne bate nin eo: tae need toe win ath papel ea aus fhlys tran Denese pets at Ate pd beso eee oy {Go of heel be nto hie apd ne be cect pe oy Iino ear hr ewe ig i ae We iy (he nd ode ta wd Th alae esr al fe mugen deere alt ‘cepted te peasy coc oper owe% ours Homer's people have an elemental vitality. They make no secret of| ‘heir joy in physial pleavores like food and dui, in te swest git of sleep, in lve, though they speak oft in dnereet langage. They love festivities and joyful dance; even lamentation is for them & "ey. ‘The life they lead is worldly; ofa world beyond, they expect nothing. Death destroys men, in their view, when the sons breath of life ddeparis irom what remains behind asa corpee. ‘The sowl then, joteneye down to the dark underworld as shade thereto conde ‘darkling spd unreal existence which is worse than the hardest ie jn the sunlight, The shade of Achilles says very bitty (Od. 11, 4): Var sather would I lve upon earth as dhe dave of another, Landes and poor, than lov it hee over edn shadows AAs fong as @ man remains on earth be lives his fe manfully. Only Wwhea something happens is he aware of hime Ie is in conflict abeve all that a man coniiems Ais own exitence, to imwel and t0 father, whether tbe in armed batle or in dissension: and quarrels Sulerngs are involved, and these are taken ax pat of che bargain. Gonilies and pain ace the themes ofthe epics, and sulfring i the Lae ofumanity (Ue 24 525) Such the way the gods op He for unfreunate motales ‘We live in pains busty are as strangers to cave std stro. For the sfleing that he must bear in Le and for the ineffable hhortor of anniilation in death, Homeric man knows enly one com- prasation glory. Only in this medium ean a valid image of bis {acne and hie worth be imprinted; for there i not yet a conscience invwhieh a man ean aoe his own relection, The heroes of the Iliad lead a public ife and their conduct is determined by consideration of, antemporaries and posterity lll. 8 a4t-a3i 9 459-51). Public ‘opinion speaks clearly vasa), wien any bate action is taken, and there never a nation that chs jasuument might operate ‘weungly and unjustly. "Theve are no hidlen motives and. dark Dpuckgrounds ia the Mad; a man is ashe behaves. "The epie which perpotnted the glory of the eras shows them as they aettally wren the poets eye. Butt shows only wha is esten- tial in then, The accidental and insignificant iinspoerasies which lo the meh a the speeses mut ot be appoacied with the mtr and ‘peal rst a oral Pear, be ha Sen ewe, aomped th ae Oh 4 toes 1 ingen toe veranda ap he ec ower 85 merely distinguish one individual fom all others are omitted i poetry. Poetry shapes not likeneses but prototypes, each of woes ‘erabodies one ofthe general potentialities of eecognizable humanity Just as Nestor isthe prototype ofa noble old many ois Achilles the Drowotype of a noble young man. Furthermore, the pesonages ate styled consistently; each peculiarity pervades is bearer uniformly and is proportionately vishle in every part of is being. The ‘commander in ehief Agamemnon aot oly has & princely bearings Inet also handone as few others are (7. 3, x69). Theres i ah gly inform ashes shameful in behaviour (3) 212-19). The consitency ‘mtkes the figures monumental, and at the same time simplifies the presentation. When itis said of Nestor that he isa ‘learounding speaker, the connotation is that he is aluo skilful and clever orator, and statesman; and when Achilles is called “swit-ooted his temperament as quick to anger is abo Hplied. From one trait the ‘others are to be deduced, forthe Fines ofeach character ate never broken or obscured inthis poetry; they travers the entire personage in steady course, and fw his person theuse ont inte he open field ‘ot his environment, Bven what'a man does to others is part ef Bie see (g) The ¥iee Mood of te Odyrsey ond th Bad af Epic 1 e want to lam the actu of man ature ia ancien pi semua adhere mainly tthe lis fr the pica begin to ha Inackedly in the Obi. The contrast between he eps ean Be infeed at once fom tie programmatic ves wil Which they begin As the prosma eda, te hwo ote Lac is rem reste he's wratfl and stubbery that ofthe Oday, not becuse be Evil bt becase he were Ach thos is worth by ‘scrcing his resentment ‘the woul ef may heroe? out ois ove camp (am son he wll cies ov wal ales. 104-1), Géyiens, by conten, preserves hina becare he urdeands howe ‘o Save ‘hin own smal andthe homecoming af hs comrader alshough the comrades perah in then thou no fut oo The Lind depicts hore tings which (ie everything om ert) etme bout ateording to gods il the Oey oe indeed ell amon Ian thes this) the eb deh af the emma bt te devited. vine punsment ‘on their past through lack of under: Sanding’ Tafesilereentmct se able asconmolato teres "Pyeltercaincnat iy en we wth mor maki ta ‘heer allow the me plan eh pp. 9h aoe, ee26 women destvcion of others and self here, preservation of sf and others there; the wil of the gods bere, and man's own scr r fle die The Obcap i no tongerromanueally lamenting a submerged ord whic esate rained by own stormy atures ated it Mlebrates the tanfal reali of @ new present who dleverty and ‘esolutly tls hi destiny into hit om Ren to tte mpsor tall "ke greater rei and contemporansty in the Ody give the entire poem a diferent character The citance between the naratr tnd Bl sbjec wbich eso stseiy maintained in the Lied i here perceptibly slackened, and he rgcur of the sliation Is woe. Hie Phacsclans ae Sealed onlans of the. pesat, Nate largely restored os ight, Winter snd ba weather ait Ody {O01 S57) hei aad ofthe cold of night andthe wind on stile and of wvage beats by ea nd land (0d 5, 485-795 {0 There ae cow Boga and humble fly even a dg who te ie only creature to recognive his homecoming maser. Ee graye leard no longer above all the bearer of actumulted eagrey, Ita age man in need of help (G8. 17, 160). The ose of ccs such reduce, free rea wo, nota spied one, enters feel io the rarrstive feel! and does ot have to lk ia He "The people of the Oss no Tonger lve in an almost empty spaces ty take plesure in the abundant vatety of things to be seen and heard and eapecienced. The world it wide and full f worden, whic ‘mam may Vist to ey his powers against them. The joy of discovery land dhe love of adventure foem the background for alarge part of the ‘pic. Odysseus ventures into the cave of the Cyelops out of eatiosity il Beeause le hopes to receive gifts of hospitality (Os. 9, 24-30), ud some of ia comrades have to pay for is raubnes with a hovable sleuth Life for these peopl is full of interest, but also of dificult. The cutie world, which ie no longer shadowy but now surround sand oppresies the individual with ts massive prewnee, constantly inatt hin into sitions with whic ft is hard to cope, So maa, Fexins co put a distance betveen himself and the world. Men are no linge ficely receptive and rely outgoing; they are now reserved and cleulating, ‘Alotness and ditt become necemary, indeed Viste wll ie plaviied in tho epi, Eyon deception and falrhood {re now lgitintte weapons nthe atragge extn Tho modern ideal of the eleee asl expeiencel evan wh hes hie way yall si aight or cred epee evi iene agony rae i overvals Une rogue’ owen & (04.5102) the master of heme arto tig, scouted an nie by men and by pues The proud roe of unending Teste hasbeen given p. Fur ang while Ody play theres began, and pps sinet to taal” On arson hs Shara appears 0 heore gute weer Ad yt Oates by no ean ator without «character of sown ov an adventures gnran of what hes realy sng nt 1 the Obra poem of rogues With al ns ingaatng aki, {es her tse, mati, Sad energetic an, and al toning he purr «high fal aod, ans hi tgs wt Insel atin The om rength with which he mentees fet eduction and breaks stathints anew Kn of cone This en bar (Od. 309) he epic aerate by teal aa ing he epithet voir. ob nae; uc enarig eon avags Tendering. What wir resy mean isn by serse ne begin of Bok an sacs lye hist dow aap ara Deki ashe velo it os htt, on the en ae engensae throngh whic he wl egain hn pace a maser an hing Tee he ct erin the msg wi gh ta J, tet tha over among the tons. pens hears bai Yo age ad Shark fra master ofthe howe te ak bl thn an tts fom of nbn Sth a gine thesis the sta ot tha ov wll. Natal de woud nel him tose hes all Anat once, and hs art bay shaun eer ha bns toed ft tae and determined t poet Wo teaare But ke ‘hides ‘is Beart and annie it toe on) Eves dealings more dotted you ene wen the Cte sewed fy comrades, You endured wil wit brought you ut or cae ‘ich would these have ben my dent dn Homer the dog $n image of tld ada and fnching determination Te fhe fivethe Ges ha le ond devoured to of Guceomrade “in muy proud tempe wo Guyer tlt theory othe Pancccene (Gi, 3), Taded upon the tga apprcashing and sang tim. Banter purpve estes fr fen we te wo ae Sen ivtievaylrtfrwe could hve valle te Pewy wane fom the high dosrmay ith ou ata” So Odyseas caeled Hine the, and ad ok on wile two mone of is crpanis st thesame gunna cadre the proper monet came fre Sopopriate atti. Tem, a how, something ahs bent sage ene once pain fo ina en cont othe women of dena (0 a, ine i gp in jan Wa (24 Sl oe ei a ei CO 2