Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Solar Future
Repowering America’s Homes, Businesses
and Industry with Solar Energy
Building a Solar Future
Repowering America’s Homes, Businesses
and Industry with Solar Energy
Environment Ohio
Research & Policy Center
March 2010
Acknowledgments
Environment Ohio Research & Policy Center thanks Jigar Shah, CEO of the Carbon
War Room; Carrie Hitt, president of the Solar Alliance; Justin Baca, manager of market
research and analysis for the Solar Energy Industries Association; Adam Browning, execu-
tive director of Vote Solar; Larry Chretien, executive director of the Energy Consumers
Alliance of New England; Wilson Rickerson, executive vice president of Meister Consul-
tants Group; DeWitt Jones, president of DCC Solar Energy Advantage; and Bill Powers
of Powers Engineering for their thoughtful review and insightful suggestions. Thanks
also to Elizabeth Ridlington, Susan Rakov and Travis Madsen of Frontier Group for their
editorial support.
Environment Ohio Research & Policy Center thanks the John Merck Fund, the Energy
Foundation, the Richard and Rhoda Goldman Fund, the Arntz Family Foundation, the
Meadows Foundation, the Cynthia and George Mitchell Foundation, the Park Founda-
tion, Fred Stanback, and the Kresge Foundation for making this report possible.
The authors bear responsibility for any factual errors. The recommendations are those
of Environment Ohio Research & Policy Center. The views expressed in this report are
those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of our funders or those who
provided review.
Environment Ohio Research & Policy Center is a 501(c)(3) organization. We are dedi-
cated to protecting Ohio’s air, water and open spaces. We investigate problems, craft solu-
tions, educate the public and decision-makers, and help Ohioans make their voices heard
in local, state and national debates over the quality of our environment and our lives. For
more information about Environment Ohio Research & Policy Center or for additional
copies of this report, please visit www.environmentohio.org.
Frontier Group conducts independent research and policy analysis to support a cleaner,
healthier and more democratic society. Our mission is to inject accurate information and
compelling ideas into public policy debates at the local, state and federal levels. For more
information about Frontier Group, please visit www.frontiergroup.org.
Cover photos: Top row (l to r): VELUX/ESTIF; Kevin Dooley, reprinted under Creative Commons license;
Alex Snyder, Wayne National Forest; Gregory Kolb, Sandia National Laboratory; Sacramento Municipal Util-
ity District; Solar panels: istockphoto.com, Daniel Schoenen Fotografie
Layout: Harriet Eckstein Graphic Design
Table of Contents
Executive Summary 1
Introduction 6
Why Solar? Why Now? 8
Building a Solar Future for America: The Tools 11
Photovoltaic Power 11
Concentrating Solar Power 12
Solar Water Heating 13
Passive Solar Lighting and Heating 14
Active Solar Heating and Cooling 15
Notes 52
Executive Summary
A
merica has virtually limitless po- and light trucks, or nearly half as much as
tential to tap the energy of the sun. we currently obtain from burning coal.
Solar energy is clean, safe, proven A comprehensive suite of public policy
and available everywhere, and the price of strategies can remove many of the com-
many solar energy technologies is declin- mon barriers to solar energy development
ing rapidly. By adopting solar energy on and help to make this vision a reality.
a broad scale, the nation can address our
biggest energy challenges—our depen- There are many ways to take advan-
dence on fossil fuels and the need to ad- tage of the sun’s energy. Solar energy
dress global warming—while also boost- can be converted to electricity, or used
ing our economy. for lighting, heating and cooling. It can
America has the potential to obtain a replace the fossil fuels we burn at electric
large and increasing share of our energy power plants, in factories, in our homes,
from the sun. In the near term, America and even in our cars. Solar energy tech-
should set the ambitious goal of ob- nologies include:
taining 10 percent or more of our to-
tal energy consumption* from the sun • Photovoltaics (PV) – Photovoltaics
by 2030, using a wide variety of tech- directly convert solar radiation into
nologies and tools. Achieving that target electricity. PV can take the form
would result in the sun providing us with of panels or be incorporated into
more energy than we currently produce building materials. PV is scalable,
at nuclear power plants, more than half as generates electricity anywhere
much as we currently consume in our cars the sun shines, including in cold
climates, has no essential moving
parts, uses virtually no water, and
is one of the few power generation
* Note: This goal refers to total energy consumption
from all sources in the United States, not just electric- technologies well suited for use in
ity consumption. urban areas.
Executive Summary
• Concentrating solar power (CSP) Solar energy can help power virtual-
– CSP plants use mirrors to focus ly every aspect of America’s economy.
the sun’s energy to harness heat that
can be used directly or to generate Solar Homes
electricity. Because heat is cheaper
and easier to store than electricity, • New homes can be built to maximize
CSP plants with thermal storage use of the sun’s energy through
can be designed to provide energy passive solar design and the use of
from the sun even at night. CSP solar PV panels and water heating
plants have been reliably generating systems. Solar energy can be paired
power in desert areas of the West for with advanced energy efficiency
decades and are now experiencing techniques to create zero net energy
a resurgence due in part to falling homes, which produce as much
costs and increasing demand for energy as they consume. Zero net
utility-scale renewable electricity. energy homes have already been built
in parts of the country, are possible in
• Solar water heaters – Rooftop- all climates, and often save money for
mounted collectors capture solar consumers over time.
energy as heat and produce hot
water. Solar heat collectors can be • Many existing homes can also
extremely efficient; low-temperature incorporate solar technologies.
heaters can capture up to 87 percent Photovoltaic panels can be installed
of the solar energy that reaches on the roofs of 35-40 percent of
them. Solar water heaters can also homes nationwide, and solar heat
be adapted for uses ranging from collectors on 50 percent of residential
residential water heating to large- roofs.
scale industrial use.
Solar in Transportation
Building the Solar Grid
• The development of plug-in vehi-
cles—both plug-in hybrids and fully • Concentrating solar power plants can
electric vehicles—will allow renew- replace coal and other fossil fuels for
able energy to play a larger role in base load electricity generation.
Executive Summary
• Since photovoltaics generate energy • Renewable electricity standards
best when demand is highest—on (RES), such as those now in place
hot, sunny summer days—they can in 29 states, can ensure that utilities
reduce the effective peak demand integrate solar into their energy pro-
that utilities have to meet, provid- files. Solar carve-outs, which require
ing stability to the grid, reducing the that a share of the RES be met with
need for expensive new power plants solar energy, can ensure a diversified
and transmission lines, and curbing mix of renewable resources and en-
air pollution. courage the development of distrib-
uted renewable resources.
• Photovoltaic cells and solar water
heaters distributed on buildings • New financing tools can help in-
around the country will reduce the dividuals and businesses absorb the
amount of energy that needs to flow large upfront costs of solar instal-
from central power plants or energy lations and begin reaping benefits
providers to consumers. immediately. Municipalities can use
their power to borrow at low inter-
• Investing in forms of “smart grid” est rates to finance residential solar
technologies can expand the amount installations, which can be paid back
of electricity the nation can generate through assessments on property tax
from distributed solar power while bills. Utility on-bill financing can
maintaining reliable electricity achieve similar aims, while low-in-
supplies. terest loans and loan guarantees can
help reduce the payback time for so-
America can obtain a large share of lar energy investments by businesses.
its energy from the sun. But it will not
happen on its own. Local, state and • Advanced building codes and stan-
federal governments must implement dards can ensure that builders take
public policies that remove the barriers maximum advantage of passive solar
currently impeding the spread of solar heating and lighting in new build-
energy and adopt policies to make solar ings and create new opportunities for
energy an important part of America’s integrating solar energy into existing
energy future. buildings. Solar-ready building stan-
dards guarantee that new homes are
• Financial incentives, such as grants, built with solar energy in mind, and
tax credits and feed-in tariffs help can be broadened to require that so-
to compensate homeowners and lar energy be offered as an option on
businessowners for the benefits their new homes. Some states and coun-
investments in solar energy deliver to tries have gone so far as to require
society and can create a robust early the use of solar energy (specifically,
market for solar technologies, build- solar water heating systems) on new
ing the economies of scale needed residential buildings.
to lower the price of solar energy.
To create a stable market, financial • Consistent rules to ensure ac-
incentives should be applied con- cess to solar energy are needed to
sistently over a long period of time, overcome bureaucratic barriers that
instead of as intermittent, on-again can prevent individuals and busi-
off-again programs. nesses from using solar power. Solar
Executive Summary
Introduction
A
merica’s energy system is all-impor- damage left behind by our consumption
tant to our economy, but it is so in- of fossil fuels. Some of that damage is
tegrated into our daily lives that it invisible, such as the health-threatening
has become all but invisible to most of us. pollutants that foul our air and infiltrate
Few of us ever stop to marvel at the our lungs or the leaking underground oil
path that a drop of oil must take from a storage tanks that slowly pollute drinking
Saudi Arabian well to the gas tanks of our water. Sometimes the damage is inflicted
cars—the drilling technology that allows far away from where most Americans live,
the crude oil to be pumped from deep be- appearing as the melting of Arctic ice
neath the earth, the pipelines that carry due to global warming, or the filling in
that oil to a port, the military power that of a remote Appalachian hollow resulting
keeps the shipping lanes open for the tank- from mountaintop mining. As people in
ers to transport that oil halfway around America and worldwide have awakened
the world to our shores, the giant refiner- to the environmental dangers posed by
ies that convert the crude oil into gasoline, fossil fuels, we have built even more
and the extensive distribution infrastruc- infrastructure to mitigate those dangers—
ture that gets the gasoline into our tanks. from installing scrubbers on coal-fired
Similarly, few of us see the immense power plants to training hazmat teams to
infrastructure that turns a lump of coal clean up oil spills.
mined in Montana into the electricity that Over the course of more than a century,
powers a computer in Alabama—the gi- and with the investment of untold
ant machines that mine the coal, the trains billions of dollars, America has built
that carry it across the country, the mas- an energy system that does a masterful
sive power plants that convert it into elec- job of unlocking the energy stored in
tricity, the ubiquitous web of wires that underground deposits of fossil fuels and
transmit that electricity across great dis- transforming that energy into the heat,
tances and through neighborhoods to our electricity and kinetic energy that power
homes. our economy. However, that same system
Even fewer of us see the environmental does a poor job of taking advantage of the
Introduction
Why Solar? Why Now?
A
merica urgently needs to reduce our fuels for home, business and transporta-
consumption of fossil fuels to pro- tion use.2 For every dollar that an Ameri-
tect our environment and ensure can household spends each year, about 9
our continued economic prosperity. Solar cents goes toward the purchase of energy,
energy can replace many of the fossil fu- most of it for fossil fuels.3
els we currently use to power our homes, Perhaps the greatest challenge posed by
communities, farms, businesses, factories our dependence on fossil fuels is the dam-
and cars. age those fuels do to our environment and
our health. Fossil fuel combustion contrib-
utes to the formation of smog and soot,
which damage the lungs and make the air
in areas housing 186 million Americans
unhealthy to breathe.4 The burning of
America’s Dependence on coal contributes to the formation of acid
Fossil Fuels: Harming Our rain and contaminates our waterways with
mercury, a neurotoxin that makes fish in
Environment and many waterways unsafe to eat.
Threatening Our Future The toll of fossil fuel extraction on
The vast majority of the energy America our environment is widespread and se-
uses each year, 84 percent of it, comes vere—from oil spills off our coast to the
from fossil fuels.1 Coal, oil and natural gas fragmenting of natural habitat for natural
are inherently limited resources, requiring gas drilling. Coal mining in the 19th and
tremendous effort and expense to discover, 20th centuries fouled approximately 9,000
extract, process and distribute. Fossil fuels miles of rivers in Appalachia with acid mine
represent one of the most important day- drainage.5 “Mountaintop removal” mining
to-day expenses for American families and in many of these same areas threatens new
businesses—in 2006, the United States environmental damage in the 21st century.
spent nearly 7 percent of its gross domes- No issue, however, poses as great a
tic product, or $921.2 billion, on fossil long-term threat to our environment as
W
hen most people think about so- envision when considering solar power—
lar energy, they think of solar and “thin films,” inexpensive sheets of
panels sitting on rooftops, or, less material that can be used in panels or be
frequently, mirrors spread out across the spread across roofs and other architectural
desert. While these technologies are im- features. Crystalline silicon PV panels are
portant, they represent only part of the frequently more expensive, but are more
potential for solar energy to transform our efficient at converting sunlight into elec-
energy system. tricity, and can be mounted on a roof or
The sun is a ubiquitous and tremen- can stand alone on top of a pole or piece of
dously flexible source of energy. Solar en- machinery. Thin films, while less efficient,
ergy can be converted directly into elec- cost less and require less silicon to pro-
tricity, stored as heat for later conversion, duce. They can also be integrated unob-
or used in the forms—light and heat—in trusively into buildings—rolled out across
which it arrives. It can be captured cen- rooftops or walls as a barely visible sheet.
trally and then distributed to users, or col- PV systems are easily transportable and
lected right where it will be used. There installable, and can be used to generate
are many technologies and tools that can electricity where it will be used, even at
be used to harness solar energy. locations the electric grid doesn’t reach.16
PV is also modular, so installations can be
scaled to the appropriate size for a given
use.17 PV’s scalability allows it to be used
for both large-scale power plants and to
power handheld calculators, and it dis-
Photovoltaic Power tinguishes PV from almost every other
Photovoltaic (PV) cells use the sun’s radia- power generation technology—imagine,
tion to generate a direct flow of electric- for instance, a coal-powered calculator,
ity. The two most common forms of PV or a nuclear-powered roadside cell phone
are crystalline silicon PV—the traditional, call-box.
self-contained PV panels most Americans PV has other advantages as well. PV
is one of the few power-generating tech- for PV systems far outstrips the number
nologies that is a good fit for urban ar- installed today. America’s residential and
eas—it produces no air pollution and can commercial rooftops, for example, could
be installed on buildings, parking lots and host as much as 712 gigawatts of solar
other developed areas without interfering panels (roughly 700 times the capacity of
with human activities. As a result, there all solar installations today) if every inch
is no additional land required for siting a of suitable rooftop were to be covered,
distributed PV system. PV systems, un- enough to produce roughly a quarter of
like steam generators, do not use water America’s electricity using current tech-
for anything other than routine cleaning nologies.19 Central-station photovoltaic
of the panels, making them a good fit for systems in sunny areas, PV systems along
areas with low water availability. And PV roads or over parking lots, and PV instal-
systems generate the greatest amount of lations at factories could add to this total.
electricity at the times when it is most
needed, particularly hot, sunny summer
days.
Photovoltaic installations are increas-
ing rapidly in the United States. Between Concentrating Solar Power
1998 and 2008, the amount of installed PV Whereas PV technologies produce elec-
capacity increased by a factor of more than tricity only when the sun is shining on
10, from 100 megawatts (MW) to 1,173 them, concentrating solar power (CSP)
MW.18 (See Figure 1.) But the potential can provide a steady and uninterrupted
1,400
Cumulative Installed Photovoltaic Capacity, U.S. (Megawatts)
1,200
1,000
800
600
400
200
0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
stream of power by storing the sun’s heat have been reliably producing power for
and using it to power a generator. These decades, while at least six new plants have
systems are particularly suitable for large come on line since 2006. 22
power stations, but can also be deployed Concentrating solar can also be used
for smaller scale on-site generation. on a smaller scale, with satellite dish-like
All concentrating solar power technol- mirrors focusing energy on a small receiv-
ogies use mirrors to focus light on a re- er that contains a heat exchange engine.
ceiver to heat a fluid. Once heat has been These systems have less storage capability,
captured, it can be stored until it is needed, but are also more modular, requiring less
or it can be used immediately to power a access to vast open spaces.
steam generator or heat engine.
Large-scale concentrating solar plants
can take several forms—either focusing
heat on a single central tower, or on long
pipes that carry heated fluid to a central Solar Water Heating
collector. These technologies are versa- Solar water heating systems are among
tile enough to use as a stand-alone power the simplest uses of sunlight for energy.
plant, as a preheating system for the wa- In solar water heating systems, water (or a
ter used in fossil-fuel plants, or in a hy- heat transfer fluid) is piped to the roof of
brid configuration alongside existing fossil a building, where it is heated by traveling
fuel generators.21 CSP plants in California through sunlight-absorbing pipes. Because
S
olar energy can be integrated into vir- What a Solar Home Looks Like
tually every part of American life—the Solar homes use the energy of the sun to
homes we live in, the offices where avert the need to burn fossil fuels or tap
we work, the farms and factories that pro- electricity from the grid. New homes have
duce the products we buy, and the schools the greatest potential to take advantage of
where our children learn. With creativity solar energy, but solar technologies can
and sound public policy, solar energy can also be integrated easily into many exist-
make a major contribution to America’s ing homes.
energy future.
New Homes
New homes are the easiest places to take
maximum advantage of the sun’s energy.
Solar energy can play an important role in
Solar Homes the construction of “zero-energy homes,”
There are more than 128 million hous- which produce as much energy as they use
ing units in the United States, includ- over the course of a year.
ing more than 80 million single-fam- Most of the features that distinguish
ily homes.36 Virtually all of these homes a “solar home” are subtle. Well-posi-
consume fossil fuels for heating, lighting, tioned windows and skylights decrease
air conditioning and other purposes, yet the amount of time that electric lighting
only a tiny fraction currently produce en- is needed each day. Thoughtful building
ergy from the sun. Tapping America’s full orientation and the proper use of shading
potential for powering our homes with elements—such as overhangs, awnings or
the sun could dramatically reduce our deciduous trees—allow warming sunlight
dependence on fossil fuels and our emis- in during the winter while keeping it out
sions of global warming pollution while during the summer. “Thermal mass” ele-
also creating thousands of installation ments, such as stone walls or floors, can
jobs that can’t be outsourced. be used to store the sun’s warmth during
Solar homes—such as those in this California development—are increasingly common and sell more rapidly than
conventional homes. Credit: Sacramento Municipal Utility District
Audi installed a solar cooling system (above) at its training center in Ingolstadt, Germany. Credit: Solahart/
ESTIF.
P-R Farms in California’s San Joaquin Valley uses the electricity created from a photovoltaic system to power its cold
storage and packing operations, resulting in a dramatic reduction in monthly energy bills. Credit: PowerLight
Parabolic trough concentrating solar power plants, such as this one in California, have the potential to generate
large amounts of power in sunny areas of the Southwest and elsewhere. Credit: Gregory Kolb, Sandia National
Laboratory
Plug-in vehicles, such as these plug-in hybrids, can contribute to stabilizing the grid by providing electricity storage
capacity. Energy storage is a key technology that can enable renewable sources of energy such as solar energy to play
a larger role in America’s energy future. Credit: Argonne National Laboratory
A
merica’s potential for solar energy Distributed solar PV – A 2004 study
development is virtually limitless. by Navigant Consulting estimated the
Solar energy can meet a wide variety technical capacity for PV on residential
of energy needs, it is available everywhere and commercial rooftops in 2010 at 712
in the United States, and the prices of key gigawatts—roughly enough to supply
solar technologies are declining—in some about a quarter of America’s electricity us-
cases, rapidly. ing current photovoltaic technologies.127
The nation should set a course to Rooftops, however, aren’t the only places
maximize our use of solar energy, putting where solar panels can be installed. Fac-
America on a path toward an energy sys- tory roofs, roadsides, parking lots, former
tem that relies primarily on clean, renew- industrial sites, airport buffer lands, waste-
able sources of energy. A good place to water treatment plants and other built-up
start would be to ensure that at least 10 areas could also play host to solar PV.
percent of all the energy used in America Moreover, PV could be used “off the grid”
in 2030—and preferably more—comes to offset energy demand, as has increas-
from the sun. (See “Energy vs. Electricity: ingly been the case in recent years with
What Does the 10 Percent Target Mean?” the advent of solar powered streetlights,
page 38.) emergency call boxes, water pumps, etc.
America’s solar resource compares favorably with the resource in two leading countries for solar energy development:
Germany and Spain. Even the least sunny areas of the contiguous U.S. have solar resources on a par with Germany,
while much of the southwestern U.S. has a better solar resource than Spain. Credit: National Renewable Energy
Laboratory
centrating solar power plants, enough to earlier, the International Energy Agency
produce six times more electricity than the estimates that industrial solar process heat
entire nation consumes today.128 could displace 4 percent of industrial heat
demand—reducing America’s energy con-
Solar water heating—Solar water sumption by at least another 0.15 percent.
heating presents the potential for great Passive solar and active solar heat-
energy savings. A national analysis of ing, cooling and lighting—America’s
technical potential by NREL estimated potential for passive solar energy—and for
that the nation could avoid 0.5 quadril- the development of “active” solar heat-
lion Btu of fossil fuel consumption (about ing, cooling and lighting technologies—is
0.5 percent of America’s current energy difficult to quantify, but the technology
use), along with the consumption of large clearly exists to build homes and commer-
amounts of electricity, through wholesale cial buildings that use dramatically less en-
adoption of solar water heating. As noted ergy than conventional buildings.
M any targets for renewable energy development are set in terms of the percent-
age of our electricity supply that comes from renewable sources of power.
State renewable electricity standards (RES) typically take this approach, with solar
“carve outs” in RES policies sometimes setting goals for a percentage of electricity
that will come from solar photovoltaics and/or concentrating solar power.
About 40 percent of America’s total energy consumption is devoted to the gen-
eration of electricity.126 But, as this report shows, solar energy can do much more
than generate electricity—it can be used to improve the energy efficiency of our
buildings and to substitute directly for fossil fuels such as natural gas and oil.
The target proposed in this report—getting 10 percent of America’s total energy
from the sun—is, therefore, broader and more ambitious than a target of obtaining
10, or even 20 percent of our electricity from solar power. While shifting a large
share of our electricity production to solar power is an important component of
maximizing America’s solar energy potential, the nation must also take full advan-
tage of the potential for solar energy to offset fossil fuel use through passive solar
heating and lighting and to replace fossil fuels in our homes and businesses, as well
as our transportation system. The target proposed in this report recognizes the
broad range of ways that solar energy can power our economy and sets an ambi-
tious goal for its future development.
America has tremendous potential to capture energy from the sunlight that strikes rooftops and paved areas, such as
this parking lot in San Diego. Credit: Envision Solar
S
olar energy has a great deal going for consumption, including air pollution,
it. It is enormously popular—polls global warming and national security im-
consistently find that the vast major- plications, are not factored in.
ity of Americans back increased govern- But cost is actually one of the less-im-
ment support for solar energy, and that portant barriers to solar energy. There are
Americans prefer expansion of renew- a host of regulatory, legal, information and
able energy technologies, including solar, financing barriers—sometimes erected by
over other approaches to addressing the
nation’s energy challenges.132 Solar energy
is available everywhere, can be used for
many purposes, and the fuel is free.
But despite these advantages, achieving
a solar future for America won’t happen
on its own.
Government can help spur the development of a solar economy by taking the lead in installing solar energy systems on
public buildings, such as this middle school in Missouri. Credit: Missouri Department of Natural Resources
Notes 53
4 November 2009. Oak Ridge Company Putting Hybrid Solar
19 Assumes a 16 percent capacity factor Lighting On Map (press release), 30 Au-
for solar PV. gust 2005.
Notes 55
62 See note 23. 74 Steinway & Sons, Steinway Installs
63 See note 1. World’s Largest Solar Cooling System (press
release), 24 January 2009.
64 U.S. Department of Energy, Energy
Information Administration, 2006 Manu- 75 U.S. Department of Energy, En-
facturing Energy Consumption Survey, June ergy Information Administration, 2002
2009. Manufacturing Energy Consumption Survey,
January 2007.
65 Claudia Vannoni, Ricardo Battisti,
and Serena Drigo, International Energy 76 William McDonough and Partners,
Agency, Solar Heating and Cooling Pro- Ford Truck Plant, downloaded from www.
gramme, Potential for Solar Heat in Indus- mcdonoughpartners.com/projects/view/
trial Processes, 2008. ford_truck_plant, 31 December 2009.
Notes 57
109 SunSmart, Governor Huntsman and faq.shtml, 20 January 2010.
Mayor Help the St. George Utility Compa- 120 FPL, DeSoto Next Generation Solar
nies Cut the Ribbon at the New SunSmart Center, downloaded from www.fpl.com/
Solar Farm (press release), 14 January environment/solar/desoto.shtml, 30 De-
2009. cember 2009.
110 Laura Snider, “Rep. Levy, D-Boul- 121 Solar Energy Industries Associa-
der, to Introduce “Solar Gardens” Bill,” tion, Major Solar Projects in the United
Daily Camera, 18 January 2010. States Operational, Under Construction and
111 North Carolina Solar Center and Under Development, Updated 1/27/2010,
Interstate Renewable Energy Council, downloaded from www.seia.org/galler-
DSIRE Solar: Massachusetts-Net Meter- ies/pdf/Major%20Solar%20Projects.pdf,
ing downloaded from www.dsireusa. 2 February 2010.
org/incentives/incentive.cfm?Incentive_ 122 P. Denholm and R. Margolis, Na-
Code=MA01R&re=1&ee=1, 3 February tional Renewable Energy Laboratory,
2010. Very Large-Scale Deployment of Grid-Con-
112 See note 57. nected Solar Photovoltaics in the United
113 Ibid. States: Challenges and Opportunities, April
2006.
114 See, for example, Arthur van Ben-
tham, Kenneth Gillingham and James 123 Ibid.
Sweeney, “Learning-by-Doing and the 124 U.S. Department of Energy, Of-
Optimal Solar Policy in California.” The fice of Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy Journal, 29(3): 131-152, July 2008. Energy and Sandia National Laboratory,
115 Richard Perez, Clean Power Re- Solar Energy Grid Integration Systems “SE-
search, Determination of Photovoltaic Effec- GIS”: Program Concept Paper, October
tive Load Carrying Capacity for New Jersey, 2007.
downloaded from www.cleanpower.com/ 125 Navigant Consulting, The Conver-
research/capacityvaluation/ELCC_New_ gence of the Smart Grid with Photovoltaics:
Jersey.pdf, 4 February 2010. Identifying Value and Opportunities, 20
116 See note 22. January 2009.
Notes 59
145 U.S. Department of Energy, Council, DSIRE Solar: Federal Clean
NC Solar Center and Interstate Re- Renewable Energy Bonds (CREBs), down-
newable Energy Council, Database of loaded from www.dsireusa.org/solar/
State Incentives for Renewables and Ef- incentives/incentive.cfm?Incentive_
ficiency: Federal Business Energy Invest- Code=US45F&re=1&ee=1, 20 January
ment Tax Credit, downloaded from 2010.
http://www.dsireusa.org/solar/in- 150 New Mexico House Bill 610, 2007
centives/incentive.cfm?Incentive_ regular legislative session.
Code=US02F&re=1&ee=0, 7 January
2010. 151 Lynda Arakawa, “Hawaii May Man-
date Solar Water Heaters,” Honolulu Ad-
146 U.S. Department of Energy, Office vertiser, 14 March 2008.
of Energy Efficiency and Renewable En-
ergy, “Vermont Passes a Feed-in Tariff, 152 North Carolina Solar Center and
Plus Other Clean Energy Measures,” Interstate Renewable Energy Council,
EERE Network News, 3 June 2009. DSIRE Solar: Hawaii Solar Water Heating
Requirement for New Residential Construc-
147 U.S. Department of Energy, Of- tion, downloaded from www.dsireusa.org/
fice of Energy Efficiency and Renewable solar/incentives/incentive.cfm?Incentive_
Energy, Federal Energy Management Pro- Code=HI13R&re=1&ee=1, 20 January
gram: Federal Renewable Production and 2010.
Consumption Requirements, downloaded
from www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/tech- 153 European Solar Thermal Industry
nologies/renewable_requirements.html, 4 Federation, Solar Industrial Process Heat—
February 2010. State of the Art, 25 August 2006.
148 Eighteen states from North Caro- 154 U.S. Department of Energy, Trans-
lina Solar Center, Interstate Renewable formational Energy Research Projects Win
Energy Council, Property-Assessed Clean En- $151 Million in Funding (press release), 26
ergy, November 2009. October 2009.