Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Table of Contents
Provisional edition
FAO - FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF
THE UNITED NATIONS
a manual prepared jointly
by
C. Brouwer
International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement
and
A. Goffeau
M. Heibloem
FAO Land and Water
Development Division
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the
expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or
concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the
prior permission of the copyright owner. Applications for such permission, with a statement of the
purpose and extent of the reproduction, should be addressed to the Director, Publications Division, Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy.
FAO 1985
Table of Contents
This electronic document has been scanned using optical character recognition (OCR) software and
careful manual recorrection. Even if the quality of digitalisation is high, the FAO declines all
responsibility for any discrepancies that may exist between the present document and its original printed
version.
Table of Contents
PREFACE
CHAPTER 1 - BASIC TERMS AND CALCULATIONS
1.1 Introduction to surface area
1.1.1 Triangles
1.1.2 Squares and Rectangles
1.1.3 Rhombuses and Parallelograms
1.1.4 Trapeziums
1.1.5 Circles
1.1.6 Metric Conversions
1.2 Surface areas of canal cross-sections and farms
1.2.1 Determination of the surface areas of canal cross-sections
1.2.2 Determination of the surface area of a farm
1.3 Introduction to volume
1.3.1 Units of volume
1.3.2 Volume of water on a field
1.4 Introduction to flow-rate
1.4.1 Definition
1.4.2 Calculation and Units
1.5 Introduction to percentage and per mil
1.5.1 Percentage
1.5.2 Per mil
1.6 Introduction to graphs
1.6.1 Example 1
1.6.2 Example 2
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
3.2.1 Definition
3.2.2 Bench mark and mean sea level
3.3 Contour lines
3.4 Maps
3.4.1 Description of a map
3.4.2 Interpretation of contour lines on a map
3.4.3 Mistakes in the contour lines
3.4.4 Scale of a map
CHAPTER 4 - RAINFALL AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
4.1 Rainfall
4.1.1 Amount of rainfall
4.1.2 Rainfall intensity
4.1.3 Rainfall Distribution
4.1.4 Effective Rainfall
4.2 Evapotranspiration
4.2.1 Evaporation
4.2.2 Transpiration
4.2.3 Evapotranspiration
4.2.4 Factors influencing crop evapotranspiration
CHAPTER 5 - IRRIGATION SYSTEM
5.1 Main intake structure and pumping station
5.1.1 Main intake structure
5.1.2 Pumping station
5.2 Conveyance and distribution system
5.2.1 Open canals
5.2.2 Canal structures
5.3 Field application systems
5.3.1 Surface irrigation
5.3.2 Sprinkler irrigation
5.3.3 Drip irrigation
5.4 Drainage system
CHAPTER 6 - DRAINAGE
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Table of Contents
PREFACE
PREFACE
This is one in a series of training manuals on subjects related to irrigation that will be issued in 1985 and
1986.
The papers are intended for use by field assistants in agricultural extension services and irrigation
technicians at the village and district levels who want to increase their ability to deal with farm-level
irrigation issues.
The papers contain material that is intended to provide support for irrigation training courses and to
facilitate their conduct. Thus, taken together, they do not present a complete course in themselves, but
instructors may find it helpful to use those papers or sections that are relevant to the specific irrigation
conditions under discussion. The material may also be useful to individual students who want to review a
particular subject without a teacher.
Following an introductory discussion of various aspects of irrigation in the first paper, subsequent
subjects discussed will be:
- topographic surveying
- crop water needs
- irrigation scheduling
- irrigation methods
- irrigation system design
- land grading and levelling
- canals and structures
- drainage
- salinity
- irrigation management
At this stage, all the papers will be marked as draft because experience with the preparation of irrigation
training material for use at the village level is limited. After a trial period of a few years, when there has
been time to evaluate the information and the use of methods outlined in the draft papers, a definitive
version can then be issued.
For further information and any comments you may wish to make please write to:
The International Support Programme for Irrigation Water Management
Land and Water Development Division
FAO
Via delle Terme di Caracalla
00100 Rome
Italy
ABOUT THIS PAPER
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PREFACE
Introduction to Irrigation is the first in a series of training manuals on irrigation. As the title suggests, the
manual contains an introductory discussion of irrigation topics that will be dealt with in greater detail in
the subsequent elements of the series: it brings together explanatory notes on concepts, terms, methods
and calculations that are basic to the discussion of the subject matter. In doing so this manual may serve
as an easy reference in the study of irrigation.
The height (h) of a triangle, a rhombus, a parallelogram or a trapezium, is the distance from a top corner to the opposite side called base (b). The
height is always perpendicular to the base; in other words, the height makes a "right angle" with the base. An example of a right angle is the
corner of this page.
In the case of a square or a rectangle, the expression length (1) is commonly used instead of base and width (w) instead of height. In the case of a
circle the expression diametre (d) is used (see Fig. 1b).
Fig. 1b. The height (h), base (b), width (w), length (1) and diametre (d) of the most common surface areas
1.1.1 Triangles
The surface area or surface (A) of a triangle is calculated by the formula:
A (triangle) = 0.5 x base x height = 0.5 x b x h ..... (1)
Triangles can have many shapes (see Fig. 2) but the same formula is used for all of them.
Fig. 2. Some examples of triangles
EXAMPLE
Calculate the surface area of the triangles no. 1, no. 1a and no. 2
Triangles no. 1 and no. 1a:
Triangle no. 2:
Given
base = 3 cm
height = 2 cm
base = 3 cm
height = 2 cm
Formula:
Answer
A = 0.5 x base x height
= 0.5 x 3 cm x 2 cm = 3 cm2
A = 0.5 x 3 cm x 2 cm = 3 cm2
It can be seen that triangles no. 1, no. 1a and no. 2 have the same surface; the shapes of the triangles are different, but the base and the height are
in all three cases the same, so the surface is the same.
The surface of these triangles is expressed in square centimetres (written as cm2). Surface areas can also be expressed in square decimetres (dm2),
Given
base = 3 cm
height = 2 cm
base = 4 cm
height = 1 cm
base = 2 cm
height = 3 cm
base = 4 cm
height = 3 cm
Formula:
Answer
A = 0.5 x base x height
= 0.5 x 3 cm x 2 cm = 3 cm2
A = 0.5 x 4 cm x 1 cm = 2 cm2
A = 0.5 x 2 cm x 3 cm = 3 cm2
A = 0.5 x 4 cm x 3 cm = 6 cm2
Note that in a square the length and width are equal and that in a rectangle the length and width are not equal (see Fig. 3).
QUESTION
Calculate the surface areas of the rectangle and of the square (see Fig. 3).
Square:
Rectangle:
Given
length = 2 cm
width = 2 cm
length = 5 cm
width = 3 cm
Formula:
Formula:
Answer
A = length x width
= 2 cm x 2 cm = 4 cm2
A = length x width
= 5 cm x 3 cm = 15 cm2
Related to irrigation, you will often come across the expression hectare (ha), which is a surface area unit. By definition, 1 hectare equals 10 000
m2. For example, a field with a length of 100 m and a width of 100 m2 (see Fig. 4) has a surface area of 100 m x 100 m = 10 000 m2 = 1 ha.
Fig. 4. One hectare equals 10 000 m2
QUESTION
Calculate the surface areas of the rhombus and the parallelogram (see Fig. 5).
Rhombus:
Parallelogram:
Given
base = 3 cm
height = 2 cm
base = 3.5 cm
height = 3 cm
Formula:
Formula:
Answer
A = base x height
= 3 cm x 2 cm = 6 cm2
A = base x height
= 3.5 cm x 3 cm = 10.5 cm2
1.1.4 Trapeziums
The surface area or surface (A) of a trapezium is calculated by the formula:
A (trapezium) = 0.5 (base + top) x height = 0.5 (b + a) x h ..... (4)
The top (a) is the side opposite and parallel to the base (b). In a trapezium only the base and the top run parallel.
Some examples are shown in Fig. 6:
Fig. 6. Some examples of trapeziums
EXAMPLE
Calculate the surface area of trapezium no. 1.
Trapezium no. 1:
Given
base = 4 cm
top = 2 cm
height = 2 cm
Formula:
Answer
A = 0.5 x (base x top) x height
= 0.5 x (4 cm + 2 cm) x 2 cm
= 0.5 x 6 cm x 2 cm = 6 cm2
QUESTION
Calculate the surface areas trapeziums nos. 2, 3 and 4.
Trapezium no. 2:
Given
base = 5 cm
top = 1 cm
height = 2 cm
Formula:
Answer
A = 0.5 x (base + top) x height
= 0.5 x (5 cm + 1 cm) x 2 cm
= 0.5 x 6 cm x 2 cm = 6 cm2
Trapezium no. 3:
Trapezium no. 4:
base = 3 cm
top = 1 cm
height = 1 cm
base = 2 cm
top = 4 cm
height = 2 cm
A = 0.5 x (3 cm + 1 cm) x 2 cm
= 0.5 x 4 cm x 2 cm = 4 cm2
A = 0.5 x (2 cm + 4 cm) x 2 cm
= 0.5 x 6 cm x 2 cm = 6 cm2
Note that the surface areas of the trapeziums 1 and 4 are equal. Number 4 is the same as number 1 but upside down.
Another method to calculate the surface area of a trapezium is to divide the trapezium into a rectangle and two triangles, to measure their sides
and to determine separately the surface areas of the rectangle and the two triangles (see Fig. 7).
Fig. 7. Splitting a trapezium into one rectangle and two triangles. Note that A = A1 + A2 + A3 = 1 + 6 + 2 = 9 cm2
1.1.5 Circles
The surface area or surface (A) of a circle is calculated by the formula:
A (circle) = 1/4 ( x d x d) = 1/4 ( x d2) = 1/4 (3.14 x d2) ..... (5)
whereby d is the diameter of the circle and (a Greek letter, pronounced Pi) a constant ( = 3.14). A diameter (d) is a straight line which divides
the circle in two equal parts.
Fig. 8. A circle
EXAMPLE
Given
Circle: d = 4.5 cm
Formula:
Answer
A = 1/4 ( x d)
= 1/4 (3.14 x d x d)
= 1/4 (3.14 x 4.5 cm x 4.5 cm)
= 15.9 cm2
QUESTION
Calculate the surface area of a circle with a diameter of 3 m.
Given
Circle: d = 3 m
Formula:
Answer
A = 1/4 ( x d) = 1/4 (3.14 x d x d)
= 1/4 (3.14 x 3 m x 3 m) = 7.07 m2
The area (A B C D), hatched on the above drawing, is called the wetted canal cross-section or wetted cross-section. It also has a trapezium shape
and the formula to calculate its surface area is:
Surface area of the wetted canal cross-section = 0.5 (base + top line) x water depth = 0.5 (b + a1) x h1 ..... (7)
whereby:
base (b) = bottom width of the canal
top line (a1) = top width of the water level
water depth (h1) = the height or depth of the water in the canal (from the bottom of the canal to the water level).
EXAMPLE
Calculate the surface area of the cross-section and the wetted cross-section, of the canal shown in Fig. 12 below.
Fig. 12. Dimensions of the cross-section
Given
Canal cross-section:
base (b) = 1.25 m
top line (a) = 3.75 m
canal depth (h) = 1.25 m
Canal wetted cross-section:
base (b) = 1.25 m
top line (a1) = 3.25 m
water depth (h1) = 1.00 m
Answer
Formula:
A = 0.5 x (b + a) x h
= 0.5 x (1.25 m + 3.75 m) x 1.25 m
= 3.125 m2
Formula:
A = 0.5 x (b + a1) x h
= 0.5 x (1.25 m + 3.25 m) x 1.00 m
= 2.25 m2
EXAMPLE
Given
Length of the field = 50 m
Width of the field = 30 m
Formula:
Answer
A = length x width (formula 2)
= 50 m x 30 m = 1500 m2
QUESTION
What is the area of the same field, expressed in hectares?
ANSWER
Section 1.1.2 explained that a hectare is equal to 10 000 m. Thus, the formula to calculate a surface area in hectares is:
..... (8)
In this case, the field should be divided in several regular areas (square, rectangle, triangle, etc.), as has been done in Fig. 14b.
Fig. 14b. Division of irregular field into regular areas
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EXAMPLE
Calculate the volume of the above block.
Given
length = 4 cm
width = 3 cm
height = 2 cm
Formula:
Answer
V = length x width x height
= 4 cm x 3 cm x 2 cm
= 24 cm3
The volume of this block is expressed in cubic centimetres (written as cm). Volumes can also be expressed in cubic decimetres (dm3), cubic
metres (m3), etc.
QUESTION
Calculate the volume in m3 of a block with a length of 4 m, a width of 50 cm and a height of 200 mm.
Given
All data must be converted in metres (m)
length = 4 m
width = 50 cm = 0.50 m
height = 200 mm = 0.20 m
Answer
Formula:
QUESTION
Calculate the volume of the same block, this time in cubic centimetres (cm3)
Given
All data must be converted in centimetres (cm)
length = 4 m = 400 cm
width = 50 cm
height = 200 mm = 20 cm
Answer
Formula:
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A similar process happens if you spread irrigation water from a storage reservoir over a farmer's field.
QUESTION
Suppose there is a reservoir, filled with water, with a length of 5 m, a width of 10 m and a depth of 2 m. All the water from the reservoir is spread
over a field of 1 hectare. Calculate the water depth (which is the thickness of the water layer) on the field, see Fig. 18.
Fig. 18. A volume of 100 m3 of water spread over an area of one hectare
The formula to use is:
..... (10)
As the first step, the volume of water must be calculated. It is the volume of the filled reservoir, calculated with formula (9):
Volume (V) = length x width x height = 5 m x 10 m x 2 m = 100 m3
As the second step, the thickness of the water layer is calculated using formula (10):
Given
Surface of the field = 10 000 m2
Volume of water = 100 m3
Answer
Formula:
d = 0.01 m
d = 10 mm
QUESTION
A water layer 1 mm thick is spread over a field of 1 ha. Calculate the volume of the water (in m3), with the help of Fig. 19.
Fig. 19. One millimetre water depth on a field of one hectare
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Answer
= surface of the field (m) x water depth (m)
V = 10 000 m2 x 0.001 m
V = 10 m3 or 10 000 litres
1.4.1 Definition
The flow-rate of a river, or of a canal, is the volume of water discharged through this river, or this canal, during a given period of time. Related to
irrigation, the volume of water is usually expressed in litres (l) or cubic metres (m3) and the time in seconds (s) or hours (h). The flow-rate is also
called discharge-rate.
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QUESTION
The water supplied by a pump fills a drum of 200 litres in 20 seconds. What is the flow rate of this pump?
The formula used is:
..... (12a)
Given
Volume of water: 200 l
Time: 20 s
Answer
Formula:
The unit "litre per second" is commonly used for small flows, e.g. a tap or a small ditch. For larger flows, e.g. a river or a main canal, the unit
"cubic metre per second" (m3/s) is more conveniently used.
QUESTION
A river discharges 100 m3 of water to the sea every 2 seconds. What is the flow-rate of this river expressed in m3/s?
The formula used is:
..... (12b)
Given
Volume of water: 100 m3
Time: 2 s
Answer
Formula:
The discharge rate of a pump is often expressed in m3 per hour (m3/h) or in litres per minute (l/min).
..... (12c)
..... (12d)
NOTE: Formula 12a, 12b, 12c and 12d are the same; only the units change
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1.5.1 Percentage
The word "percentage" means literally "per hundred"; in other words one percent is the one hundredth part of the total. You can either write
percent, or %, or 1/100, or 0.01.
Some examples are:
5 percent = 5% =5/100 = 0.05
20 percent = 20% = 20/100= 0.20
25 percent = 25% = 25/100 = 0.25
50 percent = 50% = 50/100 =0.50
100 percent = 100% = 100/100 = 1
150 percent = 150% = 150/100 = 1.5
QUESTION
How many oranges are 1% of a total of 300 oranges? (see Fig. 21)
Fig. 21. Three oranges are 1% of 300 oranges
ANSWER
1% of 300 oranges = 1/100 x 300 = 3 oranges
QUESTIONS
6% of 100 cows
15% of 28 hectares
80% of 90 irrigation projects
150% of a monthly salary of $100
0.5% of 194.5 litres
ANSWERS
6/100 x 100 = 6 cows
15/100 x 28 = 4.2 ha
80/100 x 90 = 72 projects
150/100 x 100 = 1.5 x 100 = $150
0.5/100 x 194.5 = 0.005 x 194.5 = 0.9725 litres
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QUESTION
How many oranges are 4 of 1000 oranges? (see Fig. 22)
Fig. 22. Four oranges are 4 of 1000 oranges
ANSWER
4 of 1000 oranges = 4/1000 x 1000 = 4 oranges
NOTE
10 = 1%
because 10 = 10/1000 = 1/10 = 1%
QUESTIONS
ANSWERS
3 of 3 000 oranges 3/1000 x 3 000 = 9 oranges
35 of 10 000 ha
35/1000 x 10 000 = 350 ha
2
0.5 of 750 km
0.5/1000 x 750 =0.375 km2
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1.6.1 Example 1
Suppose it is necessary to make a graph of the growth rate of a maize plant. Each week the height of the plant is measured. One week after
planting the seed, the plant measures 2 cm in height, two weeks after planting it measures 5 cm and 3 weeks after planting the height is 10 cm, as
illustrated in Fig. 24a.
Fig. 24a. Measuring the growth rate of a maize plant
These results can be plotted on a graph. The time (in weeks) will be indicated on the x axis; 2 cm on the axis represents 1 week. The plant height
(in centimetres) will be indicated on the y axis; 1 cm on the axis represents 1 cm of plant height.
After 1 week the height is 2 cm; this is indicated on the graph with A; after 2 weeks the height is 5 cm, see B, and after 3 weeks the height is 10
cm, see C, as shown in Fig. 24b.
At planting (Time = 0) the height was zero, see D.
Now connect the crosses (see Fig. 24c) with a straight line. The line indicates the growth rate of the plant; this is the height increase over time.
Fig. 24b. Growth rate of a maize plant
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It can be seen from the graph that the plant is growing faster and faster (during the first week 2 cm and during the third week 5 cm); the line from
B to C is steeper than the line from D to A.
From the graph can be read what the height of the plant was after, say 2 1/2 weeks; see the dotted line (Fig. 24c). Locate on the horizontal axis 2
1/2 weeks and follow the dotted line upwards until the dotted line crosses the graph. From this crossing follow the dotted line to the left until the
vertical axis is reached. Now take the reading: 7.5 cm, which means that the plant had a height of 7.5 cm after 2 1/2 weeks. This height has not
been measured in reality, but with the graph the height can be determined anyway.
QUESTION
What was the height of the plant after 1 1/2 weeks?
ANSWER
The height of the plant after 1 1/2 weeks was 3.5 cm (see Fig. 24c).
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1.6.2 Example 2
Another example to illustrate how a graph should be made is the variation of the temperature over one full day (24 hours). Suppose the outside
temperature (always in the shade) is measured, with a thermometer, every two hours, starting at midnight and ending the following midnight.
Suppose the following results are found:
Time (hr) Temperature (C)
0
16
2
13
4
6
6
8
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8
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
13
19
24
28
2
27
22
19
16
On the x axis indicate the time in hours, whereby 1 cm on the graph is 2 hours. On the y axis indicate the temperature in degrees Celsius (C),
whereby 1 cm on the graph is 5C.
Now indicate (with crosses) the values from the table (above) on the graph paper and connect the crosses with straight dotted lines (see Fig. 25a).
Fig. 25a. Graph showing temperature over 24 hours; mistake 16 hour reading
At this stage, if you look attentively at the graph, you will note that there is a very abrupt change in its shape around the sixteenth hour. The
outside temperature seems to have fallen from 28C to 2C in two hours time! That does not make sense, and the reading of the thermometer at
the sixteenth hour must have been wrong. This cross cannot be taken in consideration for the graph and should be rejected. The only dotted line
we can accept is the straight one in between the reading at the fourteenth hour and the reading at the eighteenth hour (see Fig. 25b).
Fig. 25b. Graph showing temperature over 24 hours; estimated correction of mistake
In reality the temperature will change more gradually than indicated by the dotted line; that is why a smooth curve is made (continuous line). The
smooth curve represents the most realistic approximation of the temperature over 24 hours (see Fig. 25c).
Fig. 25c. Graph showing temperature over 24 hours; smooth curve
From the graph it can be seen that the minimum or lowest temperature was reached around 4 o'clock in the morning and was about 6C. The
highest temperature was reached at 4 o'clock in the afternoon and was approximately 29C.
QUESTION
What was the temperature at 7, 15 and 23 hours? (Always use the smooth curve to take the readings).
ANSWER (see Fig. 25c)
Temperature at 7 hours: 10C
Temperature at 15 hours: 29C
Temperature at 23 hours: 17C
1.7.1 Questions
1) Calculate the surface areas of the following triangles:
a. height = 6 cm, base = 12 cm = = = A = .....cm2
b. height = 22 cm, base = 48 cm = = = A = .....cm2
c. height = 16 cm, base = 24 cm = = = A = .....cm2
d. height = 0.8 m, base = 0.3 m = = = A = .....m2
2) Calculate the surface areas of the following trapeziums:
a. height = 12 cm, base = 52 cm, top = 16 cm = = = A = .....cm2
b. height = 20 cm, base = 108 dm, top = 16 cm = = = A = .....cm2
c. height = 0.3 m, base = 1.8 m, top = 1.5 m = = = A = .....m2
3) Calculate the cross-section of the canal when given:
height = 1 m
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1.7.2 Answers
1)
a. A = 0.5 x b x h = 0.5 x 6 cm x 12 cm = 36 cm2
b. A = 0.5 x 22 cm x 48 cm = 528 cm2
c. A = 0.5 x 16 cm x 24 cm = 192 cm2
d. A = 0.5 x 0.8 m x 0.3 m = 0.12 m2
2)
a. A = 0.5 x (b + a) x h = 0.5 x (52 cm + 16 cm) x 12 cm = 408 cm2
b. A = 0.5 x (108 cm + 16 cm) x 20 cm = 1240 cm2
c. A = 0.5 x (1.8 m + 1.5 m) x 0.3 m = 0.495 m2
3) A = 0.5 x (b + a) x h = 0.5 x (1.2 m + 2.6 m) x 1 m = 1.9 m2
4) A = 0.5 x (b + a1) x h1 - 0.5 x (1.2 m + 2.32 m) x 0.8 m = 1.408 m2
5) Area of the field in square metres = l (m) x w (m) = 120 m x 85 m = 10 200 m2
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6)
a. 1820 m x 25/100 = 455 m
b. 971 cm x 13/100 = 126.23 cm
c. 8000 apples x 83/100 = 6640 apples
d. 18 060 m x 7/1000 = 126.42 m
e. 26 ha x 13/100= 3.38 ha
f. 28 000 m x 1.5/1000 = 42 m
7)
a. V = l x w x h = 0.75 m x 3 m x 0.06 m = 0.135 m3
b. V = 0.005 m x 0.10 m x 0.20 m = 0.0001 m3
c. V = 1.5 dm x 2 dm x 5 dm = 15 dm3 = 15 litres
8) V = l x w x h = 150 m x 56 m x 0.070 m = 588 m3
9)
Volume of water required on a field: V = length of field (m) x width of field (m) x thickness of water layer (m) = 175 m x 95 m x
0.050 m = 831.25 m3
Volume of the reservoir: V = 831.25 m3 = length of reservoir (m) x width of reservoir (m) x depth of reservoir (m)
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Size limits in mm
larger than 1
1 to 0.5
0.5 to 0.002
less than 0.002
The amount of sand, silt and clay present in the soil determines the soil texture.
In coarse textured soils: sand is predominant (sandy soils).
In medium textured soils: silt is predominant (loamy soils).
In fine textured soils: clay is predominant (clayey soils).
In the field, soil texture can be determined by rubbing the soil between the fingers (see Fig. 28).
Farmers often talk of light soil and heavy soil. A coarse-textured soil is light because it is easy to work, while a
fine-textured soil is heavy because it is hard to work.
Expression used by the farmer
light
medium
heavy
The texture of a soil is permanent, the farmer is unable to modify or change it.
Fig. 28a. Coarse textured soil is gritty. Individual particules are loose and fall apart in the hand, even
when moist.
Fig. 28b. Medium textured soil feels very soft (like flour) when dry. It can be easily be pressed when wet
and then feels silky.
Fig. 28c. Fine textured soil sticks to the fingers when wet and can form a ball when pressed.
When present in the topsoil, a massive structure blocks the entrance of water; seed germination is difficult due to
poor aeration. On the other hand, if the topsoil is granular, the water enters easily and the seed germination is
better.
In a prismatic structure, movement of the water in the soil is predominantly vertical and therefore the supply of
water to the plant roots is usually poor.
Unlike texture, soil structure is not permanent. By means of cultivation practices (ploughing, ridging, etc.), the
farmer tries to obtain a granular topsoil structure for his fields.
Fig. 30. Some examples of soil structures
GRANULAR
BLOCKY
PRISMATIC
MASSIVE
Fig. 32b. After one hour the water has infiltrated in the sand, while some water is still ponding on the clay
The infiltration rate of a soil is the velocity at which water can seep into it. It is commonly measured by the
depth (in mm) of the water layer that the soil can absorb in an hour.
An infiltration rate of 15 mm/hour means that a water layer of 15 mm on the surface of the soil, will take one
hour to infiltrate (see fig. 33).
Fig. 33. Soil with an infiltration rate of 15 mm/hour
In coarse soils, the rain or irrigation water enters and moves more easily into larger pores; it takes
less time for the water to infiltrate into the soil. In other words, infiltration rate is higher for coarse
textured soils than for fine textured soils.
ii. The soil moisture content
The water infiltrates faster (higher infiltration rate) when the soil is dry, than when it is wet (see Fig.
35). As a consequence, when irrigation water is applied to a field, the water at first infiltrates easily,
but as the soil becomes wet, the infiltration rate decreases.
Fig. 35. Infiltration rate and soil moisture content
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The soil moisture content can also be expressed in percent of volume. In the example above, 1 m3 of soil (e.g.
with a depth of 1 m, and a surface area of 1 m2) contains 0.150 m3 of water (e.g. with a depth of 150 mm = 0.150
m and a surface area of 1 m2). This results in a soil moisture content in volume percent of:
Thus, a moisture content of 100 mm/m corresponds to a moisture content of 10 volume percent.
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Note: The amount of water stored in the soil is not constant with time, but may vary.
2.3.2 Saturation
During a rain shower or irrigation application, the soil pores will fill with water. If all soil pores are filled with
water the soil is said to be saturated. There is no air left in the soil (see Fig. 37a). It is easy to determine in the
field if a soil is saturated. If a handful of saturated soil is squeezed, some (muddy) water will run between the
fingers.
Plants need air and water in the soil. At saturation, no air is present and the plant will suffer. Many crops cannot
withstand saturated soil conditions for a period of more than 2-5 days. Rice is one of the exceptions to this rule.
The period of saturation of the topsoil usually does not last long. After the rain or the irrigation has stopped, part
of the water present in the larger pores will move downward. This process is called drainage or percolation.
The water drained from the pores is replaced by air. In coarse textured (sandy) soils, drainage is completed
within a period of a few hours. In fine textured (clayey) soils, drainage may take some (2-3) days.
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When this water has drained away, the soil is at field capacity. The plant roots draw water from what remains in
the reservoir (see Fig. 38b).
Fig. 38b. Field capacity
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When the soil reaches permanent wilting point, the remaining water is no longer available to the plant (see Fig.
38c).
Fig. 38c. Permanent wilting point
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The amount of water actually available to the plant is the amount of water stored in the soil at field capacity
minus the water that will remain in the soil at permanent wilting point. This is illustrated in Fig. 39.
Fig. 39. The available soil moisture or water content
Available water content = water content at field capacity - water content at permanent wilting point ..... (13)
The available water content depends greatly on the soil texture and structure. A range of values for different
types of soil is given in the following table.
Soil Available water content in mm water depth per m soil depth (mm/m)
sand
25 to 100
loam
100 to 175
clay
175 to 250
The field capacity, permanent wilting point (PWP) and available water content are called the soil moisture
characteristics. They are constant for a given soil, but vary widely from one type of soil to another.
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In one particular place or field, the depth of the groundwater table may vary in time.
Following heavy rainfall or irrigation, the groundwater table rises. It may even reach and saturate the rootzone. If
prolonged, this situation can be disastrous for crops which cannot resist "wet feet" for a long period. Where the
groundwater table appears at the surface, it is called an open groundwater table. This is the case in swampy
areas.
The groundwater table can also be very deep and distant from the rootzone, for example following a prolonged
dry period. To keep the rootzone moist, irrigation is then necessary.
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Soil with an impermeable layer not far below the rootzone should be irrigated with precaution, because in the
case of over irrigation (too much irrigation), the perched water table may rise rapidly.
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CHAPTER 3 - ELEMENTS OF
TOPOGRAPHY
3.1 Slopes
3.2 Elevation of a point
3.3 Contour lines
3.4 Maps
3.1 Slopes
3.1.1 Definition
3.1.2 Method of expressing slopes
3.1.3 Cross slopes
3.1.1 Definition
A slope is the rise or fall of the land surface. It is important for the farmer or irrigator to identify the slopes
on the land.
A slope is easy to recognize in a hilly area. Start climbing from the foot of a hill toward the top, this is
called a rising slope (see Fig. 46, black arrow). Go downhill, this is a falling slope (see Fig. 46, white
arrow).
Fig. 46. A rising and a falling slope
Flat areas are never strictly horizontal; there are gentle slopes in a seemingly flat area, but they are often
hardly noticeable to the naked eye. An accurate survey of the land is necessary to identify these so called
"flat slopes".
The slope can also be expressed in percent; the formula used is then:
..... (14b)
Finally, the slope can be expressed in per mil; the formula used is then:
..... (14c)
NOTE:
Slope in = slope in % x 10
QUESTION
What is the slope in percent and in per mil of a field with a horizontal length of 200 m and a height
difference of 1.5 m between the top and the bottom?
ANSWER
Horizontal
0 - 0.2
0-2
Very flat
0.2 - 0.5
2-5
Flat
0.5 - 1
5 - 10
Moderate
1 - 2.5
10 - 25
Steep
more than 2.5 more than 25
Fig. 48a. A steep slope
The thick arrow indicates the direction of what can be called the main slope; the thin arrow indicates the
direction of the cross slope, the latter crosses the direction of the main slope.
An illustration of the main slope and the cross slope of an irrigated field is shown in Fig. 50.
Fig. 50. The main slope and cross slope of an irrigated field
3.2.1 Definition
In figure 51, point A is at the top of a concrete bridge. Any other point in the surrounding area is higher or
lower than A, and the vertical distance between the two can be determined. For example, B is higher than
A, and the vertical distance between A and B is 2 m. Point C, is lower than A and the vertical distance
between A and C is 1 m. If point A is chosen as a reference point or datum, the elevation of any other
point in the field can be defined as the vertical distance between this point and A.
Fig. 51. Reference point or datum "A"
Thus, the height or elevation of B, in relation to the datum A, is 2 m and the elevation of C, also related to
the datum A, is 1 m.
As a reminder that a point is above or below the datum, its elevation is prefixed by the sign + (plus) if it is
above the datum, or - (minus) if it is below the datum.
Therefore, in relation to the datum A, the elevation of B is +2 m and the elevation of C is -1 m.
EXAMPLE
In Figure 52, the elevation of point A in relation to the bench mark (BM) is 5 metres. The BM elevation
relative to the mean sea level (MSL) is 10 m. Thus, the elevation of point A relative to the MSL is 5 m +
10 m = 15 m and is called the reduced level (RL) of A.
QUESTION
What is the reduced level of point B in Figure 52.
ANSWER
The elevation of B relative to BM = 3 m
The elevation of BM relative to MSL = 10 m
Thus, the reduced level of B = 3 m + 10 m = 13 m
QUESTION
What is the difference in elevation between A and B? What does it represent?
ANSWER
The difference in elevation between A and B is the reduced level of A minus the reduced level of B = 15
m - 13 m = 2 m, which represents the vertical distance between A and B.
3.4 Maps
3.4.1 Description of a map
3.4.2 Interpretation of contour lines on a map
3.4.3 Mistakes in the contour lines
3.4.4 Scale of a map
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4.1 Rainfall
4.1.1 Amount of rainfall
4.1.2 Rainfall intensity
4.1.3 Rainfall Distribution
4.1.4 Effective Rainfall
The primary source of water for agricultural production, for large parts of the world, is rainfall or precipitation.
Rainfall is characterized by its amount, intensity and distribution in time.
This container is placed horizontally on an open area in a field (see Fig. 59b).
Fig. 59b. Container placed in the field
In terms of volume, with a rainfall of 10 mm, every square metre of the field receives 0.01 m, or 10 litres, of rain
water. With a rainfall of 1 mm, every square metre receives 1 litre of rain water.
A rainfall of 1 mm supplies 0.001 m3, or 1 litre of water to each square metre of the field. Thus 1 ha receives 10
000 litres.
QUESTION
What is the total amount of water received by a field of 5 ha under a rainfall of 15 mm?
ANSWER
Each hectare (10 000 m2) receives 10 000 m2 x 0.015 m = 150 m3 of water. Thus the total amount of water
received by the 5 hectares is: 5 x 150 m = 750 m
Rainfall is often expressed in millimetres per day (mm/day) which represents the total depth of rainwater (mm),
during 24 hours. It is the sum of all the rain showers which occurred during these 24 hours.
For example, a rain shower lasts 3.5 hours and supplies 35 mm of water. The intensity of this shower is
The low intensity rainfall has finer drops. The soil surface is not sealed, the rainwater infiltrates more easily and
surface runoff is limited (see Section 4.1.4).
In other words, the effective rainfall (8) is the total rainfall (1) minus runoff (4) minus evaporation (5) and minus
deep percolation (7); only the water retained in the root zone (8) can be used by the plants, and represents what is
called the effective part of the rainwater. The term effective rainfall is used to define this fraction of the total
amount of rainwater useful for meeting the water need of the crops.
e. Topography
On steep sloping areas, because of high runoff, the water has less time to infiltrate than in rather flat
areas (see Fig. 65). The effective rainfall is thus lower in sloping areas.
Fig. 65. Effective rainfall and topography
g. Irrigation methods
There are different methods of irrigation which will be explained in Chapter V, and each method
has a specific influence on the effective rainfall.
In basin irrigation there is no surface runoff. All the rainwater is trapped in the basin and has time to
infiltrate (Fig. 67a).
In inclined border and furrow irrigation, the runoff is relatively large. At the lower end of the field
the runoff water is collected in a field drain and carried away (Fig. 67b). Thus the effective rainfall
under border or furrow irrigation is lower than under basin irrigation.
In contour furrow irrigation there is very little or no slope in the direction of the furrow and thus
runoff is limited; the runoff over the cross slope is also limited as the water is caught by the ridges.
This results in a relatively high effective rainfall, compared to inclined border or furrow irrigation
(see Fig. 67c).
Fig. 67a + b + c. Effective rainfall and irrigation methods
4.2 Evapotranspiration
4.2.1 Evaporation
4.2.2 Transpiration
4.2.3 Evapotranspiration
4.2.4 Factors influencing crop evapotranspiration
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4.2.1 Evaporation
Imagine the same open container (Section 4.1.1) as used for the collection of rain water, but this time with a
depth of 10 mm of water in it; leave the container in the field for 24 hours. Make sure that it does not rain during
those 24 hours (Fig. 68a).
Fig. 68a. Container with 10 mm of water
At the end of the 24 hours, part of the water originally in the container has evaporated. If only 6 mm of water
depth remains in the container, then the evaporation during this day was 10 - 6 = 4 mm (see Fig. 68b).
Fig. 68b. After 24 hours, 6 mm of water is left in the container
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Some water from the soil in the field surrounding the container has also evaporated during the day. But it would
be wrong to assume that the evaporation from the container is the same as the evaporation from the soil.
In fact, evaporation from the soil surface is at most equal but usually considerably less than evaporation from an
open water surface.
4.2.2 Transpiration
The plant roots suck or extract water from the soil to live and grow. The main part of this water does not remain
in the plant, but escapes to the atmosphere as vapour through the plant's leaves and stems. This process is called
transpiration of the plant.
Transpiration happens mainly during the day time.
The amount of water used by the plants for transpiration can, like evaporation, be expressed in millimetres of
water per day (mm/day). Note that a day has 24 hours.
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4.2.3 Evapotranspiration
The evapotranspiration of a crop is the total amount of soil water used for transpiration by the plants and
evaporation from the surrounding soil surface.
In other words, the crop evapotranspiration represents the amount of water utilized by the crop and its
environment.
The evapotranspiration is commonly expressed in millimetres of water used per day (mm/day) or per week
(mm/week) or per month (mm/month).
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The (main) intake structure, or (main) pumping station, directs water from the source of supply, such as a
reservoir or a river, into the irrigation system.
The conveyance system assures the transport of water from the main intake structure or main pumping station up
to the field ditches.
The distribution system assures the transport of water through field ditches to the irrigated fields.
The field application system assures the transport of water within the fields.
The drainage system removes the excess water (caused by rainfall and/or irrigation) from the fields.
There are several types of pumps, but the most commonly used in irrigation is the centrifugal pump.
The centrifugal pump (see Fig. 72a) consists of a case in which an element, called an impeller, rotates driven by
a motor (see Fig. 72b). Water enters the case at the center, through the suction pipe. The water is immediately
caught by the rapidly rotating impeller and expelled through the discharge pipe.
Fig. 72a. Diagram of a centrifugal pump
The centrifugal pump will only operate when the case is completely filled with water.
The freeboard of the canal is the height of the bank above the highest water level anticipated. It is
required to guard against overtopping by waves or unexpected rises in the water level.
The side slope of the canal is expressed as ratio, namely the vertical distance or height to the
horizontal distance or width. For example, if the side slope of the canal has a ratio of 1:2 (one to
two), this means that the horizontal distance (w) is two times the vertical distance (h) (see Fig. 75).
Fig. 75. A side slope of 1:2 (one to two)
The bottom slope of the canal does not appear on the drawing of the cross-section but on the
longitudinal section (see Fig. 76). It is commonly expressed in percent or per mil.
Fig. 76. A bottom slope of a canal
An example of the calculation of the bottom slope of a canal is given below (see also Fig. 76):
or
Water poured on the top edge of the sheet reacts exactly the same as the ball. It flows downward
and the steeper the slope, the higher the velocity of the flow.
Water flowing in steep canals can reach very high velocities. Soil particles along the bottom and
banks of an earthen canal are then lifted, carried away by the water flow, and deposited downstream
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where they may block the canal and silt up structures. The canal is said to be under erosion; the
banks might eventually collapse.
b. Drop structures and chutes
Drop structures or chutes are required to reduce the bottom slope of canals lying on steeply sloping
land in order to avoid high velocity of the flow and risk of erosion. These structures permit the canal
to be constructed as a series of relatively flat sections, each at a different elevation (see Fig. 80).
Fig. 80. Longitudinal section of a series of drop structures
Drop structures take the water abruptly from a higher section of the canal to a lower one. In a chute,
the water does not drop freely but is carried through a steep, lined canal section. Chutes are used
where there are big differences in the elevation of the canal.
ii. Distribution control structures
Distribution control structures are required for easy and accurate water distribution within the irrigation system
and on the farm.
a. Division boxes
Division boxes are used to divide or direct the flow of water between two or more canals or ditches.
Water enters the box through an opening on one side and flows out through openings on the other
sides. These openings are equipped with gates (see Fig. 81).
Fig. 81. A division box with three gates
b. Turnouts
Turnouts are constructed in the bank of a canal. They divert part of the water from the canal to a
smaller one.
Turnouts can be concrete structures (Fig. 82a), or pipe structures (Fig. 82b).
Fig. 82a. A concrete turnout
Fig. 82b. A pipe turnout
c. Checks
To divert water from the field ditch to the field, it is often necessary to raise the water level in the
ditch. Checks are structures placed across the ditch to block it temporarily and to raise the upstream
water level. Checks can be permanent structures (Fig. 83a) or portable (Fig. 83b).
Fig. 83a. A permanent concrete check
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c. Inverted siphons
When water has to be carried across a road which is at the same level as or below the canal bottom,
an inverted siphon is used instead of a culvert. The structure consists of an inlet and outlet
connected by a pipeline (Fig. 86). Inverted siphons are also used to carry water across wide
depressions.
Fig. 86. An inverted siphon
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a. Weirs
In its simplest form, a weir consists of a wall of timber, metal or concrete with an opening with
fixed dimensions cut in its edge (see Fig. 87). The opening, called a notch, may be rectangular,
trapezoidal or triangular.
Fig. 87. Some examples of weirs
A RECTANGULAR WEIR
A TRIANGULAR WEIR
A TRAPEZOIDAL WEIR
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b. Parshall flumes
The Parshall flume consists of a metal or concrete channel structure with three main sections: (1) a
converging section at the upstream end, leading to (2) a constricted or throat section and (3) a
diverging section at the downstream end (Fig. 88).
Fig. 88. A Parshall flume
Depending on the flow condition (free flow or submerged flow), the water depth readings are taken
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This is a very time-consuming method and it involves quite heavy work. However, it can be used successfully to
irrigate small plots of land, such as vegetable gardens, that are in the neighbourhood of a water source.
More sophisticated methods of water application are used in larger irrigation systems. There are three basic
methods: surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation and drip irrigation.
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CHAPTER 6 - DRAINAGE
CHAPTER 6 - DRAINAGE
6.1 Need for drainage
6.2 Different types of drainage
CHAPTER 6 - DRAINAGE
Part of the water present in the saturated upper soil layers flows downward into deeper layers and is replaced by
water infiltrating from the surface pools.
When there is no more water left on the soil surface, the downward flow continues for a while and air re-enters
in the pores of the soil. This soil is not saturated anymore.
However, saturation may have lasted too long for the plants' health. Plant roots require air as well as water and
most plants cannot withstand saturated soil for long periods (rice is an exception).
Besides damage to the crop, a very wet soil makes the use of machinery difficult, if not impossible.
The water flowing from the saturated soil downward to deeper layers, feeds the groundwater reservoir. As a
result, the groundwater level (often called groundwater table or simply water table) rises. Following heavy
rainfall or continuous over-irrigation, the groundwater table may even reach and saturate part of the rootzone
(see Fig. 97). Again, if this situation lasts too long, the plants may suffer. Measures to control the rise of the
CHAPTER 6 - DRAINAGE
CHAPTER 6 - DRAINAGE
The removal of excess water either from the ground surface or from the rootzone, is called drainage.
Excess water may be caused by rainfall or by using too much irrigation water, but may also have other origins
such as canal seepage or floods.
In very dry areas there is often accumulation of salts in the soil. Most crops do not grow well on salty soil. Salts
can be washed out by percolating irrigation water through the rootzone of the crops. To achieve sufficient
percolation, farmers will apply more water to the field than the crops need. But the salty percolation water will
cause the water table to rise. Drainage to control the water table, therefore, also serves to control the salinity of
the soil (see Chapter 7).
CHAPTER 6 - DRAINAGE
CHAPTER 6 - DRAINAGE
Drain pipes are made of clay, concrete or plastic. They are usually placed in trenches by machines.
In clay and concrete pipes (usually 30 cm long and 5 - 10 cm in diameter) drainage water enters the
pipes through the joints (see Fig. 101, top). Flexible plastic drains are much longer (up to 200 m)
and the water enters through perforations distributed over the entire length of the pipe (see Fig. 101,
bottom).
Fig. 101. Clay pipes (top) and flexible plastic pipe (bottom)
iii. Deep open drains versus pipe drains
Open drains use land that otherwise could be used for crops. They restrict the use of machines. They
also require a large number of bridges and culverts for road crossings and access to the fields. Open
drains require frequent maintenance (weed control, repairs, etc.).
In contrast to open drains, buried pipes cause no loss of cultivable land and maintenance
requirements are very limited. The installation costs, however, of pipe drains may be higher due to
the materials, the equipment and the skilled manpower involved.
7.1 Salinization
A soil may be rich in salts because the parent rock from which it was formed contains salts. Sea water is
another source of salts in low-lying areas along the coast. A very common source of salts in irrigated soils
is the irrigation water itself. Most irrigation waters contain some salts.
After irrigation, the water added to the soil is used by the crop or evaporates directly from the moist soil.
The salt, however, is left behind in the soil. If not removed, it accumulates in the soil; this process is called
salinization (see Fig. 102). Very salty soils are sometimes recognizable by a white layer of dry salt on the
soil surface.
Fig. 102. Salinization, caused by salty irrigation water
Salty groundwater may also contribute to salinization. When the water table rises (e.g. following irrigation
in the absence of proper drainage), the salty groundwater may reach the upper soil layers and, thus, supply
salts to the rootzone (see Fig. 103).
Fig. 103. Salinization, caused by a high
Soils that contain a harmful amount of salt are often referred to as salty or saline soils. Soil, or water, that
has a high content of salt is said to have a high salinity.
7.2 Salinity
7.2.1 Water salinity
7.2.2 Soil salinity
litre (which is the same as parts per million, p.p.m). However, the salinity of both water and soil is easily
measured by means of an electrical device. It is then expressed in terms of electrical conductivity:
millimhos/cm or micromhos/cm. A salt concentration of 1 gram per litre is about 1.5 millimhos/cm. Thus
a concentration of 3 grams per litre will be about the same as 4.5 millimhos/cm.
Fig. 104. A salt concentration of 10 g/l
Salinity
non saline
slightly saline
medium saline
highly saline
Some plants are more tolerant to a high salt concentration than others. Some examples are given in the
following table:
Highly tolerant
Date palm
Barley
Sugarbeet
Cotton
Asparagus
Spinach
Moderately tolerant
Wheat
Tomato
Oats
Alfalfa
Rice
Maize
Flax
Potatoes
Carrot
Onion
Cucumber
Pomegranate
Fig
Olive
Grape
Sensitive
Red clover
Peas
Beans
Sugarcane
Pear
Apple
Orange
Prune
Plum
Almond
Apricot
Peach
The highly tolerant crops can withstand a salt concentration of the saturation extract up to 10 g/l. The
moderately tolerant crops can withstand salt concentration up to 5 g/l. The limit of the sensitive group is
about 2.5 g/l.
7.4 Sodicity
Salty soils usually contain several types of salt. One of these is sodium salt. Where the concentration of
sodium salts is high relative to other types of salt, a sodic soil may develop. Sodic soils are characterized
by a poor soil structure: they have a low infiltration rate, they are poorly aerated and difficult to cultivate.
Thus, sodic soils adversely affect the plants' growth.
The additional water required for leaching must be removed from the rootzone by means of a subsurface
drainage system (Chapter 6). If not removed, it could cause a rise of the groundwater table which would
bring the salts back into the rootzone. Thus, improvement of saline soils includes, essentially, leaching and
sub-surface drainage.
Restriction on use
no risk
no restriction on its use
slight to moderate risk should be used with appropriate
water management practices
high risk
not generally advised for use unless
consulted with specialists
The type of salt in the irrigation water will influence the risk of developing sodicity: the higher the
concentration of sodium present in the irrigation water (particularly compared to other soils), the higher
the risk.