Professional Documents
Culture Documents
by
Dr.Eng. Suryantini
Silabus kuliah
• Introduction to geostatistics
• Non-spatial statistics
Today’s
• Spatial statistics lecture
• Variogram
• Estimation
• Simulation
Spatial statistics
CONTENT
• Spatial description
• Spatial continuity model
–from non-spatial to spatial statistics
–Spatial statistics - Univariate
–Spatial statistics - Bivariate
Spatial description
• Data postings
• Contour maps
• Symbol maps
• Indicator maps
• Moving windows statistics
• Propotional effect
Spatial description
Data posting Symbol map or post plot
Contour map
Spatial description
Indicator map
Threshold from 15 to 135 ppm
• Series of indicator
map records the
transition from low to
high values
B
Spatial description
Buatlah Penampang A-B, C-D, E-F, G-H
B
105 Variance
100 Mean
95
90
85
Spatial description
Proportional effect in spatial domain
CASE 1 CASE 1
Average and variability are
constant
CASE 2
Data values fluctuate about
the local average, but there is
CASE 2 no obvious change in
variability
CASE 3
CASE 3
Local average constant but
variability changes
CASE 4
Local average and variability
change together
This is the common case for
CASE 4
earth science data
n Two variables
Cov XY
1
xi x yi y x and y
n 1 i 1
Summary of relationship
between two variables
Non-spatial statistics - Bivariate
• Sample correlation coefficient in two variable
non-spatial statistics: the covariance normalized
by sample standard deviations
n
covariance Covxy x x y
i i y
i 1
standard deviations x y n n
x x y y
2 2
i i
i 1 i 1
Regression line
0.7
x
Non-spatial statistics - Bivariate
different values of correlation coefficient
xi x yi y
location
Same
location
xi x xi h x
Different
location
Spatial statistics - Univariate
• Sample correlation coefficient in one variable
spatial statistics: the covariance normalized by
sample standard deviations Different
location
x x ×x x
n
i ih
covariance Covxi x i h
1 1
n-1 i 1
n-1 standarddeviations x i ×x ih n
x x × x
n 2
x
2
i i h
i 1 i 1
0.742
Value (t + h)
2
1 48
1
0 50
xi
Value (t)
Spatial statistics - Univariate
h-Scatterplot
h=(0,1)
0.742
xi
Spatial statistics - Univariate
different separation distance results in different
h=(0,1) h=(0,2) • If data value at locations
separated by h are very
similar then the pairs will
xi h xi h
plot close to the line
xi=xi+h (45-degree line
0.742 0.590 passing through the
x
origin)
xi i
Correlation coefficient
decreases with increasing
distance in north direction
h vs Cov
Covariance function
Covariance also steadily
decreases in a manner very
similar to the correlation
coefficient
Spatial statistics - Univariate
plots against separation distance (h)
1 n
h xi xi h 2
= gamma
2n i 1
Also known as semivariogram or variogram
h vs
SEMIVARIOGRAM
Relationship between variogram,
covariance and correlation
Variogram parameters
Sill
= Data Points
Nugget = variogram model
(may be zero) Range
Nugget
Range
1 5 6 6 5 5 7 7 8
2 2 2 2
(h 1) 1 n
2 8 8 82 8 62 6 92 9 92
h ` xi xih 2
2n i 1
1
1 1 4 1 0 4 9 0 20
16 16
1.25
Lag=2
1 (5 5) (5 8) (8 6) (6 9)
2 2 2 2
(h 1)
2 * 7 (6 7) 2 (7 8) 2 (8 9) 2
1
0 9 4 4 1 1 1 20 h
14 14
1.42
etc… etc… etc…
Variability and Separation Distance
• Classical Statistics ignores spatial location of
data
• GeoStatistics uses spatial location and
variability inherent in dataset (e.g.
mineralisation)
• As the distance between samples increases
the variability between samples increases
Variability and Separation Distance
• Plot Variability in Sample Values vs
Distance between Samples
. .
. . .
.
variability
. .
0 distance between samples
Semi-Variogram Calculation
(h)
1
(g g
2
i i h )
2N
Where:
h = distance vector between a pair of samples
gi = grade of first sample (at location i )
gi+h = grade of second sample (at location i+h)
N = number of pairs
Semi-Variogram / Variogram
• Semi-Variogram value for sample pairs at
distance apart is:
– half of the average squared difference between
values at this distance
1
(g g
2
(h) )
i i h
2N
• Hence the term semi-variogram
– However terminology is ‘loose’ and this equation
can also be referred to as the ‘variogram’
Semi-Variogram Calculation
• Semi-Variogram value for sample pairs at
distance apart is
– Variance
• Not just distance but also direction
– vector
• Vector also called Lag
Example Variogram Calculation
Fe deposit drilled at 100m spacing
NA NA
NA
NA NA
NA NA
20
18
16
Semi-Variogram
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Distance
Example Variogram Calculation
Pairs 200m apart in West-East direction
Example Variogram Calculation
Sum the square of their differences
Example Variogram Calculation
Plot 3.30 at 200m
20
18
16
Semi-Variogram
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Distance
Example Variogram Calculation
Plot 4.31 at 300m, 6.70 at 400m
20
18
16
Semi-Variogram
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Distance
Variogram Calculation
• Calculate South-North semi-variogram
value at 100m, 200m and 300m
100m
44 NA 42 39 37 36
40 40 NA
42 NA 43 42 39 39 41 40 38
100m
37 37 37 35 38 37 37 33 34
35 38 NA 35 37 36 36 35 NA
36 35 36 35 34 33 32 29 28
38 37 35 NA 30 NA 29 30 32
Example Variogram Calculation
Not enough pairs at 400m South-North
Semi-Variogram
Distance East-West North-South
100 1.46 5.35
200 3.3 9.87
300 4.31 18.88
400 6.7
Example Variogram Calculation
Plot South-North results as well
20
North-South
18
16
14
Semi-Variogram
12
10
East-West
8
6
4
2
0
0 100 200 300 400 500
Distance
Calculating
Save Variograms
this slide to EMF,
then and
Distance insert and crop
Direction tolerance
.
Sill . . .
(levelling off = sill = overall population variance)
.
( h)
.
. . Samples
Spatially Correlated
Samples not
spatially correlated
Nugget
effect
0 h Range of influence
GEO STATISTICS
Geometric Anisotropy
Same Sill, Different Range
Variogram in East-West direction (along strike)
. .
variogram . . range of
. . influence
Along Strike
. .
0 25m 50m
distance
. . . . .
variogram
. . range of
. influence
Across Strike
..
0 25m 50m
distance
Zonal Anisotropy
Same Range, Different Sill
semi-variogram
N-S
AVERAGE
E-W
distance
• East-West direction has lower variance of
mineralisation
– Impossible?
– E-W really has much longer range?
Anisotropy
• Geometric anisotropy
– Same sill
– different range
across strike
down dip
along strike
• Zonal anisotropy
– different sill
– same range
along channel
across channel
Variograms
Models
Sill
. .
( h)
.
.
nugget . .
effect
h range
3
g ( h) = Nugget + (Sill-Nugget) x 1.5
( h
Range (
0.5
h
Range))
g ( h) = Sill (if h >= Range)
Variograms
Model Fitting
• Model fitting is subjective
– No accepted “goodness of fit” parameter
• Other variogram models exist
– Exponential, Gaussian, Linear
– Rarely used in practice
– Can use nested spherical instead
• Model choice depends on the geological
phenomena accepted or generally used
model in that area of study
Variograms
Nested Models
• Nested Spherical Model
– Nested Variogram =
Nugget Effect + Short Range Spherical Model
+ Long Range Spherical Model
+ =
+
Modelling Variograms
Nugget effect
• Incorporates
– inherent variability
– human error
– short scale variability
• Calculate from closest spaced data
– usually downhole variogram
• Duplicate data analysis
– inherent nugget effect
Calculating Variograms
Lag spacing
maximum
lag
distance
Variogram Cloud
• (gi gih )
1
Semi-variogram is 2
– ½ Average of squared 2N
difference at specific lag
+/- distance and
direction tolerances
– Can plot all data points:
• Each squared difference
vs its distance
• Called a variogram cloud
Variogram Contours
Contoured variogram values showing a north-
east strike
NORTH
WEST
EAST
SOUTH
3D Variography
• Contours of horizontal variograms to
interpret strike of mineralisation
West
North
STRIKE
South
East
3D Variography
Direction 2 (intermediate direction)
Up Minimum continuity on dip plane
Direction 3 (minor direction)
Minimum continuity
perpendicular to dip plane
South
East
• Anisotropy
– Understand directions of values
(of mineralisation or deposition)
Quiz 10 menit 31-1-2019
1. Tuliskan rumus aritmetik mean, variance
dan standar deviasi
2. Geostatistik akan maksimal aplikasinya
jika data yang digunakan memenuhi
syarat tertentu. Sebutkan syarat
tersebut!
3. Apa gunanya kita melakukan EDA
sebelum menggunakan geostatistik?