Eisagwg sthn Pragmatik Anlush

Mroc A
Dhmtrioc Mpetskoc

Tmma Majhmatikn
Aristotleio Panepistmio Jessalonkhc

Jessalonkh 2009

ii

Stouc gonec mou

iii

iv

Perieqmena
Prlogoc

vii

1 Arijmo kai Akoloujec

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7

Pragmatiko arijmo . . . . . . . . . .
Arijmsima kai uperarijmsima snola
Upakoloujec . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Akoloujec Cauchy . . . . . . . . . . .
Oriako arijmo akoloujac . . . . . .
Askseic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shmeiseic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 Seirc pragmatikn arijmn

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7

Sgklish seirn . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kritria sgklishc seirn . . . . . . .
Anadiatxeic seirn . . . . . . . . . .
Parastseic arijmn . . . . . . . . . .
To snolo kai h sunrthsh to Cantor
Askseic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shmeiseic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3 Diforec klseic sunartsewn

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7

Omoimorfa suneqec sunartseic

Montonec sunartseic . . . . . .
Sunartseic fragmnhc kmanshc
Apluta suneqec sunartseic .
Kurtc sunartseic . . . . . . .
Askseic . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shmeiseic . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

1
7
9
12
13
20
26

27
27
29
34
38
42
45
51

53
53
55
56
64
66
71
81

4 Akoloujec sunartsewn
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9

H nnoia thc akoloujac sunartsewn

Shmeiak sgklish . . . . . . . . . . .
Omoimorfh sgklish . . . . . . . . . .
Omoimorfh sgklish kai sunqeia . .
Enallag orwn . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Omoimorfh sgklish kai oloklrwsh
Omoimorfh sgklish kai paraggish
Askseic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shmeiseic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

. 83
. 84
. 86
. 90
. 93
. 94
. 96
. 98
. 104

Eisagwgik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
To kritrio to Weierstrass . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ta kritria twn Abel kai Dirichlet . . . . . . .
Dunamoseirc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mi suneqc, poujen paragwgsimh sunrthsh
Mi qwroplhrwtik kamplh . . . . . . . . . . .
Askseic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shmeiseic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

5 Seirc sunartsewn
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8

6 O qroc twn suneqn sunartsewn

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5

83

Isosunqeia. To Jerhma Arzel`

a-Ascoli .
Akoloujec Dirac . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
To jerhma prosggishc to Weierstrass .
Askseic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shmeiseic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vi

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

.
.
.
.
.

105
105
107
110
115
116
118
119
127

129
129
134
137
139
144

Prlogoc
To biblo aut enai na didaktik egqeirdio eisagwgik sthn Pragmatik
Anlush. Apeujnetai kurwc se foithtc pou qoun dh meletsei tic basikc
nnoiec to Diaforiko kai Oloklhrwtiko Logismo. To krio proapaitomeno enai h kal katanhsh to Logismo mic pragmatikc metablhtc
(akoloujec, ria, sunqeia, paraggish, oloklrwsh). Qreizontai epshc
ta entelc basik stoiqea Topologac kai Logismo polln metablhtn.
To biblo periqei xi keflaia. Sto tloc kje kefalaou uprqei meglh
poikila asksewn. Pollc ap autc prorqontai ap ta bibla pou paratjentai sth Bibliografa kai mlista ap th sullog asksewn [3]. Se kje
keflaio, met tic askseic akoloujon Shmeiseic. Autc qoun istorik
kai bibliografik qaraktra. O krioc skopc touc enai na dsoun knhtro
ston anagnsth na yxei se bibla kai rjra gia jmata pou sumplhrnoun
aut pou uprqoun sto parn biblo. Stic shmeiseic uprqei mia plhjra
anaforn; ta kria mwc bohjmat mac kat th suggraf to biblou tan ta pol kal bibla tc Bibliografac. Oi pargrafoi me astersko ()
mporon na paraleifjon se prth angnwsh. Oi askseic me enai pi
dskolec ap tic uploipec.
Meglo mroc to biblou prorqetai ap tic didaktikc shmeiseic pou
qrhsimopoi ta teleutaa qrnia sto Tmma Majhmatikn to A.P.J.. Jlw
kai ap ed na euqaristsw louc touc foithtc kai sunadlfouc pou me tic
parathrseic kai tic diorjseic touc bojhsan sthn beltwsh twn arqikn
shmeisewn.
To biblo enai afierwmno stouc gonec mou touc opoouc euqarist tso
gia thn agph mou gia ta Majhmatik so kai gia th suneq touc strixh
sth majhmatik mou porea.

vii

viii

Keflaio 1

Arijmo kai Akoloujec

Meriko sumbolismo pou ja qrhsimopoiome pol suqn:
R To snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn.
Q To snolo twn rhtn arijmn.
Z To snolo twn akerawn arijmn.
N To snolo twn fusikn arijmn {1, 2, . . . }.

1.1 Pragmatiko arijmo

'Estw E R. To E onomzetai nw fragmno an uprqei arijmc b R
ttoioc ste
x E, x b.
Kje ttoioc arijmc b onomzetai nw frgma to E . O arijmc M R
onomzetai mgisto to E an enai nw frgma to E kai M E . An to
E enai nw fragmno, tte qei poll nw frgmata. An qei mgisto, aut
enai monadik. To mgisto to E sumbolzetai me max E .
To E onomzetai ktw fragmno an uprqei arijmc a R ttoioc
ste
x E, x a.
Kje ttoioc arijmc a onomzetai ktw frgma to E . O arijmc m R
onomzetai elqisto to E an enai ktw frgma to E kai m E . To
elqisto to E sumbolzetai me min E . To E onomzetai fragmno an enai
nw kai ktw fragmno.

Pardeigma 1.1.1 To snolo E = (0, 1] (2, 3] enai fragmno snolo kai

isqei max E = 3; to E den qei elqisto.

1

Pardeigma 1.1.2 To snolo (, 2) den enai ktw fragmno; enai nw

fragmno all den qei mgisto.

Pardeigma 1.1.3 To N qei elqisto kai min N = 1. Kje mh ken uposnolo to N qei elqisto.
To snolo twn pragmatikn arijmn ikanopoie to paraktw axwma:

Axwma thc plhrthtac: 'Estw E na mh ken, nw fragmno uposnolo to R. To snolo twn nw fragmtwn to E qei elqisto.
Orismc 1.1.4 An E enai na mh keno, nw fragmno snolo, to elqisto

nw frgma tou (pou uprqei lgw to aximatoc thc plhrthtac) onomzetai

supremum nw prac to E kai sumbolzetai me sup E . An to E enai
mh ken all den enai nw fragmno, orzoume sup E = +. Tloc orzoume
sup = .

Prtash 1.1.5 'Estw E na mh ken, ktw fragmno uposnolo to R. To

snolo twn ktw fragmtwn to E qei mgisto.

Apdeixh.
Jewrome to snolo E = {x : x E}. To E enai nw fragmno;
stw S = sup(E). Ja dexoume ti to S enai ktw frgma to E . 'Estw
x E . Tte x E . Epeid S = sup(E), isqei x S . 'Ara x S ,
dhlad to S enai ktw frgma to E . Tloc apodeiknoume ti to S enai
to mgisto ktw frgma to E . 'Estw a na ktw frgma tou E . Tte to
a enai nw frgma to E . Epeid S = sup(E), isqei S a, dhlad
a S .

Orismc 1.1.6 An E enai na mh ken, ktw fragmno snolo, to mgisto

ktw frgma tou (pou uprqei lgw tc Prtashc 1.1.5) onomzetai infimum ktw prac to E kai sumbolzetai me inf E . An to E enai mh
ken all den enai ktw fragmno, orzoume inf E = . Epshc orzoume
inf = +.

Paratrhsh 1.1.7 'Ena uposnolo to R mpore na mhn qei mgisto

elqisto; mwc kje uposnolo to R qei supremum kai infimum. An
na snolo E qei mgisto tte max E = sup E ; an to E qei elqisto, tte
min E = inf E .
2

Prtash 1.1.8 (Arqimdeia idithta to R)

(a) To N den enai nw fragmno.

(b) An x, y enai jetiko pragmatiko arijmo, tte uprqei n N, ttoio ste
nx > y .

Apdeixh.
(a) 'Estw ti to N enai nw fragmno. Tte S := sup N R. O arijmc
S 1 den enai nw frgma to N; ra uprqei m N ttoioc ste S 1 < m,
dhlad S < m + 1 N. 'Atopo.
(b) Ac upojsoume ti h prtash enai yeudc, dhlad nx y gia kje n N.
Tte o arijmc y/x enai nw frgma to N, prgma pou rqetai se antjesh
me to (a).

Pardeigma 1.1.9 'Estw E = N {1 + n1 : n N}. To E den enai

nw fragmno; ra sup E = +. Epshc inf E = 1. To E den qei ote

elqisto, ote mgisto.
1

Pardeigma 1.1.10 An E = (0, 1){2 n : n N}, tte sup E = max E = 2

kai inf E = 0. To E den qei elqisto.

Prtash 1.1.11 (a) An E enai na mh ken, nw fragmno snolo kai

S R, tte

(
(1.1)

S = sup E

x E, x S,
> 0, a E ttoio ste a > S .

(b) An E enai na mh ken, ktw fragmno snolo kai s R, tte

(
x E, x s,
(1.2)
s = inf E
> 0, b E ttoio ste b < s + .
Apdeixh.
Ja apodexoume mno to (a). H apdeixh to (b) enai parmoia. 'Estw ti
S = sup E . Tte to S enai nw frgma to E . 'Ara x E, x S . 'Estw
> 0. Epeid to S enai to elqisto nw frgma to E , o arijmc S den
enai nw frgma tou E . 'Ara uprqei a E me a > S .
Antistrfwc, upojtoume: (i) x E, x S kai (ii) > 0, a E
ttoio ste a > S . H (i) lei ti to S enai nw frgma to E . Ac
upojsoume ti to S den enai to elqisto nw frgma tou E . Tte uprqei
na nw frgma S 0 to E me S 0 < S . Jtoume = S S 0 . Lgw thc (ii)
a E ttoio ste a > S = S 0 . 'Atopo diti to S 0 enai nw frgma to
E . 'Ara S = sup E .

Prtash 1.1.12 An E enai na mh ken snolo, tte uprqoun akoloujec

{an }
n=1 E kai {bn }n=1 E ttoiec ste

lim an = sup E

kai

lim bn = inf E.

Apdeixh.
Prta exetzoume thn perptwsh pou to E den enai ktw fragmno. Tte
gia kje n N, uprqei bn E me bn n. 'Ara bn = inf E .
Upojtoume tra ti to E enai ktw fragmno. 'Estw s := inf E R.
Efarmzoume thn Prtash 1.1.11(b) gia = n1 , n N kai brskoume arijmoc
bn E me bn < s + n1 . Epeid s = inf E kai bn E , qoume s bn . 'Ara

s bn < s +

1
, n N.
n

Epomnwc limn bn = s.
H apdeixh gia to sup E enai parmoia.

To epmeno jerhma deqnei ti to Q enai pukn uposnolo to R, dhlad

Q = R; to dio isqei kai gia to snolo twn rrhtwn arijmn R \ Q.

Jerhma 1.1.13 (a) An a, b R kai a < b, tte uprqoun q Q kai

r R \ Q ttoia ste q, r (a, b).
(b) Gia kje a R uprqei akolouja {qn } Q ttoia ste limn qn = a.
(g) Gia kje a R uprqei akolouja {rn } R \ Q ttoia ste limn rn =
a.

Apdeixh.
(a) Efarmzontac thn Prtash 1.1.8 gia x = ba kai y = 1, brskoume n N
me n(b a) > 1, dhlad nb na > 1. Epeid oi arijmo na, nb qoun diafor
megalterh to 1, ja uprqei m Z me na < m < nb, dhlad a < m/n < b.
'Ara gia to rht arijm q := m/n isqei q (a, b). Gia na
brome rrhto
sto (a, b) efarmzoume thn Prtash 1.1.8 gia x = (b a) 2 kai y = 1 kai
ergazmaste pwc parapnw.
(b) Efarmzontac to (a) gia b = a + n1 , n N, brskoume mi akolouja
rhtn {qn } me a < qn < a + n1 . Profanc qn a.
(g) H apdeixh enai parmoia me to (b).

Orismc 1.1.14 'Estw f : E R mi sunarthsh. Orzoume to supremum

kai to inf imum thc f sto E me tic isthtec

sup f (x) = sup{f (x) : x E} kai

xE

inf f (x) = inf{f (x) : x E}.

xE

Qrhsimopoiome epshc touc sumbolismoc supE f kai inf E f . Eidik gia

akoloujec {an } qrhsimopoiome touc sumbolismoc

sup an := sup{an : n N} kai inf an := inf{an : n N}.

n

An h sunrthsh f : E R qei mgisto (elqisto), tte maxE f (x) =

supE f (x) (minE f (x) = inf E f (x)). 'Opwc enai gnwst ap to Logism,
kje suneqc sunrthsh se kleist disthma qei mgisto kai elqisto.

Pardeigma 1.1.15 Jewrome th sunrthsh

f (x) =

1
,
1 + x2

x R.

H f qei mgisto sto 0. 'Ara supR f (x) = maxR f (x) = f (0) = 1. Epeid
f (x) > 0, x R kai limx f (x) = 0, isqei inf E f (x) = 0. H f den qei
elqisto.

Pardeigma 1.1.16 Gia th sunrthsh

f (x) = x

x [3, 3]

x3
,
3

isqei

sup

x[3, 3]

f (x) =

kai

inf f (x) =

x[3, 3]

max f (x)
x[3, 3]

= f (3) = 6

2
min f (x) = f (1) = .
3
x[3, 3]

Pardeigma 1.1.17 H sunrthsh f (x) = ex , x (0, ) enai fjnousa.

'Ara

sup f (x) = lim f (x) = 1,

x(0,)

inf

x(0,)

x0+

f (x) = lim f (x) = 0.

x

Pardeigma 1.1.18 Gia thn akolouja an = n1 , n N, isqei supn an =

maxn an = 1 kai inf n an = 0.
n
Gia thn an = (1)
, n N, isqei supn an = maxn an = 1/4 kai inf n an =
2
n
minn an = 1.
5

Prtash 1.1.19 An f : E R enai mi sunrthsh, R {+, }

na shmeo sussreushc to E kai an t rio limx f (x) uprqei, tte

(1.3)

inf f lim f (x) sup f.

E

Apdeixh.
Gia kje x E , isqei

inf f f (x) sup f.

E

Parnoume ria gia x kai prokptei h (1.3).

Jerhma 1.1.20 (a) An {an } enai mi axousa akolouja pragmatikn ar-

ijmn, tte limn an = supn an .

(b) An {bn } enai mi fjnousa akolouja pragmatikn arijmn, tte limn bn =
inf n an .
Apdeixh.
Ja apodexoume to (a); h apdeixh tou (b) enai parmoia.
Upojtoume prta ti h {an } den enai nw fragmnh. 'Estw M > 0.
Uprqei no N ttoio ste ano > M . Epeid h {an } enai uxousa an > M
gia kje n no . 'Ara

lim an = + = sup an .

An h {an } enai nw fragmnh, tte supn an = S R. 'Estw > 0. Lgw

thc Prtashc 1.1.11, uprqei no N ttoio ste ano > S . Epeid h {an }
enai axousa, isqei S an > S , n no , dhlad |an S| < , n no .
'Ara limn an = S .

Jerhma 1.1.21 (Arq to kibwtismo) An In = [an , bn ], n N, enai

kleist diastmata me I1 I2 I3 . . . , tte

n=1 In 6= . An epiplon
limn (bn an ) = 0, tte h tom
I
periqei
akribc na shmeo.
n=1 n

Apdeixh.
Isqei an an+1 bn+1 bn gia kje n N. Epomnwc, lgw kai to
Jewrmatoc 1.1.20, uprqoun ta ria

a := lim an = sup an R
n

kai

b := lim bn = inf bn R,
n

kai mlista isqei a b. Ja dexoume ti

n=1 In = [a, b]. Prgmati, an x
In , n N, tte an x bn , n kai epomnwc a x b. Antistrfwc, an
x [a, b], tte x [an , bn ], n, dhlad x
n=1 In . Tloc, an limn (bn
an ) = 0, tte a = b. 'Ara
I
=
{a}
.

n=1 n
6

1.2 Arijmsima kai uperarijmsima snola

Orismc 1.2.1 Du snola A, B onomzontai isodnama an uprqei sunrthsh

f : A B po enai 1 1 kai ep. An ta A, B enai isodnama snola,

grfoume A B .

Enai profanc ti an h f : A B enai 1 1 sunrthsh, tte to A enai

isodnamo me na uposnolo to B . Epshc apodeiknetai ekola ti h sqsh
enai anaklastik, summetrik kai metabatik.

Pardeigma 1.2.2 Isqei R (/2, /2) diti h sunrthsh x 7 tan1 x

apeikonzei amfimontima to R ep to (/2, /2).

Prtash 1.2.3 An f : A B enai mi sunrthsh, tte to f (A) enai

isodnamo me na uposnolo to A.

Apdeixh.
'Estw y f (A). Tte to snolo f 1 ({y}) enai mh ken. Epilgoume na
stoiqeo tou x kai orzoume g(y) := x. 'Etsi orzetai mia 1 1 sunrthsh
g : f (A) A. 'Estw A1 := g(f (A)) A. H g enai 1 1 sunrthsh to
f (A) ep to A1 . 'Ara f (A) A1 .

Prisma 1.2.4 An h sunrthsh f : A B enai ep, tte to B enai isodnamo me na uposnolo to A.

Orismc 1.2.5 'Ena snolo A onomzetai peperasmno an A = A

{1, 2, . . . , n} gia kpoio n N. Allic to A onomzetai peiro. 'Ena snolo A onomzetai arijmsimo an A N. 'Ena snolo po den enai ote
peperasmno ote arijmsimo onomzetai uperarijmsimo. An na snolo
enai peperasmno arijmsimo tte lme ti enai to pol arijmsimo.
Pardeigma 1.2.6 To Z enai arijmsimo. Prgmati, jewrome th sunrthsh

f : Z N me

(
2n, an n 1,
f (n) =
2n + 1, an n 0.

H f enai 1 1 kai ep. 'Ara Z N.

Pardeigma 1.2.7 Kje k N grfetai me monadik trpo wc k = 2m1 (2n

1), pou m, n katllhloi fusiko. Orzoume f : N N N me f (m, n) =
2m1 (2n1). Lgw thc parapnw paratrhshc h f enai ep. Ekola fanetai
ti enai kai 1 1. 'Ara N N N.
7

Prtash 1.2.8 An A N kai A peiro, tte A N.

Apdeixh.
To A enai peiro, ra mh ken. 'Estw x1 = min A. To A \ {x1 } enai mh
keno. 'Estw x2 = min(A \ {x1 }). To A \ {x1 , x2 } enai mh keno. 'Estw x3 =
min(A \ {x1 , x2 }). Suneqizontac epagwgik brskoume x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ,
A me xn = min(A \ {x1 , . . . , xn1 }). Epeid to A enai peiro, to snolo
{x1 , x2 , . . . } enai epshc peiro kai epomnwc mh fragmno.
Ja dexoume ti A = {x1 , x2 , . . . }. 'Estw x A \ {x1 , x2 , . . . }. Uprqei
na toulqiston xk me xk > x (diti an xk x, k N, tte to {x1 , x2 , . . . }
ja tan fragmno). 'Ara uprqei n N ttoio ste x1 < < xn1 < x <
xn . 'Atopo diti xn = min A \ {x1 , . . . , xn1 }.
Dexame loipn ti A = {x1 , x2 , . . . }. Orzoume f : A N me f (xk ) = k .
H f enai profanc 1 1 kai ep; ra A N.

Paratrhsh 1.2.9 An A enai na arijmsimo snolo, tte uprqei f :

N A pou enai 1 1 kai ep. Jtoume an = f (n), n N. Epomnwc

A = {a1 , a2 , . . . }. Mi ttoia graf to A onomzetai arjmhsh to A.
Oi paraktw protseic apodeiknontai me th mjodo thc apdeixhc thc
Prtashc 1.2.8. Oi apodexeic afnontai gi skhsh.

Prtash 1.2.10 An A enai na arijmsimo snolo kai B A, tte to B

enai to pol arijmsimo.

Prtash 1.2.11 Kje peiro snolo periqei na arijmsimo uposnolo.

Jerhma 1.2.12 An ta snola Aj , j = 1, 2, . . . enai to pol arijmsima,

tte h nws touc

j=1 Aj enai to pol arijmsimo snolo.
Apdeixh.
'Estw ti

Aj = {aj1 , aj2 , . . . }, j = 1, 2, . . .
Jewrome to snolo X := {(j, i) N N : aji
j=1 Aj }. Orzoume

f : X j=1 Aj me f (j, i) = aji . H f enai sunrthsh ep. (H f den enai

kat' angkh sunrthsh 1 1 diti ta snola Aj en gnei den enai xna). Ap
thn Prtash 1.2.3, to snolo
j=1 Aj enai isodnamo me na uposnolo tou
X , ra kai to N N to opoo enai arijmsimo. Epomnwc to
j=1 Aj enai
to pol arijmsimo.

Pardeigma 1.2.13 An n N, to snolo { m

n : m Z} enai profanc

arijmsimo. 'Omwc

Q=

o
[ nm
:mZ .
n

nN

Lgw to Jewrmatoc 1.2.12, to Q enai arijmsimo.

Jerhma 1.2.14 To disthma (0, 1) enai uperarijmsimo.

Apdeixh.
Arke na dexoume ti to kleist disthma [0, 1] enai uperarijmsimo. Ac
upojsoume ti to [0, 1] enai arijmsimo. 'Estw

[0, 1] = {x1 , x2 , . . . }
mi arjmhs tou. Qwrzoume to [0, 1] se tra kleist diastmata sou mkouc:

[0, 1] = [0, 1/3] [1/3, 2/3] [2/3, 1].

'Estw I1 na ap aut ta diastmata pou den periqei to x1 . Qwrzoume to I1
se tra isomkh kleist diastmata kai onomzoume I2 na ap aut pou den
periqei to x2 . Suneqzontac tsi kataskeuzoume mi fjnousa akolouja
kleistn diasthmtwn {In }. To mkoc to In enai 1/3n 0 tan n .
Ap thn arq to kibwtismo uprqei monadik x
n=1 In . Tte x = xm
gia kpoio m N. 'Atopo, diti xm
/ Im .

Pardeigma 1.2.15 An a < b, to disthma (a, b) enai uperarijmsimo sno-

lo diti h sunrthsh

xa
ba
apeikonzei amfimontima to (a, b) ep to (0, 1).
f (x) =

Prisma 1.2.16 Kje uposnolo to R po periqei na disthma enai uperarijmsimo.

1.3 Upakoloujec
Orismc 1.3.1 Mi akolouja {bk }
k=1 onomzetai upakolouja tc akoloujac {an }
n=1 an uprqoun fusiko arijmo n1 < n2 < < nk < . . . ttoioi
ste bk = ank gia kje k N.

1
1
} kai { 2n
} enai lec upakolouGia pardeigma, oi akoloujec { n12 }, { n!
jec thc { n1 }. H akolouja {a1 , a2 , a4 , a8 , a16 , . . . } kai oi akoloujec {a2n },
{a2n1 } enai upakoloujec thc {an }.

Paratrhsh 1.3.2 An an ` R {+, }, tte kje upakolouja

tc {an } sugklnei sto `.

Jerhma 1.3.3 (Bolzano-Weierstrass) Kje fragmnh akolouja pragmatikn arijmn qei upakolouja pou sugklnei se na pragmatik arijm.

Apdeixh.
'Estw {an } mi fragmnh akolouja. Tte uprqoun arijmo m1 , M1 R
ttoioi ste
m1 an M1 , n N.
Jtoume I1 = [m1 , M1 ]. Diairome to I1 se do isomkh kleist diastmata

m1 + M1
m1 ,
2

kai

m1 + M1
, M1 .
2

Se na toulqiston ap aut ta do diastmata uprqoun peiroi roi thc

{an }. Onomzoume I2 aut to disthma. Diqotomome to I2 kai parathrome
pli ti se toulqisto na ap ta upodiastmata po prokptoun uprqoun
peiroi roi thc {an }. Onomzoume I3 aut to upodisthma. Suneqzontac
aut th diadiksa kataskeuzoume mi akolouja diasthmtwn

I1 I2 I3 Ij . . .
kai parathrome ti h akolouja twn mhkn touc tenei sto 0 kai ti to Ij
periqei peirouc rouc thc {an }.
Ap thc arq tou kibwtismo (Jerhma 1.1.21), uprqei manadik `

j=1 Ij . Ja dexoume ti mi upakolouja {ank }k=1 thc {an } sugklnei sto

`. An k N, to disthma (` 1/k, ` + 1/k) periqei na toulqiston ap ta
diastmata I1 , I2 , . . . (diti la periqoun to ` kai h akolouja twn mhkn
touc tenei sto 0). Ktaskeuzoume tra thn {ank }
k=1 epagwgik wc exc:
'Estw n1 := min{n 1 : an (` 1, ` + 1)} kai

1
1
nk := min n nk1 + 1 : an ` , ` +
.
k
k
Tte |ank `| < k1 , k N. 'Ara

lim ank = `.

10

Pardeigma 1.3.4 Mi fragmnh akolouja mpore na qei pollc sugkl-

nousec upakoloujec me diaforetik ria. Gia pardeigma h akolouja

{an }
n=1 = {1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 2, 1, 1, 2, . . . }
qei mi upakolouja, thn {a3n2 }, pou sugklnei sto 1, mi llh upakolouja
pou sugklnei sto 1, kai mi trth upakolouja pou sugklnei sto 2.
Mi akolouja pou den enai fragmnh, asfalc den sugklnei. 'Omwc
mpore na qei upakolouja pou sugklnei. Gia pardeigma h akolouja
(
n, n perittc,
an = 1
n , n rtioc.
den enai fragmnh, all h upakolouja twn rtiwn rwn thc sugklnei sto
0.

Prtash 1.3.5 (a) An mi akolouja den enai nw fragmnh, tte qei up-

akolouja pou tenei sto +.

(b) An mi akolouja den enai ktw fragmnh, tte qei upakolouja pou
tenei sto .

Apdeixh.
Ja apodexoume to (a); h apdeixh to (b) enai parmoia. 'Estw loipn ti
h akolouja {an } den enai nw fragmnh. 'Ara o arijmc 1 den enai nw
frgma thc. Ja qei loipn rouc megalterouc to 1. Jtoume

n1 = min{n N : an > 1}.

O arijmc 2 den enai nw frgma tc akoloujac {an1 , an1 +1 , . . . }. Jtoume

n2 = min{n > n1 : an > 2}.

Suneqzontac epagwgik jtoume

nk = min{n > nk1 : an > k}, k = 3, 4, . . . .

'Etsi kataskeusame upakolouja {ank } tc {an } ttoia ste gia kje k
N, ank > k . Profanc isqei

lim ank = +.

11

1.4 Akoloujec Cauchy

Orismc 1.4.1 Mi akolouja pragmatikn arijmn {an } onomzetai akolouja Cauchy an gia kje > 0 uprqei no N ttoioc ste

m, n no , |an am | < .

Prtash 1.4.2 Kje akolouja Cauchy enai fragmnh.

Apdeixh.
Efarmzontac ton orism gia = 1 brskoume no ttoio ste

m, n no , |an am | < 1.
Aut sunepgetai ti eidiktera

n no , |an ano | < 1.

Epomnwc

n no , |an | < 1 + |ano |.

Jtoume M = max{|a1 |, |a2 |, . . . , |ano 1 |, 1 + |ano |} kai parathrome ti

n N, |an | M.

Prtash 1.4.3 An mi akolouja Cauchy {an } qei mi upakolouja {ank }

me limk ank = ` R, tte limn an = `.

Apdeixh.
'Estw > 0. Tte uprqoun ko , k1 N ttoioi ste

k ko , |ank `| <

kai

m, n k1 , |am an | < .
2
Jtoume k2 = max{ko , k1 }. 'Estw k k2 . Tte nk k k2 ko . 'Ara
|ank `| < 2 . Epshc nk , k k2 k1 . Epomnwc |ank ak | < 2 .
Telik loipn, an k k2 , tte

|ak `| |ak ank | + |ank `| < + =
2 2
to opoo shmanei ti limk ak = `.

12

Jerhma 1.4.4 Mi akolouja sugklnei se na pragmatik arijm an kai

mno an enai akolouja Cauchy.

Apdeixh.
Upojtoume prta ti h akolouja {an } sugklnei sto l R. 'Estw > 0.
Uprqei no N ttoio ste

n no , |an `| < .
2
'Estw m, n no . Tte

|an am | |an `| + |am `| <

+ = .
2 2

'Ara h {an } enai akolouja Cauchy. Antistrfwc, stw {an } mi akolouja

Cauchy. Ap thn Prtash 1.4.2, h {an } enai fragmnh. 'Ara ja qei sugklnousa upakolouja (Jerhma Bolzano-Weierstrass). Lgw thc Prtashc
1.4.3 kai h dia h {an } enai sugklnousa.

Pardeigma 1.4.5 H akolouja

an = 1 +

1 1
1
+ + +
2 3
n

den enai Cauchy. Prgmati gia kje n N,

|a2n an | =

1
1
1
1
1
+
+ +
n
= .
2n 2n 1
n+1
2n
2

An h {an } tan akolouja Cauchy, tte gia = 13 , ja uprqe no N ttoio

ste |a2no ano | < 31 . 'Atopo. 'Ara h {an } den sugklnei se pragmatik
arijm.

1.5 Oriako arijmo akoloujac

Orismc 1.5.1 Lme ti o epektetamnoc arijmc x R {+, } enai
oriakc arijmc thc akoloujac {an } an uprqei upakolouja {ank } thc
{an } me limk ank = x.

Pardeigma 1.5.2 H akolouja me rouc

1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, . . .
qei akribc do oriakoc arijmoc, to 1 kai to 1.
13

Pardeigma 1.5.3 'Estw {an } h akolouja me rouc

1, 2, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3, 4, . . .
Kje fusikc arijmc enai oriakc arijmc tc {an }. Epshc uprqei upkolouja tc {an } pou sugklnei sto +. 'Ara kai to + enai oriakc
arijmc tc {an }. Ekola fanetai ti h {an } den qei llouc oriakoc arijmoc. Epomnwc to snolo twn oriakn arijmn tc {an } enai to N {}.

Paratrhsh 1.5.4 An mi akolouja sugklnei sto ` R {, }, tte

kje upakolouja thc sugklnei sto `. 'Ara h akolouja qei mno nan oriak
arijm, to `.

Paratrhsh 1.5.5 Mi akolouja {an } qei na toulqiston oriak ari-

jm. Prgmati n h {an } enai fragmnh tte qei na toulqiston pragmatik

oriak arijm, lgw to Jewrmatoc 1.3.3. An h {an } den enai fragmnh
tte, lgw tc Prtashc 1.3.5, na toulqiston ap ta +, enai oriakc arijmc tc {an }.

Jerhma 1.5.6 'Estw {an } mi akolouja pragmatikn arijmn. Jewrome

to snolo K lwn twn oriakn arijmn thc {an }.
(a) An h {an } enai fragmnh, tte t K enai mh ken, fragmno snolo pou
qei mgisto kai elqisto.
(b) An h {an } den enai ote nw fragmnh ote ktw fragmnh, tte K
kai + K .
(g) An h {an } enai nw fragmnh all qi ktw fragmnh, tte K ,

/ K kai to snolo K \ {} ete enai to ken, ete enai nw fragmno

snolo pragmatikn arijmn pou qei mgisto.
(d) An h {an } enai ktw fragmnh all qi nw fragmnh, tte K ,

/ K kai to snolo K \ {} ete enai to ken, ete enai ktw fragmno
snolo pragmatikn arijmn pou qei elqisto.
Apdeixh.
(a) To K enai mh ken lgw tou Jewrmatoc Bolzano-Weierstrass. Epeid
h {an } enai fragmnh, uprqei M > 0 ttoio ste |an | M, n N.
An x K , tte uprqei upakolouja {ank } thc {an } me ank x. 'Omwc
M ank M, k N. 'Ara M x M . Epomnwc to K enai
fragmno snolo.
Jtoume sup K = a R. Ja dexoume ti a K . Gia k N, to a 1/k
den enai nw frgma to K . 'Ara uprqei `k K me

1
< `k a.
k
14

Epomnwc se kajna ap ta diastmata (a 1/k, a], k N, uprqoun peiroi

roi tc {an }. Kataskeuzoume upakolouja {ank } wc exc: 'Estw

n1 = min{n N : an (a 1, a]},
n2 = min{n > n1 : an (a 1/2, a]}
kai epagwgik

nk = min{n > nk1 : an (a 1/k, a]}

Tte a 1/k < ank a ki epomnwc ank a. 'Ara a K kai a = max K .
Me anlogo trpo apodeiknetai ti inf K = min K .
(b) Lgw tc Prtashc 1.3.5, h {an } qei du upakoloujec pou sugklnoun sto kai sto antstoiqa. 'Ara , K .
(g) 'Estw ti h {an } enai nw fragmnh ap to M R kai den enai ktw
fragmnh. Ap thn Prtash 1.3.5, isqei K . 'Estw ` K \ {}.
Tte uprqei upakolouja anj `. Profanc ` M . 'Ara to M enai nw
frgma to K \ {}. H apdeixh ti to K \ {} (tan den enai ken)
qei mgisto enai dia me thn antstoiqh apdeixh sto (a).
(d) H apdeixh enai parmoia me to (g).

Qrh sto jerhma pou mlic apodexame mporome tra na dsoume ton
akloujo orism.

Orismc 1.5.7 'Estw {an } mi akolouja.

(a) An h {an } enai fragmnh, tte: O megalteroc oriakc arijmc thc
onomzetai antero rio tc {an } kai sumbolzetai me lim sup an . O mikrteroc
oriakc arijmc thc onomzetai kattero rio tc {an } kai sumbolzetai
me lim inf an .
(b) An h {an } den enai ote nw fragmnh ote ktw fragmnh , jtoume
lim sup an = + kai lim inf an = .
(g) An h {an } enai nw fragmnh all qi ktw fragmnh, tte lim inf an =
. An to enai o monadikc oriakc arijmc tc {an }, tte lim sup an =
. An h {an } qei ki llouc oriakoc arijmoc, tte to lim sup an enai o
megalteroc oriakc arijmc tc {an }.
(d) An h {an } enai ktw fragmnh all qi nw fragmnh, tte lim sup an =
. An to enai o monadikc oriakc arijmc tc {an }, tte lim inf an =
. An h {an } qei ki llouc oriakoc arijmoc, tte to lim inf an enai o
mikrteroc oriakc arijmc tc {an }.
15

Me suntoma mporome na pome ti to lim sup an enai o megalteroc

oriakc arijmc tc {an } kai to lim inf an enai o mikrteroc oriakc arijmc
tc {an }.

Pardeigma 1.5.8 H akolouja

1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, . . .
den enai ote nw, ote ktw fragmnh. Isqei K = {, }, lim sup an =
, lim inf an = .

Pardeigma 1.5.9 Gia thn akolouja

1, 2, 3, . . .
isqei K = {} kai lim sup an = lim inf an = lim an = .

Pardeigma 1.5.10 H akolouja

an = 2(1)n +

1
2n

enai fragmnh kai qei akribc do oriakoc arijmuc: to 2 kai to 2 (diti

isqei a2n 2 kai a2n1 2). Epomnwc

lim sup an = 2,

lim inf an = 2.

Pardeigma 1.5.11 To snolo Q twn rhtn arijmn enai arijmsimo. 'Est-

w {q1 , q2 , . . . } mia arjmhs tou. Jewrome thn akolouja {qn }

n=1 h opoa
den enai ote nw, ote ktw fragmnh. 'Ara

lim sup qn = +,

lim inf qn = .

Jerhma 1.5.12 'Estw {an } fragmnh akolouja kai stw x R. Tte

(i) x lim sup an an kai mno an gia kje > 0 to {n N :

enai peiro.
(ii) x lim sup an an kai mno an gia kje > 0 to {n N :
enai peperasmno.
(iii) x lim inf an an kai mno an gia kje > 0 to {n N :
enai peiro.
(iv) x lim inf an an kai mno an gia kje > 0 to {n N :
enai peperasmno.
16

x < an }
x + < an }
an < x + }
an < x }

Apdeixh.
Ja apodexoume mno to (i). H apdeixh twn (ii), (iii) kai (iv) enai anlogh.
Gi thn apdeixh to (i) jtoume a = lim sup an .
Upjtoume prta ti x a kai parnoume tuqao > 0. Uprqei upakolouja {ank } me ank a. 'Ara uprqei ko N ttoioc ste gia kje
k ko ,
ank > a x .
'Epetai ti to snolo {n N : x < an } enai peiro.
Antistrfwc, upojtoume ti gia kje > 0 to {n N : x < an } enai
peiro, dhlad peiroi roi thc akoloujac enai megalteroi ap to x. 'Ara
uprqei mi upakolouja {ank } me ank > x, k N. To Jerhma BolzanoWeierstrass sunepgetai ti uprqei upakolouja tc {ank } pou sugklnei se
na arijm `. Tte isqei x ` a. Epeid to enai tuqaoc jetikc
arijmc, petai ti x a.

Jerhma 1.5.13 Dnontai mia akolouja {an } kai nac arijmc ` R. Ta

aklouja enai isodnama:
(a) lim an = `.
(b) lim sup an = lim inf an = `.
(g) Kje upakolouja tc {an } sugklnei sto `.

Apdeixh.
(g) (a): H {an } enai upakolouja to eauto thc. 'Ara an `.
(a) (g): 'Estw ti an ` kai stw > 0. Jewrome mi upakolouja
{ank } tc {an }. Epeid an `, ja uprqei no N ttoio ste |an `| <
gia kje n no . An k no , tte nk k no . 'Ara |ank `| < . 'Ara
ank `.
(g) (b): Epeid to lim sup an enai oriakc arijmc tc {an }, ja uprqei upakolouja {ank } me ank lim sup an . Lgw to (g), ja qoume
lim sup an = `. Paromowc lim inf an = `.
(b) (a): Parathrome prta ti epeid to lim sup an kai to lim inf an enai
pragmatiko arijmo, h akolouja {an } enai fragmnh. 'Estw > 0. Ap to
Jerhma 1.5.12, sumperanoume ti to snolo

{n N : an > ` + } {n N : an < ` }
enai peperasmno. Epomnwc uprqei no N ttoio ste gia kje n no ,
isqei ` < an < ` + . Aut shmanei ti an `.

Jerhma 1.5.14 'Estw {an } fragmnh akolouja.

(i) Jtoume bn = sup{ak : k n}. Tte lim sup an = inf{bn : n N} =
17

lim bn .
(ii) Jtoume cn = inf{ak : k n}. Tte lim inf an = sup{cn : n N} =
lim cn .
Apdeixh.
H {bn } enai fjnousa akolouja. 'Ara bn inf bn := b. Prpei na dexoume
ti lim sup an = b.
Uprqei upakolouja {ank } thc {an } me ank lim sup an . 'Omwc ank
bnk kai bnk b. 'Ara
lim sup an = lim ank lim bnk = b.
Gia thn antstrofh anisthta ja efarmsoume to (i) to Jewrmatoc
1.5.12. 'Estw > 0. Epeid bn b, uprqei no N ttoioc ste
(1.4)

bn > b , n no .

Eidiktera

bno = sup{ak : k no } > b .

'Ara uprqei k1 no ttoio ste ak1 > b . Efarmzoume tra thn (1.4)
gia n = k1 + 1 kai parnoume

bk1 +1 = sup{ak : k k1 + 1} > b .

'Ara uprqei k2 k1 + 1 ttoio ste ak2 > b . Suneqzontac tsi
kataskeuzoume upakolouja {akj } thc {ak } me akj > b . 'Ara to snolo {n N : an > b } enai peiro. Ap to (i) to Jewrmatoc 1.5.12,
lim sup an b. 'Etsi to (i) apodeqthke. To (ii) apodeiknetai me parmoio
trpo.

Prtash 1.5.15 'Estw {an } mi akolouja me an > 0, n N. Isqei

lim inf

an+1
an+1
lim inf n an lim sup n an lim sup
.
an
an

Apdeixh.
Ja apodexoume mno thn prth anisthta; h trth apodeiknetai me parmoio
trpo kai h mesaa enai profanc. 'Estw
an+1
.
a := lim inf
an
Profanc a 0. An a = 0, tte h anisthta enai profanc. Upojtoume
loipn ti a > 0; (to a mpore na enai kai ). Parnoume arijm b me
0 < b < a. Uprqei N N ttoio ste
ak+1
> b, k N.
ak
18

Pollaplasizoume kat mlh tic parapnw anisthtec gia k = N, N +1, . . . , n

1 kai prokptei ti gia kje n > N ,

an
> bnN .
aN
p

n a > b n bN a . 'Ara
n
N

Parnoume n-stc rzec kai brskoume:

n
n
an lim inf b bN aN = b.

lim inf

Tloc parnoume ria gia b a kai prokptei

lim inf

an+1
n
an a = lim inf
.
n

Pardeigma 1.5.16 'Estw

(
an =
Tte

an+1
=
an

kai

n
an =
'Ara

lim inf
kai

lim sup

1, n perittc,
2n , n rtioc.

2n+1 , n perittc,
1
n rtioc.
2n ,

n perittc,
n rtioc.

1,
2,

an+1
= 0,
an

n
an = 2

lim inf
lim sup

n
an = 1

an+1
= +.
an

Pardeigma 1.5.17 Efarmzoume thn Prtash 1.5.15 sthn akolouja an =

n. Isqei

1
an+1
= lim 1 +
= 1.
lim
an
n

Sumperanoume ti lim n n = 1.
19

Pardeigma 1.5.18 Efarmzoume thn Prtash 1.5.15 sthn akolouja

an =
Isqei

nn
.
n!

an+1
1 n
lim
= lim 1 +
= e.
an
n

Sumperanoume ti

n
lim
= e.
n
n!

1.6 Askseic
1.6.1 Dexte ti kje mh ken uposnolo to N qei elqisto.
Updeixh: Epagwg.
1.6.2 'Estw E na fragmno uposnolo to R me do toulqiston shmea. Dexte
ti:
(a) < inf E < sup E < +.
(b) An to A enai mh ken uposnolo to E , dexte ti
inf E inf A sup A sup E.

1.6.3 'Estw A R na mh ken snolo. Orzoume A = {x : x A}. Dexte

ti

sup(A) = inf A,

inf(A) = sup A.

1.6.4 Dnontai do mh ken snola A kai B sto R. Orzoume

A+B
AB
AB

= {x + y : x A, y B},
= {x y : x A, y B},
= {xy : x A, y B}.

Dexte ti

sup(A + B) = sup A + sup B, kai sup(A B) = sup A inf B.

An epiplon A, B {x R : x > 0} tte

sup(A B) = (sup A) (sup B).

1.6.5 Gi A, B R, dexte ti
sup(A B) = max{sup A, sup B} kai inf(A B) = min{inf A, inf B}.

20

1.6.6 Gia E R kai t R, orzome tE := {tx : x E}. Dexte ti:

(a) An t 0, tte sup(tE) = t sup E kai inf(tE) = t inf E .
(b) An t < 0, tte sup(tE) = t inf E kai inf(tE) = t sup E .
1.6.7 An f, g enai du pragmatikc sunartseic orismnec sto E , dexte ti
inf (f + g) inf f + inf g kai sup(f + g) sup f + sup g.
E

1.6.8 An S kai T enai du uposnola to R kai s t gia kje s S kai t T ,

dexte ti sup S inf T .
1.6.9 Brete to nw kai to ktw prac twn paraktw sunlwn.
(a) A = {2p + 3q + 5r : p, q, r N}.
(b) B = {x : 3x2 10x + 3 < 0}.
(g) C = {x : (x a)(x b)(x c)(x d) < 0}.
1.6.10 Dexte ti

sup{x Q : x > 0, x2 < 2} =

2.

1.6.11 Brete to sup kai to inf twn paraktw sunlwn.

3
2(1)
+ (1)
2+
:nN ,
n

n1
2n
cos
:nN .
n+1
3
n(n+1)
2

n+1

1.6.12 Brete to sup kai to inf to sunlou

A = {0.2, 0.22, 0.222, . . . }.

1.6.13 Brete to sup A kai to inf A pou A enai to snolo twn arijmn to (0, 1)
oi opooi qoun dekadik parstash po qei mno ta yhfa 0 kai 1. Brete epshc
ta max A kai min A efson uprqoun.
1.6.14 Brete ta sup A, inf A kai ta max A, min A (efson uprqoun), pou
A=

nm
n

o
: m, n N, m < 2n .

1.6.15 Upologste ta
sup{x R : x2 + x + 1 > 0},
inf{x + x1 : x > 0},
1

inf{2x + 2 x : x > 0}.

21

1.6.16 Brete ta sup kai inf twn paraktw sunlwn.

A =
B

m 4n
+
: m, n N ,
n
m

mn
,
:
m

Z,
n

N
4m2 + n2

m
: m, n N ,
m+n

m
: m Z, n N ,
|m| + n

mn
: m, n N .
1+m+n

1.6.17 Dexte ti h sqsh enai sqsh isodunamac.

1.6.18 Apodexte tic Protseic 1.2.10 kai 1.2.11.
1.6.19 Dexte ti na snolo enai peiro an kai mno an enai isodnamo me na
gnsio uposnol tou.
1.6.20 Dexte ti an A, B enai do to pol arijmsima snola, tte to A B
enai to pol arijmsimo.
1.6.21 Dnontai do xna snola A kai B . Dexte ti an to A enai to pol
arijmsimo kai to B enai peiro snolo, tte A B B .
1.6.22 Dexte ti to disthma (0, 1) enai isodnamo me to snolo lwn twn sunartsewn f : N {0, 1}.
1.6.23 Dexte ti kje snolo xnwn an do anoiktn diasthmtwn enai to pol
arijmsimo.
1.6.24 Dexte ti to snolo twn kklwn sto eppedo me rht aktna kai kntra
po qoun rhtc suntetagmnec enai arijmsimo.
1.6.25 Dexte ti to snolo twn poluwnmwn me akraiouc suntelestc enai ari-

jmsimo.

1.6.26 'Enac arijmc onomzetai algebrikc an enai rza enc poluwnmou me

akraiouc suntelestc. Dexte ti to snolo twn algebrikn arijmn enai arijmsimo.
1.6.27 Dexte ti kje disthma periqei rrhtouc arijmoc kai mlista to snolo
twn rrhtwn se kje disthma enai uperarijmsimo.
22

1.6.28 Dexte ti an to A enai uperarijmsimo kai to B enai to pol arijmsimo

uposnolo to A, tte A \ B A.
1.6.29 ? (Jerhma to Cantor). To dunamosnolo P(A) enc sunlou A enai to

snolo lwn twn uposunlwn to A. Dexte ti kanna snolo den enai isodnamo
me to dunamosnol tou.

1.6.30 Dexte ti an mi akolouja {an } sugklnei sto ` R, tte kje upakolouja thc sugklnei sto `.
1.6.31 'Estw {an } mi akolouja. Dexte ti an ` an kai mno an oi upakoloujec {a2k } kai {a2k1 } sugklnoun sto ` R. (` R {+, }).
1.6.32 Dexte ti h akolouja
an =

arctan 1 arctan 2
arctan n
+
+ +
2
2
2
2n

enai Cauchy.

1.6.33 Dnontai do akoloujec {an } kai {bn } kai nac fusikc N . An an bn

gia kje n N , dexte ti
lim inf an lim inf bn

kai

lim sup an lim sup bn .

1.6.34 Dexte ti an mi akolouja qei monadik oriak arijm `, tte an `.

1.6.35 An {an }, {bn } enai do fragmnec akoloujec, dexte ti
lim inf an + lim inf bn

lim inf(an + bn ) lim inf an + lim sup bn

lim sup(an + bn ) lim sup an + lim sup bn .

1.6.36 An {an }, {bn } enai do fragmnec akoloujec me jetikoc rouc, dexte

ti

lim inf an lim inf bn

lim inf(an bn ) lim inf an lim sup bn

lim sup(an bn ) lim sup an lim sup bn .

1.6.37 Dnontai do akoloujec {an }, {bn }. An h {an } sugklnei, dexte ti

lim sup(an + bn ) = lim an + lim sup bn
kai

lim inf(an + bn ) = lim an + lim inf bn .

23

1.6.38 'Estw {an } mi akolouja. Dexte ti

lim sup(an ) = lim inf an
kai

lim inf(an ) = lim sup an .

1.6.39 Apodexte to Jerhma 1.5.14 qwrc thn upjesh ti h {an } enai fragmnh.
1.6.40 Dexte ti mi akolouja {an } sugklnei (se arijm se na ap ta )
an kai mno an lim sup an = lim inf an .
1.6.41 Brete to antero kai to kattero
rio twn paraktw akoloujin:
n

(a) {2(1)n +

1
n! },

(b) {3 +

(1)
n

}.

1.6.42 Brete to snolo twn oriakn arijmn gia kajemi ap tic paraktw
akoloujec.
p
n
4(1)n + 2,
an =
(1 (1)n )2n + 1
bn =
,
2n + 3
(1 + cos n) log(3n) + log n
cn =
,
log(2n)

n n
.
dn =
cos
3
1.6.43 Upologste ta lim sup kai lim inf gia kajemi ap tic paraktw akoloujec:
an
bn

=
=

cn

dn

en

(1)n n,
n
n(1) n ,

n
,
1 + n sin

n2
1
n
1+
(1)n + sin
,
n
4
p
n
1 + 2n(1)n .

1.6.44 Gia mi akolouja {an }, oi upakoloujec {a2k }, {a2k+1 }, kai {a3k } sugklnoun. Dexte ti h {an } sugklnei.
1.6.45 'Estw {an } fragmnh akolouja kai stw x R. Dexte ti lim sup an = x
an kai mno an gia kje > 0, peiroi roi thc akoloujac enai megalteroi ap
x kai peperasmnou pljouc roi enai megalteroi ap x + . Diatupste kai
apodexte anlogh prtash gia to kattero rio.
1.6.46 An to limn an uprqei (wc pragmatikc arijmc), dexte ti h akolouja
{an } enai fragmnh kai isqei inf n an limn an sup an .
24

1.6.47 An In = [an , bn ], n N, enai kleist diastmata me I1 I2 I3 . . .

kai limn (bn an ) = 0, tte ap thn Arq to Kibwtismo, uprqei x R ttoio
ste
n=1 In = {x}. Jewrome mi akolouja {xn } me xn In , n N. Dexte
ti limn xn = x.
1.6.48 Dexte ti an lim an = l R, tte to snolo {l, a1 , a2 , . . . } qei mgisto
kai elqisto.
1.6.49 'Estw A na mh ken, ktw fragmno uposnolo to R. Dexte ti inf A =
s R an kai mno an to s enai ktw frgma to A kai uprqei akolouja {an } A
me an s.
Diatupste kai apodexte anlogh prtash gia to nw prac.
1.6.50 'Estw {an } mia akolouja h opoa den qei mgisto kai stw S = sup an
R {}. Dexte ti uprqei upakolouja {ank } me ank S .
Diatupste kai apodexte anlogh prtash gia to ktw prac.
1.6.51 ?

Dexte ti to snolo twn oriakn arijmn tc akoloujac an = sin n

enai to disthma [1, 1].

1.6.52 'Estw {q1 , q2 , . . . } mi arjmhsh to Q. Brete to snolo twn oriakn

arijmn tc akoloujac {qn }.
1.6.53 Swst Ljoc?
(a) An {an } enai mi axousa akolouja, tte kje upakolouja thc enai axousa.
(b) Uprqei akolouja pou qei peirouc sto pljoc oriakoc arijmoc.
(g) An h {bn } enai upakolouja thc {an } kai h {cn } enai upakolouja thc {bn },
tte h {cn } enai upakolouja thc {an }.
1.6.54 Dnetai mi akolouja {an }. Orzoume thn akolouja {bn } jtontac
bn =

a1 + a2 + + an
.
n

(a) Dexte ti an an a, tte bn a.

(b) Swst Ljoc? An bn a, tte an a.
(g)? Dexte ti an bn a kai h {an } enai axousa, tte an a.
(d)? Dexte ti

lim inf an lim inf bn lim sup bn lim sup an .

1.6.55 ?

Dexte ti an kje upakolouja {ank } mic akoloujac {an } qei upakolouja {ankj } sugklnousa sto `, tte an `.

1.6.56 ? Dexte ti kje akolouja qei toulqiston ma montonh upakolouja.

25

1.6.57 ? Dnetai mi akolouja {an } pou qei thn idithta an+1 an 0. Upoj-

toume ti h {an } qei do oriakoc arijmoc a, b me a < b. Dexte ti kje arijmc

tou diastmatoc [a, b] enai oriakc arijmc thc {an }.

1.6.58 ? 'Estw {an } fragmnh akolouja kai stw x R. Dexte ti an kje

sugklnousa upakolouja tc {an } sugklnei sto x, tte an x.

1.6.59 Gia to perblhma E to E isqei

sup E = sup E kai inf E = inf E.

1.6.60 O arijmc x R enai oriakc arijmc thc akoloujac {an } an kai mno
an gia kje > 0 kai gia kje m N, uprqei n m ttoio ste |an x| < .

1.7 Shmeiseic
Mi pi plrhc eisagwg stouc pragmatikoc arijmoc mpore na breje sta bibla
[1], [4], [5], [9]. H kataskeu to R me tic tomc Dedekind uprqei sta bibla [4] kai
[7].
Ta arijmsima kai uperarijmsima snola eisqjhkan ap ton jemeliwt thc
Jewrac Sunlwn, G.Cantor. Perisstera sqetik jewrmata uprqoun sta bibla
[2], [8], kajc kai sto biblo [A.N.Kolmogorov and S.V.Fomin, Introductory Real
Analysis, Dover, 1975].
Oi nnoiec thc akoloujac kai thc upakoloujac pazoun pol shmantik rlo
se louc touc kldouc thc Anlushc. Gia perisstera paradegmata kai askseic parapmpoume sta [7], [9]. O R.M.Dudley [Real Analysis and Probability,
Wadsworth, 1989] shmeinei ti apdeixh to Jewrmatoc Bolzano-Weierstrass de
brjhke sta grapt to Bolzano. Sta bibla Topologac o anagnsthc mpore na
bre genikterec diatupseic to Jewrmatoc auto; gia pardeigma: Kje akolouja se na sumpag metrik qro qei sugklnousa upakolouja.

26

Keflaio 2

Seirc pragmatikn arijmn

2.1 Sgklish seirn
Orismc 2.1.1 'Estw {an }
n=1 mi akolouja pragmatikn arijmn. Jew-

rome thn akolouja {sn }

n=1 me

sn = a1 + a2 + + an .
H akolouja
{sn } onomzetai akolouja twn meriknPajroismtwn tc
P

seirc
a
n=1 n . An sn s R, tte lme ti h seir
n=1 an sugklnei
ston arijm s kai grfoume

s=

an .

n=1

O arijmc s onomzetai
P jroisma thc seirc. An sn + sn ,
tte lme ti h seir
n=1 an sugklnei sto + sto kai grfoume

an = +

n=1

An mi seir sugklnei se pragmatik arijm, lme ti h seir sugklnei. An

mi seir den sugklnei se pragmatik arijm, lme ti h seir apoklnei.
P
Pollc forc asqolomaste kai me seirc thc morfc
n=N an , pou
N Z. Tte gia n N , orzoume sn = aN + aN +1 + + an . Lme ti h
seir sugklnei an h sn sugklnei.
Genik enai dskolo na upologsoume to jroisma mic seirc. Se pollc
periptseic arke na prosdiorsoume an mi seir sugklnei apoklnei. An
27

P
mi seir
n=1 an sugklnei, tte ekola apodeiknetai ti lim an = 0. To
antstrofo den isqei. Efarmzontac to kritrio Cauchy (Jerhma 1.4.4)
sthn akolouja {sn } prokptei mesa to akloujo jerhma.

Jerhma 2.1.2 H seir

uprqei no N ttoio ste

n=1 an

sugklnei an kai mno an gia kje > 0,

m
X

ak < , m n no .

k=n+1

An an 0, n N, tte h akolouja {sn } twn merikn ajroismtwn enai

axousa. Epomnwc ap to Jerhma 1.1.20 prokptei to paraktw jerhma.

Jerhma 2.1.3 Upojtoume ti an 0, n N. H seir

sugklnei
an kai mno an h akolouja twn merikn ajroismtwn {sn } enai fragmnh.
n=1 an

Pardeigma
2.1.4 (H gewmetrik seir) Gi x R jewrome th seir
P

n
n=0 x ;

dhlad an = xn , n = 0, 1, . . . . Isqei

(1 x)

n
X
k=0

xk =

n
X

(xk xk+1 ) = 1 xn+1 .

k=0

'Ara

(
2

sn = 1 + x + x + + x =

1xn+1
1x ,

n + 1,

x 6= 1,
x = 1.

An x = 1, tte sn = n + 1 +. An x = 1, h {sn } den sugklnei kai

mlista isqei lim sup sn = 1 kai lim inf sn = 0. An x < 1, tte h {sn } de
sugklnei kai mlista isqei lim sup sn = + kai lim inf sn = .
1
H pi endiafrousa perptwsh enai tan 1 < x < 1. Tte sn 1x
.
'Ara

X
1
xn =
, 1 < x < 1.
1x
n=0

Orismc
2.1.5 Lme ti mi seir
P

n=1 |an |

sugklnei.

n=1 an

sugklnei apoltwc an h seir

Ekola apodeiknetai ti an mi seir sugklnei apoltwc, tte sugklnei.

28

2.2 Kritria sgklishc seirn

Jerhma 2.2.1 (Kritrio to oloklhrmatoc) Upojtoume
ti h sunrthsh
P
f : [m, ) [0, ), m N enai fjnousa. TteR h seir
n=m f (n) sugk
lnei an kai mno an to genikeumno oloklrwma m f (x) dx sugklnei.

Apdeixh.
Jtoume

S(x) :=

f,

x [m, )

kai

sn =

n
X

f (k),

n m.

k=m

Epeid h f enai fjnousa, ja qoume gia kje k m

Z k+1
f (k + 1)
f f (k).
k

Prosjtontac tic prtec anisthtec ap k = m wc k = n 1 prokptei

Z n
sn f (m)
f = S(n), n m.
m

Prosjtontac tic deterec anisthtec ap k = m wc k = n prokptei

Z n+1
S(n + 1) =
f sn , n m.
m

'Ara S(n + 1) sn S(n) + f (m), n m. Ap tic anisthtec autc petai

ti h akolouja {sn } enai nw fragmnh an kai mno an h sunrthsh S enai
nw fragmnh. Epeid
Z

f = lim S(x),

x
m
P
n=m f (n) sugklnei

sumperanoume
ti h seir
R
oloklrwma m f (x) dx sugklnei.

an kai mno an to genikeumno

Pardeigma 2.2.2 Qrhsimopointac th sunrthsh

f (x) =

1
, x [1, )
xp

P 1
sto kritrio to oloklhrmatoc ekola brskoume ti h h seir
n=1 np
sugklnei an kai mno an p > 1. To apotlesma aut prokptei kai ap to
kritrio sumpknwshc to Cauchy (bl. 'Askhsh 2.6.23).
29

Pardeigma 2.2.3 Jtoume

f (x) =

1
,
x log x(log log x)p

x [3, ),

pou p pragmatik parmetroc. Epeid o logrijmoc enai axousa sunrthsh,

h f enai austhr fjnousa kai jetik gia x 3 > e. Knontac thn antikatstash u = log log x, brskoume ti

log log n

f (x) dx =
3

log log 3

1
du.
up

'Ara to genikeumno oloklrwma 3 f sugklnei an kai mno an p > 1. Ap

to kritrio to oloklhrmatoc sumperanoume ti h seir

X
n=3

1
n log n(log log n)p

sugklnei an kai mno an p > 1.

P
Jerhma 2.2.4 (Kritrio sgkrishc) Dnontai oi seirc
n=1 an kai
P

b
me
b
>
0,
n

N
.
n
n
n=1
(a) An uprqoun
M > 0 kai no N ttoia steP
gia kje n no , |an | M bn
P
kai an h seir n=1 bn sugklnei, tte h seir
n=1 an sugklnei apoltwc.
(b) An uprqoun

>
0
kai
n

N
ttoia
ste
0

an bn , n no kai an
o
P
P
h seir n=1 an apoklnei, tte h seir n=1 bn apoklnei.
Apdeixh.
Jewrome ta merik ajrosmata

qn =

n
X
k=no

ak ,

sn =

n
X

|ak |,

k=no

tn =

n
X

bk , n N, n no .

k=no

P
(a) Ap thn upjesh isqei sn M tn , n no . An h seir
n=1 bn
sugklnei, tte h akolouja {tn } enai fragmnh. 'Ara kai h {sn } P
enai fragmnh. H {sn } enai kai axousa; ra
Epomnwc h seir
n=no |an |
Psugklnei.

sugklnei.
P Profanc kai h seir n=1 |an | sugklnei, to opoo shmanei ti
h seir
n sugklnei apoltwc.
n=1 aP
(b) An h seir
n=1 an apoklnei, tte h {qn } den enai nw fragmnh. Ap
thn upjesh, 0 an bn , n no ; ra kai h {tn } den enai nw fragmnh,
ra ote kai sugklnousa.

30

Pardeigma 2.2.5 Oi seirc

X
cos nx
n=1

sugklnoun gia kje

cos nx

n2
P
1
kai h seir
n=1 n2

n2

kai

X
sin nx
n=1

n2

x R, diti
1
n2

kai

sin nx
1

2 2,
n
n

n N, x R,

sugklnei.

Se pollc periptseic enai dskolo na elgxoume an h upjesh to

krithrou sgkrishc isqei. Se autc tic periptseic mpore na fane qrsimo to paraktw jerhma.

Jerhma 2.2.6 (Kritrio oriakc sgkrishc) Dnontai du akoloujec

{an } kai {bn } jetikn arijmn.

(a) An
an
R,
lim sup
bn
P
P
kai an h seir
n=1 an sugklnei.
n=1 bn sugklnei, tte h seir
(b) An
an
lim inf
> 0,
bn
P
P
kai an
n=1 an = .
n=1 bn = , tte

Apdeixh.
(a) Efson lim sup abnn R, mporome na brome M R ttoio ste lim sup abnn <
M . Tte (bl. Jerhma 1.5.12) uprqei no N ttoio ste

an
< M, n no .
bn
P
P
Ap to kritrio sgkrishc, an h
n=1 an sugkn=1 bn sugklnei, tte h
lnei.
(b) Efson lim inf abnn > 0, mporome na brome > 0 ttoio ste 0 < <
lim inf abnn . Tte (bl. Jerhma 1.5.12) uprqei no N ttoio ste
an
> , n no .
bn
P
P
Ap to kritrio sgkrishc, an h
n=1 bn apoklnei, tte h
n=1 an apoklnei.

31

Pardeigma 2.2.7 H seir

X
n=1

n+1
2n2 5

sugklnei. Prgmati, efarmzoume to kritrio oriakc sgkrishc me

n+1
an = 2
2n 5

kai

Epeid

an
1
lim
=
bn
2
h seir

n=1 an

kai

bn =

1
n3/2

X
1
< ,
3/2
n
n=1

sugklnei.

Pardeigma 2.2.8 H seir

X
n=1

n+1
2n 5

apoklnei. Aut prokptei ap thn efarmog to krithrou oriakc sgkrishc

me

1
n+1
kai bn = .
an =
2n 5
n

Jerhma 2.2.9
p (Kritrio tc rzac) Dnetai h seir

n
(a) An lim sup p
|an | < 1, h seir sugklnei apoltwc.
n
(b) An lim sup |an | > 1, h seir apoklnei.

n=1 an .

Apdeixh. p
p
(a) An lim sup n |an | < 1, mporome na dialxoume b ttoio ste lim sup n |an | <
b < 1. Ap to Jerhma 1.5.12, uprqei no N ttoio ste

p
n
|an | < b, n no .
P n
'Ara |an | < bn , Pn no . H seir
n=1 b sugklnei. Ap to kritrio

sgkrishc kai hp n=1 an sugklnei.

(b) An lim sup n |an | > 1, tte |an | > 1P
gi peira n. 'Ara h akolouja {an }
den sugklnei sto 0. Epomnwc h seir

n=1 an apoklnei.
32

Jerhma 2.2.10 (Kritrio to lgou) Dnetai h seir

(a) An

n=1 an .

n+1
lim sup
< 1,
an

h seir sugklnei apoltwc.

(b) An

n+1
lim inf
> 1,
an

h seir apoklnei.
Apdeixh.
Ap thn Prtash 1.5.15 qoume
a

p
p
n+1
n+1
lim inf
lim inf n |an | lim sup n |an | lim sup
.
an
an
'Etsi to kritrio to lgou enai mesh sunpeia to krithrou thc rzac.

Pardeigma 2.2.11 Gia th seir

1 1
1
1
1
1
1
1
+ + 2 + 2 + 3 + 3 + 4 + 4 + ...
2 3 2
3
2
3
2
3
qoume a2k1 =

1
2k

kai a2k =

1
,
3k

k N. 'Ara
2k
= 0,
k 3k
r
1
2k 1
lim
= ,
k
k
3
3
r
1
2k1 1
= lim
= ,
k
k
2
2
k
3
= lim k+1 = +.
k 2

an+1
=
an

lim inf n an =

lim inf

lim sup

n
an

lim sup

an+1
an

lim

To kritrio to lgou den mpore na efarmoste, en ap to kritrio thc

rzac sumperanoume ti h seir sugklnei.

Paratrhsh 2.2.12 To kritrio to lgou enai suqn pi eqrhsto, pi

ekolo sthn efarmog tou. 'Omwc to kritrio thc rzac enai isqurtero:
pote to kritrio to lgou dnei sgklish, tte kai to kritrio thc rzac
dnei sgklish; pote to kritrio thc rzac den odhge se sumprasma, ote
to kritrio to lgou odhge se sumprasma; (bl. apdeixh to krithrou to
lgou). Tloc, uprqoun periptseic pou to kritrio tou lgou den odhge
se sumprasma , en to kritrio thc rzac dnei sgklish; bl. Pardeigma
2.2.11.
33

Jerhma 2.2.13 (Kritrio gi enallssousec seirc) Upojtoume ti

a1 a2 a3 0 kai ti lim an = 0. Tte h seir

(1)n+1 an

n=1

sugklnei.
Apdeixh.
Parathrome ti gia n N,

s2n+2 s2n = a2n+1 a2n+2 0,

dhlad h akolouja {s2n } enai axousa.
Epshc, gi n N,

s2n = a1 a2 + a3 a2n
= a1 [(a2 a3 ) + + (a2n2 a2n1 ) + a2n ]
a1 ,
dhlad h {s2n } enai nw fragmnh. Jtoume s := lim s2n . Tte

lim s2n+1 = lim(s2n + a2n+1 ) = s + 0 = s.

Dexame loipn ti

lim s2n+1 = lim s2n = s.

Ap thn 'Askhsh 1.6.31 prokptei ti h {sn } enai suklnousa kai lim sn = s.

Pardeigma 2.2.14 H seir

1 1 1
+ ...
2 3 4
sugklnei se kpoio arijm s. Epeid s2 = 1/2 kai h akolouja {s2n } enai
axousa, isqei s 1/2.
1

2.3 Anadiatxeic seirn

Orismc 2.3.1 Dnetai mi akolouja {an }

n=1 . Mi akolouja {bn }n=1 onomzetai anaditaxh tc {an }
n=1 an uprqei 1-1 kai ep sunrthsh N 3 n 7

k(n) N ttoia ste

bn = ak(n) , n N.

An h {bn }
n=1 enai anaditaxh
P tc {n }n=1 tte h seir
anaditaxh thc seirc n=1 an

34

n=1 bn

onomzetai

Pardeigma 2.3.2 H akolouja

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1, , , , , , , , , . . .
3 2 5 4 7 6 9 8
kai h akolouja

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1, , , , , , , , , , . . .
2 4 3 6 8 5 10 12 7
enai kai oi do anadiatxeic thc akoloujac { n1 }.

Pardeigma 2.3.3 Jewrome thn enallssousa armonik seir

1

1 1 1 1
+ + +...
2 3 4 5

'Opwc enai gnwst ap thn prohgomenh pargrafo, h seir aut sugklnei

all de sugklnei apoltwc. Epshc gia to jroism thc s isqei s > 0; bl.
Pardeigma 2.2.14.
Jewrome kai thn anaditaxh
(2.1)

1 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + ...
2 4 3 6 8 5

po prokptei me thn diadoqik jroish enc jetiko rou kai do arnhtikn.

Sumbolzoume me sn kai me n ta merik ajrosmata thc arqikc seirc kai
thc anaditaxc thc, antistoqwc. Isqei

1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
3n = (1 ) + ( ) + + (

)
2
4
3 6
8
2n 1 4n 2
4n
1
1
1 1 1 1
+ + +

=
2 4 6 8
4n 2 4n

1
1 1 1
1
1
=
1 + + +

2
2 3 4
2n 1 2n
1
=
s2n .
2
'Ara lim 3n = 21 lim s2n = 12 s.
Me parmoio trpo apodeiknetai ti

1
lim 3n1 = lim 3n2 = lim 3n = s.
2
Sunepc (giat?) h seir (2.1) sugklnei kai mlista to jroism thc enai
1
2 s 6= s.
35

To parapnw pardeigma deqnei ti h anaditaxh mic seirc mpore na

qei jroisma diaforetik ap aut thc arqikc seirc. To fainmeno autpwc deqnoun ta aklouja jewrmata-enai qarakthristik twn seirn pou
sugklnoun all den sugklnoun apoltwc.

Jerhma 2.3.4 An h seir

sugklnei apoltwc, tte lec oi anadiatxeic thc sugklnoun ston dio arijm.
n=1 an

Apdeixh.
P
P
'Estw sn ta merik ajrosmata thc seirc
n=1 an kai stw
n=1 ak(n) mi
anaditax thc me merik ajrosmata n .
PmAp to kritrio to Cauchy uprqei no N ttoio ste gia m > n no ,
k=n+1 |ak | < . Parnoume rio gia m kai prokptei
(2.2)

|ak | < ,

n no .

k=n+1

Dialgoume p N arkontwc meglo ste oi fusiko 1, 2, . . . , no na periqontai loi sto snolo

{k(1), k(2), . . . , k(p)}.

Exetzoume tra th diafor |n sn | gia n p. Oi arijmo a1 , a2 , . . . , ano
aplopoiontai ki tsi, lgw thc (2.2), prokptei

|n sn | = |ak(1) + + ak(n) (a1 + + an )|

|ano +1 | + |ano +2 | + < .
Dexame loipn ti uprqei p N ttoioc ste gia n p, isqei |sn n | < ,
dhlad
lim (sn n ) = 0.
n

Efson h {sn } sugklnei, kai h {n } ja sugklnei kai mlista sto dio rio.

Jerhma 2.3.5 (Riemann) 'Estw

n=1 an mi seir po sugklnei

P all
den sugklnei apoltwc. Gia kje s R, uprqei anaditax thc
n=1 bn
ttoia ste

X
bn = s.
n=1

36

Apdeixh.
'Estw s R. Upojtoume ti sP 0. H perptwsh s < 0 antimetwpzetai me
parmoio trpo. Epeid h seir
n=1 an den sugklnei apoltwc, h akolouja
{an } qei peirouc jetikoc kai peirouc arnhtikoc rouc. 'Estw {pn } h
akolouja twn jetikn rwn kai stw {qn } h akolouja
Ptwn arnhtikn rwn
thc {an } me th seir pou emfanzontai. Epeid h seir
n=1 an sugklnei kai
oi {pn }, {qn } enai upakoloujec thc {an }, qoume
(2.3)

lim pn = lim qn = 0.

Ja apodexoume tra ti

(2.4)

pn = .

n=1

P
Ac upojsoume antijtwc ti
n=1 pn = p < . Diakrnoume do periptseic:
P
Perptwsh 1:
n=1 qn = q R.
'Estw > 0. Uprqei no N ttoio ste

pk <

k=no +1

kai

k=no +1

|qk | < .
2

Epilgoume fusik n1 arket meglo ste na isqei

{a1 , a2 , . . . , an1 } {q1 , q2 , . . . , qno , p1 , p2 , . . . , pno }.

'Ara gia kje m n n1 ,
m
X
k=n+1

|ak |

|ak |

pk +

Ap to kritrio sgklishc
to Cauchy, h seir
P
Perptwsh 2:
q
=
.
n=1 n
'Estw M > 0. Tte uprqei N N ttoio ste

n N,

n
X

n=1 |an |

qk < M p.

k=1

Epilgoume fusik no N arket meglo ste

{q1 , q2 , . . . , qN } {a1 , a2 , . . . , ano }.

37

|qk | < .

k=no +1

k=no +1

k=n1 +1

sugklnei. 'Atopo.

An n no , to jroisma a1 + a2 + + an periqei perissterouc ap N

rouc tc {qn } kai kpoiouc rouc tc {pn }. Oi roi tc {qn } qoun jroisma
mikrtero to M p, en oi roi tc {pn } qoun jroisma mikrtero to
p. 'Ara
a1 + a2 + + an < (M p) + p = M.
P
Aut shmanei ti
n=1 an = . 'Atopo.
'Etsi se kje perptwsh, h (2.4) apodeqjhke. Me parmoio trpo apodeiknetai ti

X
(2.5)
qn = .
n=1

P
Kataskeuzoume tra thn anaditaxh
n=1 bn wc exc: Xekinome me
ton ro p1 kai prosjtoume tsouc rouc thc {pn } souc apaitontai gia na
xepersoume ton arijm s. Sth sunqeia prosjtoume tsouc (arnhtikoc)
rouc thc {qn } souc apaitontai ste to jroisma na gnei mikrtero to
s. Aut mporome na to petqoume lgw tn (2.4) kai (2.5). Met prosjtoume rouc thc {pn } ste na xanaxepersoume to s. 'Ustera prosjtoume
pli rouc thc {qn } ste to jroisma
P na xanagnei mikrtero to s k.o.k..
'Etsi dhmiourgome mia anaditaxh n=1 bn me merik ajrosmata n . Enai
profanc ti
|n s| max{pnk , |qnm |},
pou {pnk }, {qnm } enai upakoloujec twn {pn }, {qn } antistoqwc. Lgw
thc (2.3), isqei lim n = s.

2.4 Parastseic arijmn

Kaje dekadikc arijmc x = 0.k1 k2 . . . enai ex orismo to jroisma mic
seirc, dhlad
k1
k2
x=
+
+ ...
10 100
Sthn pargrafo aut ja dome ti kje pragmatikc arijmc x (0, 1) qei
mi dekadik parstash pwc h parapnw.

Prtash 2.4.1 'Estw p N me p 2. An gia touc rouc thc akoloujac

{kn }
n=1 isqei 0 kn p 1, tte h seir

X
kn
n=1

pn

sugklnei proc nan arijm po ankei sto disthma [0, 1].

38

Apdeixh.
Epeid o genikc roc thc seirc enai mh arnhtikc, arke na dexoume ti o
arijmc 1 enai nw frgma thc akoloujac twn merikn ajroismtwn. Prgmati
N

N
X
X
1
kn X p 1

(p 1)
= 1.
n
n
p
p
pn
n=1

n=1

n=1

Prtash 2.4.2 'Estw p N me p 2 kai stw x (0, 1]. Uprqei monadik

akolouja akerawn arijmn {kn } ttoia ste:
(a) 0 kn p 1, n N,
(b)

X
kn
x=
,
pn
n=1

(g) kn 6= 0 gia peira n.

Apdeixh.
Kataskeuzoume thn akolouja {kn } epagwgik: 'Estw k1 o megalteroc
akraioc me k1 /p < x. Tte 0 k1 p 1 kai k1 /p < x (k1 + 1)/p. 'Estw
k2 o megalteroc akraioc me

k1 k2
+ 2 < x.
p
p
Tte isqei 0 k2 p 1 kai

k1 k2
k1 k2 + 1
+ 2 <x
+
.
p
p
p
p2
Suneqzontac tsi prokptei mia akolouja akerawn {kn } ttoia ste 0
kn p 1 kai
(2.6)

kn
k1 k2
kn + 1
k1 k2
+ 2 + + n < x
+ 2 + +
, n N.
p
p
p
p
p
pn

Epomnwc
(2.7)

0<x

n
X
kj
j=1

pj

39

1
, n N.
pn

Parnontac ria gia n prokptei ti

(2.8)

X
kn

x=

n=1

pn

An uprqe jo N ttoio ste kj = 0, j jo , tte h (2.7) ja erqtan

se antjesh me thn (2.8). 'Ara uprqoun peira n gia ta opoa kn 6= 0.
Mnei na apodexoume th monadikthta. 'Estw ti
(2.9)

x=

X
an
n=1

X
bn
=
n
p
pn
n=1

me 0 an p 1, 0 bn p 1, n N kai peira ap ta an kai ap

ta bn enai mh mhdenik. 'Estw m o prtoc dekthc gia ton opoo am 6= bm .
Mporome na upojsoume ti am > bm , dhlad ti am bm + 1. Ap thn
(2.7) prokptei ti
(2.10)

a1 a2
am
a1 a2
am + 1
+ 2 + + m < x
+ 2 + +
.
p
p
p
p
p
pm

kai
(2.11)

b1
b2
b2
bm
b1
bm + 1
+ 2 + + m < x
+ 2 + +
.
p
p
p
p
p
pm

'Ara

x>

a1 a2
b2
am
b1
bm + 1
+ 2 + + m
+ 2 + +
x.
p
p
p
p
p
pm

'Atopo.

Gia nan arijm x (0, 1], an isqei

x=

X
kn
n=1

pn

me p N, p 2 kai 0 kn p1, n N, tte h parapnw seir onomzetai

p-adik ( paidik!) parstash to x. Sunjwc grfoume x = 0.k1 k2 k3 . . .
(bsh p) x = 0.p k1 k2 k3 . . . . An kn = 0 ap na dekth kai pra, tte
h parstash lgetai termatizmenh. H Prtash 2.4.2 eggutai thn parxh
gia kje x (0, 1] mac kai monadikc mh termatizmenhc parstashc to
40

x. Uprqoun mwc x (0, 1) me do p-adikc parastseic. Gia pardeigma,

isqei

X
5
4
9
1
=
=
+
,
2
10
10
10n
n=2

dhlad 1/2 = 0.5000 = 0.4999 . . . (bsh 10).

Prtash 2.4.3 'Estw p N me p 2 kai stw x (0, 1). O x qei

termatizmenh p-adik parstash an kai mno an enai thc morfc x = pmn ,
pou m, n N.
Apdeixh.
An to x qei termatizmenh parstash tte

x=

k1 k2
kn
+ 2 + ... n,
p
p
p

dhlad x = pmn me m = k1 pn1 + + kn1 p + kn N.

Antistrfwc, stw ti x = pmn . Ap ton algrijmo to Eukledh m =
k1 pn1 + + kn1 p + kn gia katllhlouc akeraouc kj , j = 1, 2, . . . , n. 'Ara

x=

k1 k2
kn
+ 2 + ... n,
p
p
p

dhlad x = 0.k1 . . . kN (bsh p).

Mpore na apodeiqje epiplen (bl. 'Askhsh 2.6.31) ti oi arijmo thc

morfc x = pmn qoun monadik termatizmenh p-adik parstash.

Pardeigma 2.4.4 Qrhsimopointac tic dekadikc parastseic arijmn m-

porome na dsoume mi deterh apdeixh to Jewrmatoc 1.2.14 (to disthma

(0, 1) enai uperarijmsimo).
Apdeixh: To (0, 1) den enai peperasmno snolo afo periqei louc
touc arijmoc thc morfc n1 , n = 2, 3, . . . . Ac upojsoume ti to (0, 1) enai
arijmsimo. 'Estw
(0, 1) = {a1 , a2 , . . . }
mi arjmhs tou. 'Estw

aj = 0.aj1 aj2 aj3 . . .

h mh termatizmenh dekadik parstash tou aj , j = 1, 2, . . . . Jewrome ton
arijm b (0, 1) me mh termatizmenh dekadik parstash

b = 0.b1 b2 . . . ,
41

pou

(
3, an akk 6= 3,
bk =
5, an akk = 3.

Tte b 6= aj , j N diti oi b kai aj diafroun sto k -sto dekadik yhfo;

ed qrhsimopoietai h monadikthta thc mh termatizmenhc dekadikc parstashc (Prtash 2.4.2). Katalxame loipn se topo. 'Ara to (0, 1) enai
uperarijmsimo.

2.5 To snolo kai h sunrthsh to Cantor

To snolo to Cantor enai uposnolo to diastmatoc [0, 1]. 'Eqei pollc endiafrousec idithtec kai qrhsimopoietai suqn wc antipardeigma. H
kataskeu tou gnetai wc exc:
'Estw I0 = [0, 1]. Afairome ap to I0 to disthma ( 13 , 32 ) kai jtoume

1
2
1 2
,
= 0,
,1 .
I1 = I0 \
3 3
3
3
Afairome ap ta diastmata [0, 13 ] kai [ 23 , 1] to mesao touc anoikt disthma
kai prokptei to snolo

2 3
6 7
8
1
,
,
,1 .
I2 = 0,
9
9 9
9 9
9
Suneqzontac aut th diadikasa prokptei mi akolouja kleistn sunlwn
In , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . ttoia ste
(a) I0 I1 I2 . . . .
(b) To In enai nwsh 2n kleistn diasthmtwn mkouc 31n to kajna.

Orismc 2.5.1 To snolo

C=

In .

n=1

onomzetai (triadik) snolo to Cantor.

Paratrhsh 2.5.2 (a) To C enai kleist snolo wc tom kleistn sunlwn.

(b) To C den enai to ken snolo diti 0 C kai 1 C . Mlista to
C enai peiro snolo. Pragmatik ta kra twn diasthmtwn In oudpote
afairontai kat thn kataskeu to C . Dhlad ta shmea
1 2 1 2
0, , , , , . . .
3 3 9 9
42

ankoun la sto C . Onomzoume aut ta shmea akraa shmea to C .

(g) Ta akraa shmea to C enai shmea thc morfc 3mn , pou m, n N {0}.
Parathrome ti, an exairsoume to 0 kai to 1, aut enai shmea to (0, 1)
pou qoun do triadikc parastseic.

Jerhma 2.5.3 To snolo [0, 1]\C enai nwsh arijmsimou pljouc, xnwn
an do, anoiktn diasthmtwn sunoliko mkouc 1.

Apdeixh.
Jtoume Jn = In1 \ In , n = 1, 2, . . . , dhlad to Jn enai to snolo po
afairome ap to In1 ste na prokyei to In . To Jn enai nwsh 2n1
xnwn an do, anoiktn mesawn diasthmtwn. Kajna ap aut qei mkoc
1
3n . 'Etsi isqei
[0, 1] \ In = J1 J2 Jn .
'Ara

[0, 1] \ C = [0, 1] \

!
In

n=1

([0, 1] \ In )

n=1

(J1 J2 Jn ) =

n=1

Jn .

n=1

Ta Jn enai xna an do anoikt snola. Kje Jn enai nwsh 2n1 xnwn an

do anoiktn diasthmtwn mkouc 31n to kajna. 'Ara to [0, 1] \ C enai nwsh
arijmsimou pljouc, xnwn an do, anoiktn diasthmtwn. To sunolik
mkoc twn diasthmtwn autn enai

X
2n1
1 X 2 n1 1 1
=
= 1.
=
3n
3
3
3 1 32
n=1
n=1

Meletome tra tic triadikc parastseic twn stoiqewn to C . Brskoume prta tic triadikc parastseic twn akrawn shmewn to I1 = [0, 13 ]
[ 32 , 1].

0
1
3
2
3
1

= 0.3 000 . . .
= 0.3 1 = 0.3 0222 . . .
= 0.3 2 = 0.3 1222 . . .
= 1.3 00 = 0.3 222 . . .
43

'Ara ta akraa shmea to I1 qoun ma toulqiston triadik parstash me

yhfa mno 0 kai 2 (kai qi 1).
'Estw x [0, 13 ] kai x = 0.3 a1 a2 . . . mi triadik parstash to x. An
a1 = 1, tte x = 0.3 1a2 a3 0.3 1 = 13 . 'Atopo. An a1 = 2, tte
x = 0.3 2a2 a3 > 0.3 1 = 13 . 'Atopo. 'Ara a1 = 0. Antistrfwc: an a1 = 0,
tte
1
0 x = 0.3 0a2 a3 0.3 0222 = ,
3
dhlad x [0, 13 ].
Me parmoio trpo brskoume ti x [ 23 , 1] an kai mno an gia mi triadik
parstash tou x isqei a1 = 2. Sumperanoume loipn ti x I1 an kai mno
an gia mi triadik parstash tou x isqei a1 = 0 a1 = 2.
Ergazmaste anloga kai gia to detero yhfo a2 kai brskoume ti x I2
an kai mno an aj = 0 aj = 2 gia j = 1, 2. Me epagwg apodeiknetai ti
geniktera isqei x In an kai mno an aj = 0 aj = 2 gia j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Katalgoume epomnwc sto paraktw jerhma.

Jerhma 2.5.4 'Enac arijmc x [0, 1] ankei sto snolo C an kai mno

an x = 0.3 a1 a2 . . . me ak {0, 2}, k N.

Ja qrhsimopoisoume tra autn ton qarakthrism twn shmewn tou C

gia na apodexoume ti to snolo to Cantor enai uperarijmsimo.

Jerhma 2.5.5 To C enai uperarijmsimo.

Apdeixh.
Orzoume th sunrthsh f : C [0, 1] wc exc: 'Estw x C . To x qei mi
triadik parstash x = 0.3 k1 k2 . . . me kj {0, 2}, j = 1, 2, . . . . Orzoume

f (x) = f (0.3 k1 k2 . . . ) = 0.2

k1 k2
...
2 2

H f apeikonzei to C ep to [0, 1]. 'Ara (bl. Prtash 1.2.3) to [0, 1] enai

isodnamo me na uposnolo to C . Epomnwc to C enai uperarijmsimo.
H sunrthsh f sthn parapnw apdeixh den enai 1 1. Gia pardeigma,
isqei

1
1
f
= f (0.3 0222 . . . ) = 0.2 0111 = 0.2 1 = .
3
2
kai

2
1
f
= f (0.3 2) = 0.2 1 = .
3
2
44

Geniktera h f parnei thn dia tim sta kra kje mesaou anoikto diastmatoc pou afairetai kat thn kataskeu to C . Prgmati, ta afairomena
diastmata enai thc morfc

(0.3 a1 a2 . . . am 1, 0.3 a1 a2 . . . am 2),

pou aj {0, 2}, j = 1, 2, . . . , m. Epomnwc

am
a1
0111 . . .
f (0.3 a1 a2 . . . am 1) = f (0.3 a1 a2 . . . am 0222 . . . ) = 0.2 . . .
2
2
a1
am
= 0.2 . . .
1
2
2
= f (0.3 a1 a2 . . . am 2).
Epektenoume tra thn f sto [0, 1]: 'Estw x [0, 1] \ C . Tte to x
ankei se na ap ta afairomena mesaa diastmata (a, b). 'Opwc edame
f (a) = f (b). Jtoume f (x) := f (a) = f (b).

Orismc 2.5.6 H sunrthsh f : [0, 1] [0, 1] pou orsthke parapnw

onomzetai sunrthsh to Cantor.

Enai profanc ti h sunrthsh to Cantor enai axousa. Stic askseic

auto tou kefalaou all kai sta epmena keflaia ja dome pollc akma
idithtec to sunlou kai thc sunrthshc to Cantor.

2.6 Askseic
2.6.1 Dexte ti an h seir

P
n=1

an sugklnei, tte lim an = 0.

2.6.2 Brete to jroisma thc seirc

1
.
n(n
+ 1)
n=1
P

2.6.3 Dnontai do sugklnousec

seirc P n=1 an kai
P

c R. Dexte ti oi seirc

X
n=1

can = c

X
n=1

n=1

an ,

can kai

n=1 (an

n=1 bn kai nac arijmc

+ bn ) sugklnoun kai mlista

(an + bn ) =

n=1

X
n=1

an +

bn .

n=1

2.6.4 Dexte ti an mi seir sugklnei apoltwc, tte sugklnei.

2.6.5 Mi seir qei merik ajrosmata sn . Dexte ti h sgklish thc {sn }
sunepgetai th sgklish thc {|sn |}. Isqei to antstrofo?
45

2.6.6 Brete gia poic timc to x sugklnoun apoklnoun oi paraktw seirc

arqzontac me ta kritria to lgou kai thc rzac.
P
P n
P
3
(a) n=1 nn xn , (b) n=1 2n! xn , (g) n=1 3nn xn .
2.6.7 Exetste th sgklish thn apklish twn seirn
(a)

(1)n
n=2 n log n ,

(b)

(2)n n2
n=1 (n+2)! ,

(g)

n=1

(1)n log n
.
n

2.6.8 Brete do akoloujec jetikn arijmn {an } kai {bn } ttoiec ste
p

lim sup n an = lim sup n bn = 1

P
P
kai h n=1 an sugklnei en h n=1 bn apoklnei.

2.6.9 Brete do akoloujec jetikn arijmn {an } kai {bn } ttoiec ste
bn+1
an+1
= lim sup
=1
an
bn
P
P
kai h n=1 an sugklnei en h n=1 bn apoklnei.
lim sup

2.6.10 Exetste th sgklish thc seirc

1
1 1
1
1
1
1
+1+ + +
+
+
+
+ ...
2
8 4 32 16 128 64
me ta kritria to lgou kai thc rzac.

2.6.11 Dexte ti an an > 0 gi kje n N kai h seir

kai oi seirc

a2n ,

n=1

an
,
1
+
an
n=1

a2n
,
1 + a2n
n=1

P
n=1

an sugklnei, tte

X
an
n
n=1

an an+1 ,

n=1

sugklnoun.

2.6.12 Exetste an oi akloujec seirc sugklnoun apoklnoun.

(a)
(d)
(g)

n2
n2 + 1
,
n2 + n + 1
n=1

X
1
1
log 1 +
,
n
n
n=1

X
1
log cos
.
n
n=1

n(n+1)

X
n
,
(b)
n+1
n=1

X
1
n+1
log
(e)
,
n1
n
n=2

46

(c)

( n n 1)2 ,
n=1

(f)

1
,
(log n)log n
n=2

2.6.13 Dnetai akolouja

} me an 0 gia kje n N kai
P {a
n

(a) Dexte ti h seir n=1 an np sugklnei tan p > 12 .

(b) Dexte me antipardeigma ti to (a) den isqei gia p = 12 .

2.6.14 Dexte ti an h seir

lnei.

P
n=1

an apoklnei, tte kai h seir

2.6.15 Dnetai
P h seir jetikn rwn

kai h seir

n=1

n=1

an < .

P
n=1

nan apok-

n=1 an . Dexte ti an aut sugklnei, tte

an an+1 sugklnei. Dexte ti to antstrofo den isqei.

2.6.16 Exetste gia poic timc to a oi paraktw seirc sugklnoun apoltwc,

sugklnoun apoklnoun.
n

X
an
,
n+1
n=1

(a)

(b)

(1)n

n=2

(log n)a
,
n

(1)n sin

(c)

n=1

nn
,
an2
n=1

(d)

(e)

(1)n

n=1

a R,

a
,
n

a R,
a R,

a 6= 0,
(log n)log n
,
na

a > 0.

2.6.17 Swst Ljoc?

P
(a) An lim abnn = 1, tte h sgklish tc seirc
n=1 an enai isodnamh me th
P
sgklish tc seirc n=1 bn .
P
(b) An an > 0, bn > 0 kai lim abnn = 1, tte h sgklish tc seirc n=1 an enai
P
isodnamh me th sgklish tc seirc n=1 bn .
2.6.18 'Estw ti a, b > 0. Exetste th sgklish twn seirn

(1)n

n=1

(log n)a
,
nb

n=1

(1)n

(log n)log n
.
nb

2.6.19 Dnetai fjnousa akolouja {an }. Exetste th sgklish tc seirc

X
n=1

(1)n+1

a1 + a2 + + an
.
n

47

2.6.20 Upojtoume ti a1 a2 a3 0 kai ti lim an = 0. Tte, ap to

kritrio gia tic enallssousec seirc, h seir

(1)n+1 an

n=1

sugklnei. Dexte epiplon ti, an sn enai ta merik ajrosmata thc seirc kai s to
jroism thc, tte
|s sn | an+1 , n N.

2.6.21 Jewrome thn akolouja

tn = 1 +

1 1
1
+ + + log n.
2 3
n

(a) Dexte ti tn > 0 gia kje n N.

(b) Dexte ti tn tn+1 > 0 gia kje n N.
(g) Dexte ti h akolouja {tn } sugklnei. (To ri thc sumbolzetai me kai
onomzetai stajer to Euler).

2.6.22 (sunqeia thc 'Askhshc 2.6.21). 'Estw hn ta merik ajrosmata thc seirc

(1)n1
n

kai stw sn ta merik ajrosmata thc seirc

(a) Dexte ti h2n = s2n sn .
(b) Dexte ti hn log n .
(g) Dexte ti s2n log 2.
(d) Dexte ti

X
(1)n1
= log 2.
n
n=1
n=1

1
n=1 n .

to Cauchy) Upojtoume ti a1 a2 a3
2.6.23 (Kritrio sumpknwshc
P
0. Tte h seir n=1 an sugklnei an kai mno an h seir

2k a2k = a1 + 2a2 + 4a4 + 8a8 + . . .

k=0

sugklnei.

2.6.24 ? Dnontai do seirc

P
n=1

an ,

n=1 bn

bn+1
an+1

,
an
bn
Dexte ti an h

n=1 bn

sugklnei, tte kai h

48

jetikn rwn gia tic opoec isqei

n no .
P
n=1

an sugklnei.

2.6.25 ? (Abel) 'Estw

n=1 an mi seir jetikn rwn h opoa apoklnei. 'Estw

sn ta merik thc ajrosmata. Dexte ti
(a) H seir

X
an
n=1

apoklnei.
(b) H seir

sn

X
an
s2
n=1 n

sugklnei.

2.6.26 Dnetai paragwgsimh sunrthsh f : (0, ) (0, ). Upojtoume ti h

f 0 enai fjnousa kai limx f 0 (x) = 0. Dexte ti oi seirc

f 0 (n)

kai

n=1

X
f 0 (n)
f (n)
n=1

ete kai oi do sugklnoun ete kai oi do apoklnoun.

2.6.27 'Estw f : [1, ) (0, ) mi fjnousa sunrthsh. Jtoume

Sn =

n
X

Z
f (k) kai In =

k=1

f (x) dx.
1

Dexte ti h akolouja {Sn In } enai fjnousa kai to ri thc ankei sto disthma
[0, f (1)].

2.6.28 Dexte ti an mi seir sugklnei apoltwc, tte kje anaditax thc sugklnei apoltwc.
2.6.29 Anadiatssoume peperasmnou pljouc rouc mic seirc. Exetste ti
sumbanei me th sgklish thn apklish thc anaditaxhc.
2.6.30 Apodexte thn akloujh genkeush tou Jewrmatoc 2.3.5: 'Estw

n=1 an
mi seir po sugklnei
all
den
sugklnei
apoltwc.
An

+
, tte
P
uprqei anaditaxh n=1 a0n me merik ajrosmata {s0n } ttoia ste

lim inf s0n = s,

lim sup s0n = t.

2.6.31 Dexte ti oi arijmo thc morfc x =

p-adik parstash.

49

m
pn

qoun monadik termatizmenh

2.6.32 Mi mh termatizmenh p-adik parstash 0.k1 k2 . . . onomzetai periodik

me perodo q an uprqoun q, k N ttoia ste kn+q = kn gia kje n > k . 'Estw
x (0, 1). Dexte ti h mh termatizmenh p-adik parstash tou x enai periodik
an kai mno an x Q.
2.6.33 'Estw x (0, 1). Dexte ti to x qei termatizmenh dekadik parstash
an kai mno an uprqoun m, n N {0} ttoia ste o arijmc 2m 5n x na enai
akraioc.
2.6.34 Dexte ti to snolo twn arijmn to (0, 1) twn opown h dekadik parstash ( oi dekadikc parastseic, an qei do ttoiec) den periqei 7ria kai 3ria
enai uperarijmsimo.
2.6.35 Brete to eswterik, to perblhma kai to snoro to C (sthn topologa

to R).

2.6.36 (a) Dexte ti to snolo C to Cantor den periqei kanna disthma.

(b) Dexte ti to C enai poujen pukn. ('Ena snolo onomzetai poujen pukn
an (C)o = ).
2.6.37 Qrhsimopoiste th sunrthsh to Cantor kai thn 'Askhsh 1.6.28 gi na
dexete ti C [0, 1].
2.6.38 Exetste an o arijmc

1
4

ankei sto C . Enai akrao shmeo to C ?

2.6.39 Dexte ti gia kje x C \ {0} uprqei mi gnhswc montonh akolouja

{xn } C me limn xn = x.
2.6.40 Dexte ti gia to snolo C 0 twn shmewn sussreushc to C isqei C 0 = C

(dhlad to C enai tleio snolo).

2.6.41 Meletste th sunqeia thc qarakthristikc sunrthshc C to C .

2.6.42 'Estw C1 to snolo twn akrawn shmewn to C . Dexte ti h sunrthsh
to Cantor enai gnhswc axousa sto C \ C1 .
2.6.43 Dexte ti gia th sunrthsh f to Cantor isqei
f (x) = sup{f (y) : y C, y x}, x [0, 1].

2.6.44 'Estw 0 < < 1. Kataskeuzoume na snolo C tpou Cantor wc

exc: Sto prto bma afairome ap to [0, 1] na mesao anoikt disthma mkouc
(1 ) 31 . Sto n bma afairome 2n1 anoikt diastmata mkouc (1 ) 3n .
Dexte ti to C enai na tleio, uperarijmsimo snolo pou den periqei knna
disthma.
50

2.7 Shmeiseic
Uprqei mi plhjra krithrwn sgklishc kai apklishc seirn. Poll ap aut
uprqoun sto [5, Kef. 7] kai sto biblo [K.Knopp, Theory and Application of
Infinite Series]. Gia th sqetik nnoia to apeiroginomnou, parapmpoume sta [3],
[5]. Perisstera gia anadiatxeic seirn uprqoun sta [1] kai [5]. To [5] periqei
epshc perissterec leptomreiec gia tic parastseic arijmn.
To snolo to Cantor enai na ap ta shmantiktera snola sthn Pragmatik
Anlush. Prwtoemfansthke to 1875 se mi ergasa to H.Smith en o Cantor
to melthse lgo argtera, to 1883; bl. [2, sel. 35]. Perisstera gi to snolo
to Cantor kai lla snola to diou tpou uprqoun sta bibla [2], [5] kai sta
rjra [W.A.Coppel, An interesting Cantor set. Amer. Math. Monthly 90 (1983),
456-460] kai [J.F.Randolph, Distances between points of the Cantor set. Amer.
Math. Monthly 47 (1940), 549-551]. Gia th sunrthsh to Cantor parapmpoume
sta rjra [D.R.Chalice, A characterization of the Cantor function. Amer. Math.
Monthly 98 (1991), 255-258], [E.Hille and J.D.Tamarkin, Remarks on a known
example of a monotone continuous function. Amer. Math. Monthly 36 (1929),
255-264], [O.Dovgoshey, O.Martio, M.Vuorinen, The Cantor function, Expo. Math.
24 (2006), 1-37].

51

52

Keflaio 3

Diforec klseic
sunartsewn
3.1 Omoimorfa suneqec sunartseic
Orismc 3.1.1 'Estw A R. Mi sunrthsh f : A R onomzetai

suneqc sto shmeo xo A an

(3.1)
> 0, > 0 ttoio ste (x A kai |xxo | < ) |f (x)f (xo )| < .
An h f enai suneqc se kje shmeo to A, tte h f onomzetai suneqc sto
A.

Orismc 3.1.2 'Estw A R. Mi sunrthsh f : A R onomzetai omoi-

morfa suneqc sto A an

(3.2)
> 0, > 0 ttoio ste (x, y A kai |xy| < ) |f (x)f (y)| < .

Enai profanc ti kje omoimorfa suneqc sunrthsh enai suneqc.

To antstrofo den isqei, pwc deqnei to paraktw pardeigma.

Pardeigma 3.1.3 H sunrthsh f : (0, 1) R me f (x) = 1/x enai suneqc. Parathrome ti

1 0 en
n n + 1

1
f 1 f
= 1, n N.

n
n+1

'Ara uprqei > 0 ( = 1) ttoio ste gia kje > 0 mporome na brome
zegoc shmewn x, y (0, 1) (jtoume x = 1/n, y = 1/(n + 1) gia arket
53

meglo n) ttoio ste |x y| < kai |f (x) f (y)| = . Dhlad h f den

enai omoimorfa suneqc.

Jerhma 3.1.4 'Estw K sumpagc uposnolo to R. An h sunrthsh f

enai suneqc sto K , tte enai omoimorfa suneqc sto K .

Apdeixh.
'Estw > 0. Lgw sunqeiac, gia kje x K , uprqei x > 0 ttoio ste:
an y K kai |y x| < x , tte |f (x) f (y)| < . Isqei

[
x
x
x ,x +
.
K
2
2
xK

Epeid to K enai sumpagc, uprqoun peperasmnou pljouc shmea tou

x1 , x2 , . . . xm ttoia ste

m
[
xj
x j
,x +
.
K
xj
2
2
j=1

Jtoume

1
min{x1 , x2 , . . . , xm }.
2
Parnoume tra x, y K me |x y| < . Tte |x xj | < xj /2 gia kpoio
j {1, 2, . . . , m}. Epomnwc
=

|y xj | |x y| + |x xj | < +

xj
xj .
2

'Ara

|f (x) f (y)| |f (x) f (xj )| + |f (xj ) f (y)| < + = 2.

Orismc 3.1.5 'Estw A R. Mi sunrthsh f : A R onomzetai Lipschitz sto E A an uprqei K > 0 ttoio ste
(3.3)

x, y E,

|f (x) f (y)| K |x y|.

Enai ekolo na parathrsei kanec ti kje sunrthsh Lipschitz enai

omoimorfa suneqc. Prgmati an h f enai sunrthsh Lipschitz, gia dojn > 0, parnoume = /K . An |x y| < , tte, lgw thc (3.3),
|f (x) f (y)| < ki epomnwc h f enai omoimorfa suneqc. Uprqoun mwc
omoimorfa suneqec sunartseic pou den enai Lipschitz.
54


x, x [0, ), enai omoimorfa
suneqc sto [0, ). Aut prokptei ekola ap thn anisthta
p

| x y| |x y|, x, y 0.

Pardeigma 3.1.6 H sunrthsh f (x) =

'Omwc h f den enai sunrthsh Lipschitz sto [0, ). Aut apodeiknetai wc

exc: Parnoume y = 0. An h f tan sunrthsh Lipschitz tte ja uprqe

K > 0 ttoio ste |f (x)| K |x| gia kje x 0, dhlad h sunrthsh x/x

ja tan fragmnh sto (0, ). 'Omwc x/x = 1/ x , tan x 0+.

3.2 Montonec sunartseic

Orismc 3.2.1 Dnetai sunrthsh f : E R kai snolo A E . H f
onomzetai axousa sto A an gia la ta x, y A me x < y , isqei f (x)
f (y). H f onomzetai gnhswc axousa sto A an gia la ta x, y A me
x < y , isqei f (x) < f (y). H f onomzetai fjnousa sto A an gia la ta
x, y A me x < y , isqei f (x) f (y). H f onomzetai gnhswc fjnousa
sto A an gia la ta x, y A me x < y , isqei f (x) > f (y). H f onomzetai
montonh sto A an enai ete axousa sto A ete fjnousa sto A. H f
onomzetai gnhswc montonh sto A an enai ete gnhswc axousa sto A
ete gnhswc fjnousa sto A.

Jerhma 3.2.2 An h f : (a, b) R enai montonh sunrthsh kai an c

(a, b), tte ta pleurik ria f (c+) kai f (c) uprqoun kai isqei f (c)
f (c) f (c+).
Apdeixh.
Upojtoume ti h f enai axousa; (allic ergazmaste me thn f ). O
arijmc f (c) enai nw frgma to sunlou {f (t) : t (a, c)}. Jtoume
s = sup{f (t) : t (a, c)} kai qoume s f (c).
'Estw > 0. Uprqei xo (a, c) ttoio ste s < f (xo ) s. An
xo < x < c, lgw monotonac,

s < f (xo ) f (x) s.

Epomnwc an xo < x < c, tte |f (x) s| < , dhlad limxc f (x) = s.
Me parmoio trpo apodeiknetai ti

f (c+) = lim f (x) = inf f (t) f (c).

xc+

t(c,b)

55

Jerhma 3.2.3 An h f : (a, b) R enai montonh sunrthsh, tte h f

qei to pol arijmsimou pljouc shmea asunqeiac. Se kajna ap aut h

f qei asunqeia lmatoc.

Apdeixh.
Upojtoume ti h f enai axousa; (allic ergazmaste me thn f ). Ap
to Jerhma 3.2.2, gia kje c (a, b), ta pleurik ria f (c) kai f (c+)
uprqoun kai isqei f (c) f (c) f (c+). Epomnwc an h f qei asunqeia
sto c, tte aut enai ete apaleyimh ete asunqeia lmatoc. H perptwsh
tc apaleyimhc asunqeiac apokleetai, diti an f (c) = f (c+) tte to rio
limxc f (x) uprqei kai enai so me f (c), dhlad h f enai suneqc sto c.
'Ara h f qei asunqeia lmatoc sto c.
An h f qei asunqeia sta shmea c, d me c < d, tte ta diastmata
(f (c), f (c+)), (f (d), f (d+)) enai mh ken kai xna, ra to kajna periqei
na rht. 'Etsi mporome na orsoume mia 1-1 sunarthsh ap to snolo
twn shmewn asunqeiac thc f sto Q. Aut sunepgetai ti to snolo twn
shmewn asunqeiac thc f enai to pol arijmsimo.

Paratrhsh 3.2.4 Gia sunartseic montonec se kleist disthma ( kai

se geniktera snola), jewrmata anloga me ta 3.2.2, 3.2.3 apodeiknontai

me parmoio trpo.

Prisma 3.2.5 An h sunrthsh f : [a, b] [c, d] enai montonh kai ep,

tte h f enai suneqc.

Apdeixh.
Upojtoume ti h f enai axousa. An h f qei asunqeia sto shmeo xo
[a, b], tte qei asunqeia lmatoc. 'Ara to disthma (f (xo ), f (xo +)) den
periqetai sto snolo timn thc f an kai enai uposnolo tou [c, d]. 'Atopo,
diti h f enai ep.

Pardeigma 3.2.6 H sunrthsh to Cantor enai axousa sto [0, 1] kai ep

to [0, 1]. 'Ara enai suneqc!

3.3 Sunartseic fragmnhc kmanshc

Orismc 3.3.1 An f : [a, b] R enai mi sunrthsh kai
P = {a = to < t1 < < tn = b}
56

enai mi diamrish to [a, b], h kmansh thc f pou antistoiqe sth diamrish
P enai o arijmc
n
X
V (f, P ) =
|f (tk ) f (tk1 )|.
k=1

'Estw P mi diamrish to [a, b] kai Q = P {x}, dhlad h Q enai

diamrish to [a, b] pou periqei na shmeo perisstero ap thn P . Mporome
na upojsoume ti tj < x < tj+1 . Isqei

V (f, P ) =

|f (tk ) f (tk1 )| + |f (tj+1 ) f (tj )|

k6=j+1

|f (tk ) f (tk1 )| + |f (x) f (tj )| + |f (tj+1 ) f (x)|

k6=j+1

= V (f, Q).
Suneqzontac epagwgik mporome na apodexoume ti an P Q, tte V (f, P )
V (f, Q).
H P = {a, b} enai h mikrterh diamrish tou [a, b]. An Q enai mi opoiadpote llh, ap ta parapnw sumperanoume ti
(3.4)

|f (b) f (a)| = V (f, P ) V (f, Q).

Orismc 3.3.2 H olik kmansh thc f sto [a, b] enai o epektetamnoc jetikc
arijmc

Vab f = sup{V (f, P ) : P diamrish to [a, b]}.

An Vab f < , h f onomzetai sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc. To snolo

twn sunartsewn fragmnhc kmanshc sto [a, b] sumbolzetai me BV [a, b].

Pardeigma 3.3.3 Kje montonh sunrthsh f : [a, b] R enai sunrthsh

fragmnhc kmanshc. Ac upojsoume ti h f enai axousa. An P diamrish
tou [a, b], tte
V (f, P ) =

n
X
[f (tk ) f (tk1 )] = f (b) f (a).
k=1

'Ara f BV [a, b] kai Vab f = f (b) f (a). Paromowc, an h f enai fjnousa,

tte Vab f = f (a) f (b).
57

Prtash 3.3.4 An f : [a, b] R enai sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc,

tte h f enai fragmnh kai

kf k := sup |f (x)| |f (a)| + Vab f.

x[a,b]

Apdeixh.
'Estw x [a, b]. Jewrome th diamrish P = {a, x, b}. Tte

|f (x) f (a)| V (f, P ) Vab f.

'Ara |f (x)| |f (a)| + Vab f.

Pardeigma 3.3.5 H sunrthsh f : [0, 1] R me f (x) =

1
x

gia x 6= 0 kai
f (0) = 0 den enai sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc diti den enai fragmnh.

Prtash 3.3.6 Dnontai pragmatikc sunartseic f, g orismnec sto disth-

ma [a, b] kai c R. Tte

(a) Vab f = 0 an kai mno an h f enai stajer.
(b) Vab (cf ) = |c| Vab f.
(g) Vab (f + g) Vab f + Vab g .
(d) Vab (f g) kf k Vab g + kgk Vab f.
(e) Vab |f | Vab f.
(st) An c [a, b], tte Vab f = Vac f + Vcb f .
Apdeixh.
Ja apodexoume ta (g) kai (st). Ta uploipa afnontai gia skhsh.
Apdeixh to (g): 'Estw P diamrish to [a, b]. Isqei

V (f + g, P ) =
=

n
X
k=1
n
X

|(f + g)(tk ) (f + g)(tk1 )|

|f (tk ) f (tk1 ) + g(tk ) g(tk1 )|

k=1

n
X

|f (tk ) f (tk1 )| +

k=1

n
X

|g(tk ) g(tk1 )|

k=1

= V (f, P ) + V (g, P ) Vab f + Vab g.

Parnoume tra supremum gia lec tic diamerseic to [a, b] kai prokptei to
(g).
Apdeixh to (st): An Q diamrish to [a, c] kai R diamrish to [c, d],
tte h P := Q R enai diamrish to [a, b] kai isqei

V (f, Q) + V (f, R) = V (f, P ) Vab f.

58

Parnontac supremum gi lec tic diamerseic Q kai R prokptei Vac f +Vcb f

Vab f.
Gia na apodexoume thn antstrofh anisthta jewrome diamrish P to
[a, b]. Jtoume

Q := (P {c}) [a, c]

kai

R := (P {c}) [c, b].

H Q enai diamrish tou [a, c] kai h R enai diamrish tou [c, b]. 'Ara

V (f, P ) V (f, P {c}) = V (f, Q) + V (f, R) Vac f + Vcb f

ki epomnwc Vab f Vac f + Vcb f.

Pardeigma 3.3.7 Jewrome th sunrthsh f (x) = |x| gia x [2, 1]. H

f enai fjnousa sto [2, 0] kai axousa sto [0, 1]. 'Ara

1
0
V2
f = V2
f + V01 f = f (2) f (0) + f (1) f (0) = 3

kai epomnwc f BV [2, 1].

H paraktw prtash enai pol suqn qrsimh gia na apodexoume ti mi

sunrthsh enai fragmnhc kmanshc qwrc mwc na odhge ston upologism
thc olikc kmanhc.

Prtash 3.3.8 Dnetai sunrthsh f : [a, b] R, paragwgsimh sto [a, b].

An |f 0 (x)| M gia kje x [a, b], tte f BV [a, b] kai Vab f M (b a).
Apdeixh.
'Estw P = {to = a < t1 < < tn = b} mi diamrish to [a, b]. Ap to
Jerhma Mshc Timc, gia kje k {1, 2, . . . , n} ,uprqei k (tk1 , tk )
ttoio ste
f (tk ) f (tk1 ) = f 0 (k )(tk tk1 ).
Sunepc

V (f, P ) =

n
X

|f (tk )f (tk1 )| =

k=1

n
X

|f (k )|(tk tk1 ) M

k=1

(tk tk1 ) = M (ba).

k=1

'Ara Vab f M (b a).

59

Pardeigma 3.3.9
(
0,
x=0
f (x) =
1
2
x sin x , x (0, 1/].
Me qrsh to orismo tc paraggou, ekola apodeiknetai ti h f enai
paragwgsimh sto 0 kai f 0 (0) = 0. 'Etsi h f enai paragwgsimh sto [0, 1/]
kai x (0, 1/],

|f 0 (x)| = |2x sin(1/x) cos(1/x)| 2/ + 1.

'Ara h f qei fragmnh pargwgo sto [0, 1/] ki epmnwc f BV [0, 1/].

Pardeigma 3.3.10
(
f (x) =

0,
1,

x [0, 1]
x (1, 2].

H f enai axousa sto [0, 2]. 'Ara V02 f = f (2) f (0) = 1.

Pardeigma 3.3.11
(
x,
x [0, 1]
f (x) =
x, x (1, 2].
H f enai axousa sto [0, 1] kai fjnousa sto [1, 2]. 'Ara

V02 f = V01 f + V12 f = f (1) f (0) + f (1) f (2) = 4.

Pardeigma 3.3.12
(
x,
x [0, 1]
f (x) =
x 2,
x (1, 2].
Koitntac th grafik parstash tc f manteoume ti V02 f = 4. Ja dexoume
ti h eikasa aut enai alhjc. 'Estw 0 < < 1/2. Jewrome th diamrish
P = {0, 1, 1 + , 2} to [0, 2]. Isqei

V02 f V (f, P ) = |f (1) f (0)|+ |f (1+ ) f (1)|+ |f (2) f (1+ )| = 4 2.

Parnoume rio gia 0 kai prokptei V02 f 4.
60

Gia thn antstrofh anisthta, jewrome tuqosa diamrish P = {t0 <

t1 < . . . tn } to [0, 2]. Uprqei monadik m {1, 2, . . . , n 1} tsi ste
tm 1 < tm+1 . Parathrome ti 0 < tm 1 kai 1 < tm+1 2. Jtoume
P1 = {0, t1 , . . . , tm } kai P2 = {tm+1 , tm+2 , . . . , 2}. H P1 enai diamrish to
[0, tm ]. 'Ara
V (f, P1 ) V0tm f = f (tm ) 0 = tm .
H P2 enai diamrish to [tm+1 , 2]. 'Ara

V (f, P2 ) Vt2m+1 f = f (2) f (tm+1 ) = 2 tm+1 .

Telik loipn

V (f, P ) = V (f, P1 ) + |f (tm+1 ) f (tm )| + V (f, P2 )

tm + tm + 2 tm+1 + 2 tm+1 = 2tm + 4 2tm+1 2 + 4 2 = 4.
Epeid h P enai tuqaa diamrish to [0, 2], isqei V02 f 4. 'Ara V02 f = 4.

Orismc 3.3.13 An f BV [a, b], h sunrthsh olikc kmanshc tc f

enai h

vf (x) = Vax f,

x [a, b],

me th smbash Vaa f = 0.

Pardeigma 3.3.14 Ja brome th sunrthsh olikc kmanshc thc sunrthshc f (x) = cos x, x [, ]. 'Estw x [, 0]. Tte

x
V
f = f (x) f () = cos x + 1.

Gia x [0, ],
x
0
V
f = V
f + V0x f = f (0) f () + f (0) f (x) = 3 cos x.

'Ara h sunrthsh olikc kmanshc enai h

(
vf (x) =

cos x + 1, x [, 0],
3 cos x, x [0, ].

Jerhma 3.3.15 'Estw f BV [a, b] me sunrthsh olikc kmanshc vf .

Oi sunartseic vf kai vf f enai axousec.
61

Apdeixh.
'Estw x < y sto [a, b]. Ap thn Prtash 3.3.6(st),

vf (y) vf (x) = Vay f Vax f = Vxy f |f (y) f (x)| 0.

'Ara h vf enai axousa. H parapnw anisthta dnei epshc

vf (y) vf (x) f (y) f (x),

dhlad vf (y) f (y) vf (x) f (x). 'Ara kai h vf f enai axousa.

Prisma 3.3.16 'Estw f : [a, b] R mi sunrthsh. Tte f BV [a, b] an

kai mno an h f enai diafor do auxousn sunartsewn.

Apdeixh.
An f BV [a, b], tte f = vf (vf f ) kai lgw to Jewrmatoc 3.3.15 oi
sunartseic vf kai vf f enai axousec.
Antistrfwc, upojtoume ti f = f1 f2 , pou f1 , f2 axousec sunartseic. Tte f1 , f2 BV [a, b] (bl. Pardeigma 3.3.3). 'Ara f BV [a, b] lgw
thc Prtashc 3.3.6(g).

Ap ta Jewrmata 3.2.2, 3.2.3 (bl. kai Paratrhsh 3.2.4) prokptei to

akloujo:

Prisma 3.3.17 Kje sunrthsh f fragmnhc kmanshc qei to pol arijmsimou pljouc asunqeiec. Kje asunqeia tc f enai ete apaleyimh
ete asunqeia lmatoc.

Pardeigma 3.3.18 Sto Pardeigma 3.3.5 edame mi sunrthsh sto [0, 1] h

opoa den enai fragmnhc kmanshc epeid den enai fragmnh. Ja dome tra
mi fragmnh sunrthsh pou den enai fragmnhc kmanshc. H sunrthsh
f : [0, 1] R orzetai wc exc: enai suneqc, ikanopoie tic isthtec f (0) = 0,
f (1/n) = (1)n /n gia n N, kai se kajna ap ta diastmata [1/(n +
1), 1/n] h grafik thc parstash enai na eujgrammo tmma. Jewrome thn
akolouja twn diamersewn

1
1
1
, . . . , , 1 , n N.
Pn = 0, ,
n n1
2
Tte

V (f, Pn ) =
=

n
1 X (1)k
(1)k1
+
k k1
n
k=2
X
n
n
1 X 1
1
1
+
+
>
.
n
k k1
k
k=2

62

k=1

Parnoume ria gia n kai sumperanoume ti V01 f = , dhlad f

/
BV [0, 1].

Pardeigma 3.3.19 Jewrome th sunrthsh

(

f (x) =

x sin(1/x), x (0, 1]
0,
x = 0.

H f enai suneqc sto [0, 1]. Gia n N, stw P mi opoiadpote diamrish

to [0, 1] pou periqei ta shmea tk = 2/[(2k + 1)] gia k = 0, . . . , n. Isqei

|f (tk ) f (tk1 )| = tk + tk1 2tk =

Sunepc

V (f, P )

n
X
k=1

4
.
(2k + 1)

4
, tan
(2k + 1)

n .

'Ara f
/ BV [0, 1].

Oi sunartseic fragmnhc kmanshc sqetzontai mesa me thn nnoia to

mkouc kamplhc. Mi eppedh kamplh, dhlad mi suneqc sunrthsh
F : [a, b] R2 , orzei do sunartseic x : [a, b] R kai y : [a, b] R, pou

F (t) = (x(t), y(t)), t [a, b].

Oi x, y enai oi sunistsec sunartseic thc F . Ja dome ti mia eppedh
kamplh qei peperasmno mkoc an kai mno an oi sunartseic x, y qoun
fragmnh kmansh.

Orismc 3.3.20 Dnetai mi eppedh kamplh F : [a, b] R2 me sunistsec

sunartseic x, y . An P = {a = t0 < t1 < < tn = b} enai mi diamrish

to [a, b] orzoume

L(F, P ) =

n
X
k=1

kF (tk )F (tk1 )k =

n p
X

(x(tk ) x(tk1 ))2 + (y(tk ) y(tk1 ))2 .

k=1

To mkoc thc kamplhc enai o epektetamnoc arijmc

L(F ) := sup{L(F, P ) : P diamrish tou [a, b]}.

H kamplh onomzetai eujugrammsimh an qei peperasmno mkoc.
63

Jerhma 3.3.21 Dnetai mi eppedh kamplh F : [a, b] R2 . H F e-

nai eujugrammsimh an kai mno an oi sunistsec sunartseic x kai y enai

fragmnhc kmanshc.

Apdeixh.
'Estw P = {a = t0 < t1 < < tn = b} mi diamrish tou [a, b]. Gia kje
k {1, 2, . . . , n}, isqei
p
|x(tk ) x(tk1 )|
(x(tk ) x(tk1 ))2 + (y(tk ) y(tk1 ))2

|x(tk ) x(tk1 )| + |y(tk ) y(tk1 )|

kai

|y(tk ) y(tk1 )|

p
(x(tk ) x(tk1 ))2 + (y(tk ) y(tk1 ))2

|x(tk ) x(tk1 )| + |y(tk ) y(tk1 )|

'Ara
(3.5)

V (x, P ) L(F, P ) V (x, P ) + V (y, P )

(3.6)

V (y, P ) L(F, P ) V (x, P ) + V (y, P ).

Ap tic (3.5) kai (3.6) prokptei ti x, y BV [a, b] an kai mno an h F enai

eujugrammsimh.

3.4

Apluta suneqec sunartseic

Orismc 3.4.1 Mi sunrthsh f : [a, b] R onomzetai apluta suneqc

sto [a, b] tan gia kje > 0, uprqei > 0 me thn idithta: an (a1 , b1 ),
(a2 , b2 ), . . . , (an , bn ) enai xna an do diastmata msa sto [a, b] kai
n
X
(bj aj ) < ,

tte

j=1

n
X

|f (bj ) f (aj )| < .

j=1

Sumbolzoume to snolo twn apluta suneqn sunartsewn sto [a, b] me

AC[a, b].
Ap ton orism prokptei mesa (jtontac n = 1) ti kje apluta
suneqc sunrthsh enai omoimorfa suneqc. Epshc ekola fanetai ti,
an ston orism jewrsoume arijmsimo (kai qi peperasmno) pljoc upodiasthmtwn to [a, b], prokptei h dia klsh sunartsewn.
64

Prtash 3.4.2 Kje sunrthsh Lipschitz sto [a, b] enai apluta suneqc
sto [a, b].

Apdeixh.
'Estw f sunrthsh Lipschitz sto [a, b] me stajer K . Jewrome xna upodiastmata (a1 , b1 ), (a2 , b2 ), . . . , (an , bn ) to [a, b]. Tte
n
X

|f (bj ) f (aj )|

j=1

n
X

K (bj aj ).

j=1

Pn

Epomnwc, gia dojn > 0, an j=1 (bj aj ) < = /K , tte

f (aj )| < . 'Ara h f enai apluta suneqc sto [a, b].

Pn

j=1 |f (bj )

Prtash 3.4.3 An f, g AC[a, b], tte f + g AC[a, b], f g AC[a, b],

f g AC[a, b], |f | AC[a, b], cf AC[a, b] (c R). An epiplon g(x) 6= 0
gia kje x [a, b], tte f /g AC[a, b].

Apdeixh.
Ja apodexoume mno tn teleutao isqurism, oi uploipoi afnontai gia
skhsh. H |f | wc suneqc sto [a, b] qei mgisto Mf 0 kai paromowc h |g|
qei mgisto Mg sto [a, b]. H |g| wc suneqc kai poujen mhdenik sto [a, b]
qei elqisto m > 0.
'Estw > 0. Epeid oi f, g enai apluta suneqec, gia aut to uprqoun
katllhla f kai g smfwna me ton orism 3.4.1. Jtoume = min{f , g }.
Jewrome xna an do diastmata (a1 , b1 ), (a2 , b2 ), . . . , (an , bn ) msa sto
[a, b] me
n
X
(bj aj ) < .
j=1

Tte

n
X
f (bj ) f (aj )

g(bj ) g(aj )
j=1

n
X
f (bj )g(aj ) g(aj )f (aj ) + g(aj )f (aj ) f (aj )g(bj )|

g(bj )g(aj )
j=1

n
X
|g(aj )| |f (bj ) f (aj )| + |f (aj )| |g(bj ) g(aj )|
j=1

Epomnwc h

|g(bj )g(aj )|

Mg + Mf
.
m2
f
g

enai apluta suneqc.

65

Jerhma 3.4.4 Kje apluta suneqc sunrthsh sto [a, b] enai sunrthsh
fragmnhc kmanshc.

Apdeixh.
'Estw f mi apluta suneqc sunrthsh sto [a, b]. Gia = 1 dialgoume
> 0 smfwna me ton orism 3.4.1.
'Estw P = {a = t0 < t1 < < tm = b} mi diamrish to [a, b] me
tj tj1 < gia kje j = 1, 2, . . . , m. Ja dexoume ti h f enai fragmnhc
kmanshc se kajna ap ta diastmata [tj1 , tj ]. Jewrome tuqaa diamrish
j
Pj = {tj1 = 0j < 1j < < m
= tj }
j

to diastmatoc [tj1 , tj ]. Ta diastmata thc Pj , wc uposnola twn diasthmtwn thc P qoun la mkoc mikrtero to . 'Ara

V (f, Pj ) =

mj
X

j
|f (ij ) f (i1
)| < 1.

i=1
t

j
'Ara f BV [tj1 , tj ] kai mlista Vtj1
f 1. Lgw thc Prtashc 3.3.6(st)
qoume f BV [a, b] kai mlista

Vab f = Vat1 f + Vtt12 f + + Vtbm1 f m.

3.5

Kurtc sunartseic

Orismc 3.5.1 'Estw I R na disthma. Mi sunrthsh f : I R

onomzetai kurt an gia kje zegoc shmewn a, b I kai kje t [0, 1],
isqei
(3.7)

f ((1 t)a + tb) (1 t)f (a) + tf (b).

Mi sunrthsh f : I R onomzetai kolh an h f enai kurt.

Paratrhsh 3.5.2 Grfontac x = (1 t)a + tb, blpoume ti h anisthta

(3.7) enai isodnamh me thn

(3.8)

f (x)

bx
xa
f (b) f (a)
f (a) +
f (b) =
(x a) + f (a),
ba
ba
ba

gia kje zegoc shmewn a, b I kai kje x metax a kai b.

66

H eujea pou pern ap ta shmea (a, f (a)) kai (b, f (b)) qei exswsh

f (b) f (a)
(x a) + f (a).
ba
'Ara h f enai kurt sto I an kai mno an gia kje zegoc shmewn a, b I ,
a < b, to eujgrammo tmma pou ennei ta shmea (a, f (a)) kai (b, f (b)) enai
pnw ap to grfhma thc f sto [a, b].
Mi llh sunpeia thc (3.8) enai h anisthta
y=

(3.9)

f (x) max{f (a), f (b)},

gia f kurt sto I , a, b I , a < b, kai x [a, b].

Pardeigma 3.5.3 (a) H sunrthsh f (x) = x2 enai kurt sto R. Prg-

mati, an a < b kai x [a, b], tte h (3.8) enai isodnamh me thn

x2 (b + a)x + ab 0
h opoa enai alhjc.
(b) H sunrthsh g(x) = |x| enai kurt sto R; h (3.7) epalhjetai ekola:

g((1 t)a + tb) = |(1 t)a + tb| (1 t)|a| + t|b| = (1 t)g(a) + tg(b).
(g) Mi sunrthsh : R R thc morfc (x) = ax + b, pou a, b enai
pragmatikc stajerc onomzetai afinik. Enai ekolo na de kanec ti
kje afinik sunrthsh ikanopoie thn (3.7) me isthta. 'Ara kje afinik
sunrthsh enai kai kurt kai kolh.

Lmma 3.5.4 Dnetai kurt sunrthsh f sto disthma I . An a, b, c I kai

a < b < c, tte

(3.10)

f (b) f (a)
f (c) f (a)
f (c) f (b)

.
ba
ca
cb

Apdeixh.
Ap thn profan isthta

b=

cb
ba
a+
c
ca
ca

kai thn (3.8) prokptei h anisthta

(3.11)

f (b)

cb
ba
f (a) +
f (c)
ca
ca

ap thn opoa prokptoun ekola kai oi do anisthtec (3.10).

Jumzoume tra touc orismoc thc aristerc kai thc dexic paraggou
mic sunrthshc.
67

Orismc 3.5.5 'Estw I anoikt disthma. Jewrome sunrthsh f : I R

kai shmeo x I . Lme ti h f qei arister pargwgo sto x an to rio

f (x + h) f (x)
h0
h

f0 (x) := lim

uprqei (wc pragmatikc arijmc).

Lme ti h f qei dexi pargwgo sto x an to rio

f (x + h) f (x)
h0+
h

f+0 (x) := lim

uprqei (wc pragmatikc arijmc).

Jerhma 3.5.6 Dnetai kurt sunrthsh f sto anoikt disthma I . Isqoun ta aklouja:
(a) H f qei dexi kai arister pargwgo se kje x I .
0 enai axousec sunartseic sto I .
(b) Oi f+0 kai f
0 f 0 sto I .
(g) f
+
(d) H f enai paragwgsimh se la ektc ap to pol arijmhsmou pljouc
shmea to I .
(e) An [a, b] I , h f enai sunrthsh Lipschitz sto [a, b]. Epiplon, an
M := max{|f+0 (a)|, |f0 (b)|}, tte
|f (x) f (y)| M |x y|,
gia kje x, y [a, b].
(st) H f enai suneqc sto I .
Apdeixh.
Stajeropoiome x I . Ap to Lmma 3.5.4, h sunrthsh

(h) :=

f (x + h) f (x)
h

enai fjnousa se mia perioq to 0 (ektc ap to shmeo 0). 'Ara

(3.12)

f0 (x) = lim (h) lim (h) = f+0 (x).

h0

h0+

Epomnwc ta (a) kai (g) apodeqjhkan.

Jewrome shmea a < b sto I . Ap to Lmma 3.5.4 prokptei ti

f+0 (a)

f (c) f (b)
f (b) f (a)
lim
= f+0 (b).
cb+
ba
cb
68

'Ara h f+0 enai axousa. Paromowc apodeiknetai ti kai h f0 enai axousa.

'Etsi apodeqjhke kai to (b).
Ap to Lmma 3.5.4 prokptei epshc ti an a < c, tte f+0 (a) f0 (c).
'Estw tra na shmeo a I sto opoo h axousa sunrthsh f0 enai suneqc.
Tte
f0 (a) f+0 (a) lim f0 (c) = f0 (a).
ca+

f0 (a)

f+0 (a), dhlad h f enai paragwgsimh sto a. Epeid h

f0 qei to pol arijmhsmou pljouc shmea asunqeiac,

Epomnwc
=
axousa sunrthsh
sumperanoume ti h f den enai paragwgsimh mno se peperasmnou arijmhsmou pljouc shmea to I . 'Etsi apodeqjhke kai to (d).
Jewrome tra kleist disthma [a, b] I kai shmea a x < y b.
Tte

M f+0 (a) f+0 (x)

f (x) f (y)
f0 (y) f0 (b) M
xy

kai h (e) prokptei mesa. Tloc h (st) enai profanc sunpeia thc (e).
'Eqontac sto mual mac th gewmetrik ermhnea thc kurtthtac (bl. Paratrhsh
3.5.2), enai elogo na eiksoume ti to grfhma mic kurtc sunrthshc
brsketai pnw ap kje efaptmenh eujea tou. Bbaia mi kurt sunrthsh
den enai panto paragwgsimh kai epomnwc to grfhm thc den qei efaptmenh eujea se kje shmeo tou. 'Omwc, qrh sto Jerhma 3.5.6, h f
0 f 0 . 'Etsi se na shmeo c sqei pleurikc paraggouc kai mlista f
+
to opoo h f den enai paragwgsimh mporome na jewrsoume eujeec klshc
[f0 (c), f+0 (c)]. To paraktw jerhma eggutai ti lec autc oi eujeec
enai ktw ap to grfhma thc f .

Jerhma 3.5.7 Dnetai kurt sunrthsh f sto anoikt disthma I . 'Estw

c I . 'Estw [f0 (c), f+0 (c)]. Tte gia kje x I ,
(3.13)
f (x) (x c) + f (c).
Apdeixh.
Ap to Lmma 3.5.4 prokptei ti gia x > c,

f (x) f (c)
f+0 (c)
xc
kai gia x < c,

f (x) f (c)
f0 (c) .
xc
H (3.13) enai mesh sunpeia twn parapnw anisottwn.
69

Jerhma 3.5.8 (Anisthta Jensen) Dnetai kurt sunrthsh f sto anoikt disthma I . Upojtoume ti ta shmea x1 x2 xn ankoun sto I
kai arijmo p1 , p2 , . . . , pn (0, ) ikanopoion thn isthta
n
X

pj = 1.

j=1

Tte

(3.14)

n
X

pj xj

j=1

n
X

pj f (xj ).

j=1

H isthta isqei sthn (3.14) an kai mno an h f enai afinik sto disthma
[x1 , xn ].
Apdeixh.
Jtoume

c = p1 x1 + p2 x2 + + pn xn .
Enai ekolo na dome ti c [x1 , xn ]; ra c I . Efarmzoume to Jerhma
3.5.7 gia x = xj kai prokptei
(3.15)

f (xj ) (xj c) + f (c),

j = 1, 2, . . . , n.

Pollaplasizoume arister kai dex mloc thc anisthtac autc me pj kai

sth sunqeia prosjtoume kat mlh. Prokptei h (3.14).
'Estw ti h f enai afinik sto [x1 , xn ]. Tte enai ekolo na dome ti
h (3.14) isqei me isthta. Antistrfwc, ac upojsoume ti qoume isthta
sthn (3.14). Tte h (3.15) isqei me isthta gia kje j = 1, 2, . . . , n. Epomnwc, an jsoume (x) = (xc)+f (c), isqei f (xj ) = (xj ), j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Efarmzontac tra thn (3.8), brskoume ti f (x) (x), x [x1 , xn ].
Ap thn llh meri, ap to Jerhma 3.5.7 prokptei ti f (x) (x), x
[x1 , xn ]. 'Ara f = , dhlad h f enai afinik sto [x1 , xn ].

Jerhma 3.5.9 (Anisthta Jensen gia oloklhrmata Riemann) 'Estw f mi sunrthsh oloklhrsimh kat Riemann sto [a, b]. An m f (x)
M , x [a, b] kai h enai suneqc kai kurt sto [m, M ], tte

(3.16)

1
ba

f
a

ba
70

( f ).
a

Apdeixh.
Ap to Jerhma 3.5.8,
n
! X

n
X1
ba
1
ba
f a+k
f a+k
.

n
n
n
n
k=1

k=1

parathrome ti ta parapnw enai ajrosmata Riemann. Parnoume ria gia

n kai prokptei h (3.16).

Jerhma 3.5.10 Dnetai sunrthsh f paragwgsimh sto anoikt disthma

I . H f enai kurt sto I an kai mno an h f 0 enai axousa sto I .

Apdeixh.
An h f enai kurt sto I , tte, lgw to Jewrmatoc 3.5.6(b), h f 0 enai
axousa sto I .
Antistrfwc, upojtoume ti h f 0 enai axousa sto I . 'Estw ti h f den
enai kurt sto I . Tte, lgw tc (3.8), uprqei trida shmewn a < x < b
sto I ttoia ste

f (x) >

xa
bx
f (a) +
f (b).
ba
ba

H anisthta aut enai isodnamh me thn

f (x) f (a)
f (b) f (x)
>
.
xa
bx
'Ap to Jerhma Mshc Timc uprqoun shmea (a, x) kai (x, b)
ttoia ste f 0 () > f 0 (). 'Atopo, diti h f 0 enai axousa.

Prisma 3.5.11 Dnetai sunrthsh f do forc paragwgsimh sto anoikt

disthma I . H f enai kurt sto I an kai mno an h f 00 (x) 0 gia kje x I .

3.6 Askseic
Omoimorfa suneqec sunartseic
3.6.1 Exetste poic ap tic akloujec sunartseic enai omoimorfa suneqec
sto (0, 1).
(a) f (x) = ex ,
(b) f (x) = e1/x ,
(g) f (x) = e1/x ,
(d) f (x) = log x.
71

3.6.2 Exetste poic ap tic akloujec sunartseic enai omoimorfa suneqec

sto [0, ).
(a) f (x) = ex ,
(b) f (x) = x sin x,
(g) f (x) = sin(x2 ),
(d) f (x) = sin2 x.
3.6.3 Upojtoume ti h f : R R enai suneqc kai ti ta ria limx f (x) kai
limx f (x) uprqoun ( R). Dexte ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto R.
3.6.4 Dnetai paragwgsimh sunrthsh f : (a, b) R. Dexte ti h f qei fragmnh pargwgo, an kai mno an enai sunrthsh Lipschitz sto (a, b).
3.6.5 An oi f, g enai Lipschitz sto [a, b], dexte ti kai oi f + g , f g , f g enai
Lipschitz sto [a, b]. An epiplon f (x) =
6 0 gia kje x [a, b], tte kai h 1/f enai
Lipschitz sto [a, b].
3.6.6 Dexte ti kje sunrthsh f : N R enai omoimorfa suneqc.
3.6.7 Exetste poic ap tic akloujec sunartseic enai omoimorfa suneqec
sto (0, 1).
(b) f (x) = cot x.
(a) f (x) = sin x1 ,
3.6.8 Exetste poic ap tic akloujec sunartseic enai omoimorfa suneqec
sto [0, ).

(a) f (x) = x,
(b) f (x) = sin x,
(g) f (x) = sin(sin x).
3.6.9 'Estw E R na snolo pou enai fragmno all qi sumpagc. Brete
suneq sunrthsh f : E R pou den enai omoimorfa suneqc.
3.6.10 Brete fragmnh kai suneq sunrthsh f : R R pou den enai omoimorfa

suneqc.

3.6.11 Dnetai mi omoimorfa suneqc sunrthsh f : R R. An h akolouja

{an } enai Cauchy, dexte ti kai h akolouja {f (an )} enai Cauchy.
3.6.12 Swst Ljoc?
(a) To jroisma do omoimorfa suneqn sunartsewn enai omoimorfa suneqc
sunrthsh.
(b) To ginmeno do omoimorfa suneqn sunartsewn enai omoimorfa suneqc
sunrthsh.
3.6.13 Swst Ljoc?
(a) An h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (0, 2) kai sto (1, 3), tte h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (0, 3).
(b) An h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [k, k + 1] gia kje k Z, tte h f enai
omoimorfa suneqc sto R.
(g) An h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (a, b] kai sto [b, c), tte h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (a, c).
(d) An A, B enai kleist uposnola to R kai h f : A B R enai omoimorfa
suneqc sto A kai sto B , tte h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto A B .
72

3.6.14 An h f : (0, 1) R enai omoimorfa suneqc, dexte ti to rio limx0+ f (x)

uprqei kai ti h f enai fragmnh sto (0, 1).
3.6.15 ? Dnontai sunrthsh f : R R kai shmeo a R. Orzoume
F (x) =

f (x) f (a)
, x R \ {a}.
xa

Dexte ti h f enai paragwgsimh sto a an kai mno an h F enai omoimorfa suneqc

se na snolo thc morfc (a , a + ) \ {a}, pou > 0.

3.6.16 Dexte ti an h f : [a, ) R enai suneqc kai to limx f (x) enai

peperasmnoc arijmc, tte h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [a, ).
3.6.17 Exetste wc proc thn omoimorfh sunqeia tic sunartseic
(a) f (x) = arctan x sto R.
(b) f (x) = x sin x1 sto (0, ).
(g) f (x) = e1/x sto (0, ).
3.6.18 Swst Ljoc?
Uprqei omoimorfa suneqc sunrthsh f : R R pou den enai fragmnh.
3.6.19 Upojtoume ti h f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (0, ). Uprqoun pnta
ta ria limx0+ f (x) kai limx f (x)?
3.6.20 Dnetai omoimorfa suneqc sunrthsh f : [0, ) R. Dexte ti an gia
kje x 0, limn f (x + n) = 0, tte limx f (x) = 0.
3.6.21 Dexte ti h sunrthsh f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto snolo A an kai
mno an gia opoiesdpote du akoloujec {xn }, {yn } to A,
lim (xn yn ) = 0 = lim (f (xn ) f (yn )) = 0.

3.6.22 Mi sunrthsh f : R R lgetai sunrthsh Lipschitz txhc , pou

> 0, an uprqei K > 0 ttoio ste
|f (x) f (y)| K |x y| ,

x, y R.

(a) Dexte ti kje sunrthsh Lipschitz txhc , pou > 1, enai stajer.
(b) Dexte ti kje sunrthsh Lipschitz txhc , pou 1, enai omoimorfa
suneqc.

3.6.23 Dexte ti h sunrthsh x enai omoimorfa suneqc sto (0, ) an kai

mno an 0 1.
Updeixh: An 0 < 1, h x enai Lipschitz txhc. Eidllwc,
an gia pardeigma
= 2, tte qrhsimopoiste th sgklish limn ( n + 1 n) = 0.

73

3.6.24 Dnetai suneqc sunrthsh f : (0, 1) R. Upojtoume ti ta pleurik

ria f (0+) kai f (1) uprqoun. Orzoume sunrthsh F : [0, 1] R jtontac
F = f sto (0, 1), F (0) = f (0+) kai F (1) = f (1). Dexte ti h F enai omoimorfa
suneqc.
3.6.25 ? Dnetai omoimorfa suneqc sunrthsh f : E R, pou E pukn up-

osnolo to R. Dexte ti uprqei monadik omoimorfa suneqc epktash thc f

sto R.

3.6.26 H nnoia thc omoimorfhc sunqeiac epektenetai kai se metrikoc qrouc.

Dnontai do metriko qroi (X, d) kai (Y, ). Mi sunrthsh f : X Y onomzetai
omoimorfa suneqc an
> 0,

> 0 ttoio ste (x1 , x2 X kai d(x1 , x2 ) < ) (f (x1 ), f (x2 )) < .

An h g : X Y enai suneqc kai o X enai sumpagc metrikc qroc, dexte ti h

g enai omoimorfa suneqc.

3.6.27 Dnetai h sunrthsh f : l2 l1 , me f ({xn }) = {xn /n}. Dexte ti h f

enai omoimorfa suneqc. (H skhsh propojtei gnsh twn qrwn l1 kai l2 . Bl.
[2], [5])

Montonec sunartseic
3.6.28 Dnontai sunartseic f kai g pou enai axousec sto E .
(a) Dexte ti h f + g enai axousa.
(b) An mi ap tic f kai g enai gnhswc axousa, tte kai h f + g enai gnhswc
axousa.
(g) An f, g 0, tte h f g enai axousa.
(d) An f, g 0, tte h f g enai fjnousa.
(e) An f (x) 6= 0 gia kje x E kai h f qei stajer prshmo sto E , tte h 1/f
enai fjnousa sto E .
3.6.29 Brete axousec sunartseic f, g ttoiec ste h f g na enai fjnousa.
3.6.30 Dnontai montonh sunrthsh f sto E kai montonh sunrthsh g sto A me
f (E) A.
(a) An oi f, g qoun to dio edoc monotonac, dexte ti h g f enai axousa.
(b) An oi f, g qoun antjeta edh monotonac, dexte ti h g f enai fjnousa.
3.6.31 Dexte ti an h f enai gnhswc axousa sto A, tte h f 1 enai gnhswc

axousa sto f (A).

74

3.6.32 Swst Ljoc?

An mi sunrthsh enai amfimontimh, tte enai gnhswc montonh.
3.6.33 Dexte ti an h sunrthsh f enai suneqc kai amfimontimh se na disthma
I , tte enai gnhswc montonh sto I .
3.6.34 Dexte ti an h f enai gnhswc montonh sto disthma I , tte h f 1 enai

suneqc sto f (I).

3.6.35 Dnontai sunartseic f axousa sto R kai g suneqc sto R. Dexte ti

an f (x) = g(x) gia kje x Q, tte f = g .
3.6.36 Swst Ljoc?
An h f enai axousa sto [a, c) kai axousa sto [c, b], tte h f enai axousa sto
[a, b].
3.6.37 Dexte ti kje fragmnh, suneqc, kai montonh sunrthsh se na anoikt
diasthma I enai omoimorfa suneqc sto I .

Sunartseic fragmnhc kmanshc

3.6.38 Dexte ti an f BV [a, b] kai uprqei m > 0 ttoio ste |f (x)| m,
x [a, b], tte 1/f BV [a, b].
3.6.39 Apodexte ta (a), (b), (d), (e) thc Prtashc 3.3.6.
3.6.40 Dexte ti oi paraktw sunartseic enai fragmnhc kmanshc kai brete
thn antstoiqh sunrthsh olikc kmanshc.
(a) f1 (x) = x2 , x [2, 5].
(b) f2 (x) = cos x, x [, 2].
(g) f3 (x) = sin2 x, x [0, ].
3.6.41 Dexte ti an h f qei suneq pargwgo sto [a, b], tte f BV [a, b] kai
Z
Vab f =

|f 0 (t)| dt.

3.6.42 Dexte ti Vab (Q ) = +.

3.6.43 Dexte ti f BV [a, b] an kai mno an uprqei axousa sunrthsh F sto
[a, b] ttoia ste |f (x) f (y)| F (x) F (y) gia kje x, y [a, b] me x > y .
75

3.6.44 Dexte ti oi paraktw sunartseic enai fragmnhc kmanshc kai brete

thn antstoiqh sunrthsh olikc kmanshc.
(a) f1 (x) = | log x|, x [1/e, 2e].
(b) f2 (x) = ex x, x [0, 4].
3.6.45 'Estw

x [0, 1)
x,
f (x) = 3,
x=1

x 2, x (1, 2].

Brete ton arijm V02 f .

3.6.46 Gia R kai > 0, jewrome th sunrthsh f me

(
x sin(x ), x (0, 1]
f (x) =
0,
x = 0.
Dexte ti:
(a) H f enai fragmnh an kai mno an 0.
(b) H f enai suneqc an kai mno an > 0.
(g) H f 0 (0) uprqei an kai mno an > 1.
(d) H f 0 enai fragmnh an kai mno an 1 + .
(e) An > 0, tte f BV [0, 1] gia 0 < < kai f
/ BV [0, 1] gia .

3.6.47 Gia th sunrthsh

(
cos x, an
f (x) =
sin x, an

x [0, ),
x [, 2],

dexte ti f BV [0, 2].

3.6.48 Dexte ti an f, g BV [a, b] kai h(x) = max{f (x), g(x)}, tte h

BV [a, b].

3.6.49 Dnetai sunrthsh f : [a, b] R. Dexte ti h f enai axousa an kai mno

an Vab f = f (b) f (a).
3.6.50 Dnetai suneqc sunrthsh f : [a, b] R gia thn opoa uprqoun shmea
a = t0 < t1 < < tk = b ttoia ste h f enai paragwgsimh kai montonh se
kajna ap ta diastmata [tj1 , tj ]. Dexte ti f BV [a, b] kai
Z
Vab f =

|f 0 (t)| dt.

76

3.6.51 Swst Ljoc?

(a) An |f | |g| sto [a, b], tte Vab f Vab g .
(b) An h g BV [0, 1] enai amfimontimh, tte enai gnhswc montonh.
(g) Uprqei sunrthsh pou enai axousa kai mh fragmnh sto [0, 1].
3.6.52 Dexte ti h

kf kBV := |f (a)| + Vab f

enai nrma sto qro BV [a, b].

3.6.53 Swst Ljoc?

b
(a) An gia mi fragmnh sunrthsh f : [a, b] R isqei Va+
f M, > 0, tte
b
Va f M .
(b) An h sunrthsh f enai suneqc sto [a, b] kai f BV [a + , b] gia kje > 0,
tte f BV [a, b].
3.6.54 Brete mi mh jetik sunrthsh f BV [0, 1] me V01 f = V01 |f | kai mi

sunrthsh g BV [0, 1] me V01 |g| < V01 g .

3.6.55 Dnontai arijmc p [1, ) kai sunrthsh f BV [a, b]. Dexte ti |f |p

BV [a, b].

3.6.56 Dexte ti an h f enai suneqc sto [a, b] kai |f | BV [a, b], tte f

BV [a, b].

3.6.57 Mi sunrthsh f : [a, b] R onomzetai tmhmatik montonh an uprqei

diamrish {a = to < t1 < < tn = b} to [a, b] ttoia ste h f enai montonh se
kajna ap ta diastmata [tj1 , tj ], j = 1, 2, . . . , n.
Dexte kje tmhmatik montonh sunrthsh, enai sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc.
Brete sunrthsh fragmnhc kmanshc pou den enai tmhmatik montonh.
3.6.58 'Estw ti a < c < b. Dnetai sunrthsh f fjnousa sto [a, c) kai fjnousa
sto [c, b]. Dexte ti
Vab f = f (a) f (c+) + |f (c) f (c)| + f (c) f (b).

Apluta suneqec sunartseic

3.6.59 'Estw

(
x sin(x ), x (0, 1]
f (x) =
0,
x = 0.

Dexte ti:
(a) An 0 < < , tte h f enai apluta suneqc sto [0, 1].
(b) An 0 < , tte h f den enai apluta suneqc sto [0, 1].

77

3.6.60 Swst Ljoc?

(a) Kje sunrthsh sto [a, b] mpore na grafe wc diafor do fjinousn sunartsewn sto [a, b].
(b) Kje apluta suneqc sunrthsh sto [a, b] mpore na grafe wc diafor do
fjinousn sunartsewn sto [a, b].
3.6.61 Brete mi sunrthsh sto [0, 1] pou enai fragmnhc kmanshc all den enai
apluta suneqc.
3.6.62 ?

Dexte ti mi sunrthsh f : [a, b] R enai apluta suneqc an kai

mno an h sunrthsh olikc kmanshc v(x) = Vax f enai apluta suneqc.

3.6.63 Jewrome tic sunartseic g(x) = x kai

(
f (x) =

x2 | sin(1/x)|, x (0, 1]
0,
x = 0.

Dexte ti oi sunartseic f , g , f g enai apluta suneqec en h g f den enai

apluta suneqc sto [0, 1].

3.6.64 Dexte ti an h f : [a, b] [c, d] enai apluta suneqc sto [a, b] kai h
g : [c, d] R enai Lipschitz, tte h g f enai apluta suneqc sto [a, b].
3.6.65 Dexte ti an h f : [a, b] [c, d] enai apluta suneqc kai montonh sto
[a, b] kai h g : [c, d] R enai apluta suneqc sto [c, d], tte h g f enai apluta
suneqc sto [a, b].
3.6.66 (a) Dexte ti h sunrthsh to Cantor den enai apluta suneqc sto [0, 1].
(b) Swst Ljoc? AC[a, b] = C[a, b] BV [a, b].

Kurtc sunartseic
3.6.67 Dexte ti an oi f, g enai kurtc sto disthma I , tte kai h f + g enai
kurt sto I .
3.6.68 Dexte ti an c 0 kai h sunrthsh f enai kurt sto disthma I , tte kai
h cf enai kurt sto I .
3.6.69 Brete ta diastmata sta opoa enai kurt kajemi ap tic paraktw
sunartseic:
(a) f (x) = xx , x > 0.
(b) f (x) = (log x)2 , x > 0.
(g) f (x) = (1 + x + x2 )1 .
(d) f (x) = x3 x2 x.
78

3.6.70 Mi sunrthsh enai kai kurt kai kolh sto disthma I . Dexte ti enai
afinik sto I .
3.6.71 'Estw f mi kurt sunrthsh sto anoikt disthma I . Dexte ti ete h
f enai montonh sto I ete uprqei xo I ttoio ste h f enai fjnousa sto
I (, xo ] kai axousa sto I [xo , ).
3.6.72 (a) Dexte ti an oi f, g enai kurtc sto disthma I , tte kai h max{f, g}
enai kurt sto I .
(b) 'Estw F na mh ken snolo kurtn sunartsewn sto disthma I . Upojtoume
ti gia kje x I ,
s(x) := sup{f (x) : f F} < .
Dexte ti h s enai kurt sto I .

3.6.73 Dnetai sunrthsh f kurt sto [a, b]. Dexte ti:

(a) An uprqei c (a, b) ttoio ste f (a) = f (c) = f (b), tte h f enai stajer.
(b) An uprqei c (a, b) ttoio ste ta shmea (a, f (a)), (c, f (c)), (b, f (b)) enai
suneujeiak, tte h f enai afinik sto [a, b].
3.6.74 Dnontai arijmo p, q R me

1
p

xy

1
q

= 1 Dexte ti gia kje x, y > 0,

xp
yq
+ .
p
q

3.6.75 Dexte ti gia x1 , x2 , . . . , xn > 0, isqei

x1 + x2 + + xn
.
n
P
3.6.76 An xj > 0 kai pj > 0 gia j = 1, 2, . . . , n, kai nj=1 pj = 1, dexte ti
(x1 x2 . . . xn )1/n

n
Y
j=1

p
xj j

n
X

pj xj .

j=1

Dexte ti h isthta isqei an kai mno an x1 = x2 = = xn . Ti sumbanei tan

pj = 1/n gia kje j ?
Updeixh: H sunrthsh f (x) = log x enai kurt sto (0, ).

3.6.77 Dexte ti an a 6= b, tte

eb ea
ea + eb
<
.
ba
2

3.6.78 Dexte ti gia x, y > 0,

x log x + y log y (x + y) log

79

x+y
.
2

3.6.79 Gia x1 , x2 , . . . , xn (0, ), jtoume x = (x1 + x2 + + xn )/n. Apodexte

tic anisthtec
n

n
n
Y
Y
sin xk
sin x
sin xk (sin x)n ,

.
xk
x
k=1

k=1

3.6.80 Dexte ti an h sunrthsh f : R R enai kurt kai nw fragmnh, tte

h f enai stajer sto R.
3.6.81 Swst Ljoc?
An h f enai kurt kai fragmnh sto (a, ), tte enai stajer.
3.6.82 (a) Dexte ti an h f enai kurt sto I kai h g enai kurt kai axousa sto
f (I), tte h g f enai kurt sto I .
(b) Dexte me pardeigma ti h monotona tc g sto (a) enai aparathth.
3.6.83 Brete mi sunrthsh pou enai kurt sto [0, 1] all den enai suneqc sta
shmea 0 kai 1.
3.6.84 Brete kurt sunrthsh f sto [0, 1] ttoia ste
f (h) f (0)
= +
h0+
h
lim

kai

f (1 + h) f (1)
= .
h0
h
lim

3.6.85 Dexte ti an h f enai kurt sto fragmno, anoikt disthma I , tte h f

enai ktw fragmnh sto I .
3.6.86 Dexte ti an h f enai gnhswc axousa kai kurt sto disthma I , tte h
f 1 enai kolh sto f (I).
3.6.87 Dnetai suneqc sunrthsh sto anoikt disthma I . Upojtoume ti gia
kje x, y I ,

x+y
f (x) + f (y)
f

.
2
2
Dexte ti h f enai kurt sto I .
Updeixh: H (3.7) isqei gia ta t thc morfc t = m/2n .

3.6.88 Swst Ljoc?

(a) To ginmeno do kurtn sunartsewn enai kurt sunrthsh.
(b) To ginmeno do jetikn kurtn sunartsewn enai kurt sunrthsh.
3.6.89 H sunrthsh f enai oloklhrsimh kat Riemann sto [0, 1] kai |f (x)|
1, x [0, 1]. Apodexte thn anisthta
s
Z 1
2
Z 1p
2
1 f (x) dx 1
f (x) dx .
0

80

3.6.90 'Estw I na anoikt disthma. Mi sunrthsh f : I (0, ) onomzetai

logarijmik kurt an h sunrthsh log f enai kurt sto I . Dexte ti:

(a) Kje logarijmik kurt sunrthsh enai kurt.

(b) 'Estw ti h f enai jetik kai do forc paragwgsimh sto I . Tte h f enai
logarijmik kurt sto I an kai mno an (f 0 )2 f f 00 sto I .
(g) An h f enai afinik kai logarijmik kurt sto I , tte enai stajer sto I .
(d) Mi jetik sunrthsh f sto I enai logarijmik kurt an kai mno an gia kje
a, b I kai kje t [0, 1], isqei

f ((1 t)a + tb) [f (a)]1t [f (b)]t .

3.6.91 (a) Dexte ti h sunrthsh f (u) = u log u enai kurt sto [0, ).
(b) Dnontai jetiko arijmo x, y, a, b me bx 6= ay . Dexte ti
(x + y) log

x+y
x
y
< x log + y log .
a+b
a
b

3.6.92 Dexte ti an h sunrthsh f enai kurt sto [a, b], tte h f enai fragmnh
kmanshc sto [a, b].
3.6.93 Dexte ti an h f enai kurt se na diasthma, tte qei to polu do diastmata monotonac.
3.6.94 'Estw kurt sunrthsh f : (a, b) R me a < b .
(a) Dexte ti ete h f enai montonh sto (a, b), ete qei elqisto se na shmeo
c (a, b).
(b) Dexte ti ta ria limxa+ f (x), limxb f (x) uprqoun (dhl. ankoun sto
R {, }).
(g) Dexte ti an epiplon h f enai fragmnh, tte enai kai omoimorfa suneqc
sto (a, b).
3.6.95 Dnontai pragmatiko arijmo a1 , b1 , a2 , b2 R ttoioi ste
a2 + b2 a1 + b1

kai

0 a1 a2 b2 < b1 .

'Estw : R R mi mh stajer, kurt, axousa sunrthsh. Dexte ti

(a2 ) + (b2 ) (a1 ) + (b1 ).

Dexte ti isthta isqei an kai mno an h enai afinik sto [a1 , b1 ] kai a1 + b1 =
a2 + b2 .

3.7 Shmeiseic
Oi sunartseic Lipschitz meletjhkan ap ton Rudolph Lipschitz to 1876. Qrhsimopoiontai sth jewra twn diaforikn exissewn.

81

To shmantiktero jerhma gia tic montonec sunartseic enai to jerhma

paraggishc tou Lebesgue: Kje montonh sunrthsh, orismnh se na disthma, enai paragwgsimh xw ap na snolo mtrou mhdn. Sto keflaio gia to
mtro Lebesgue ja dome ti shmanei snolo mtrou mhdn. H apdeixh pntwc tou
jewrmatoc enai dskolh kai xw ap ta plasia to biblou; bl. [2], [5], [8].
Oi sunartseic fragmnhc kmanshc onomzontai kai sunartseic fragmnhc
metabolc. Perissterec idithtc touc uprqoun sta bibla [1], [2], [5], [8]. Aut
h klsh prwtoemfansthke sth melth to Camille Jordan gia th sgklish twn
seirn Fourier sta tlh tou 19ou aina. Oi sunartseic fragmnhc kmanshc qrhsimopoiontai sth jewra to oloklhrmatoc Riemann-Stieljes pou genikeei to sunhjismno oloklrwma to Riemann; bl. [2], [8]. O Jordan tan kai o prtoc pou
paratrhse th sndesh thc fragmnhc kmanshc me thn eujugrammisimthta mic
kamplhc. H nnoia aut pazei shmantik rlo sth sgqronh gewmetrik jewra
mtrou kai tic efarmogc thc se llouc kldouc thc Anlushc.
Oi apluta suneqec sunartseic qrhsimopoijhkan ap touc G.Vitali kai H.Lebesgue
stic arqc tou 20o aina. Enai oi sunartseic gia tic opoec isqei to Jemelidec
Jerhma to Logismo gia to oloklrwma to Lebesgue.
H 'Askhsh 3.6.46 ofeletai ston Lebesgue. H 'Askhsh 3.6.95 ofeletai ston A.
Yu. Solynin.

82

Keflaio 4

Akoloujec sunartsewn
4.1 H nnoia thc akoloujac sunartsewn
Orismc 4.1.1 Akolouja sunartsewn enai mia sunrthsh me pedo
orismo to N kai pedo timn to snolo twn pragmatikn sunartsewn. Sumbolzoume mia akolouja sunartsewn me {fn }
n=1 .
Jewrome mia akolouja sunartsewn {fn }
n=1 pou enai lec orismnec
s' na snolo E R. Gia kje x E , prokptei mia akolouja pragmatikn
arijmn {fn (x)}
n=1 .

Pardeigma 4.1.2 Dnetai h akolouja sunartsewn {fn }

n=1 me
fn (x) = 1 +

x n

, x R, n N.
n
Gia stajeropoihmno n N, h fn enai mia pragmatik sunrthsh. Gia
pardeigma h f1 enai h sunrthsh me tpo f1 (x) = 1 + x, x R, en h
f2 qei tpo f2 (x) = 1 + x2 /4. Gia stajeropoihmno x R, h {fn (x)}
n=1
enai mia akolouja pragmatikn arijmn; p.q. fn (0) = {1, 1, 1, . . . }, fn (1) =
{1 + n1n }
n=1 .

Pardeigma 4.1.3 Jewrome thn akolouja sunartsewn {fn }

n=1 me
fn (x) = x +

1
, x R, n N.
n

Oi pragmatikc sunartseic f1 kai f2 qoun tpouc f1 (x) = x + 1 kai f2 (x) =

x + 1/2. Gia x = 5 prokptei h pragmatik akolouja fn (5) = {5 + 1/n}
n=1 ,
en gia x = 1 prokptei h akolouja fn (1) = {1 + 1/n}
.
n=1
83

Orismc 4.1.4 Dnetai mi akolouja pragmatikn sunartsewn {fn }

n=1
pou enai orismnec sto snolo E R. H {fn }
n=1 onomzetai shmeiak
fragmnh, an gia kje x E , h pragmatik akolouja {fn (x)}
n=1 enai
fragmnh. H {fn }
onomzetai
omoimorfa
fragmnh
an
uprqei
M >0
n=1

ttoio ste

|fn (x)| M, x E, n N.

Pardeigma 4.1.5 H akolouja {fn }

n=1 me fn (x) = cos nx, x R enai

omoimorfa fragmnh diti | cos nx| 1, x R, n N. H akolouja

1
{gn }
n=1 me gn (x) = nx , x R \ {0} enai shmeiak fragmnh diti gia kje
1
x R \ {0} h pragmatik akolouja { nx
}n=1 enai fragmnh (kai mlista

sugklnei sto 0). H {gn }n=1 den enai omoimorfa fragmnh. Prgmati isqei
1
1
limx0+ nx
= +; ra den mpore na uprqei M > 0 ttoio ste | nx
|
M, x R \ {0}, n N.

Orismc 4.1.6 H akolouja sunartsewn {fn }

n=1 onomzetai shmeiak
axousa (fjnousa) sto snolo E an gia kje x E , h pragmatik
akolouja {fn (x)}
n=1 enai axousa (fjnousa).

Pardeigma 4.1.7 H {gn }

n=1 tou Paradegmatoc 3 enai shmeiak fjnousa

sto (0, +) kai enai shmeiak axousa sto (, 0).

4.2 Shmeiak sgklish

Orismc 4.2.1 Dnetai mi akolouja pragmatikn sunartsewn {fn }
n=1
pou enai orismnec sto snolo E R. Lme ti h {fn }
sugklnei
n=1
f sto
shmeiak sto E proc th sunrthsh f : E R kai grfoume fn

E , an gia kje x E isqei limn fn (x) = f (x).

f
Ap ton orism tou orou pragmatikc akoloujac prokptei ti fn
sto E an kai mno an

x E, > 0, no N ttoio ste n no , |fn (x) f (x)| < .

Pardeigma 4.2.2 Enai gnwst ti gia kje x R, limn (1 + x/n)n =

n
ex . 'Ara gia thn akolouja sunartsewn {fn }
n=1 me fn (x) = (1 + x/n) , x

x
R, isqei fn f sto R, pou f (x) = e .

84

Pardeigma 4.2.3 'Estw fn (x) = x + (1)n . Gia x R, isqei

lim sup fn (x) = x + 1,

lim inf fn (x) = x 1.

n

'Ara h {fn }
n=1 den sugklnei shmeiak sto R.

Pardeigma 4.2.4 'Estw f mia pragmatik sunrthsh orismnh sto E R.

1
Jewrome thn akolouja sunartsewn {fn }
n=1 me fn (x) = f (x) + n , x E .
Tte gia kje x E ,

1
lim fn (x) = lim f (x) +
= f (x).
n
n
n
f sto E .
'Ara fn
n
Pardeigma 4.2.5 Jewrome thn akolouja {fn }
n=1 me fn (x) = x , x

f sto [0, 1], pou

[0, 1]. Tte fn
(
0, x [0, 1),
f (x) =
1, x = 1.

Qrhsimopointac basikc idithtec tou orou paragmatikn akoloujin

apodeiknetai ekola to paraktw jerhma; h apdeix tou afnetai gia
skhsh.
f sto E kai g
g sto E kai c , c R, tte
Jerhma 4.2.6 An fn
n
1 2
c f + c g sto E kai f g
f g sto E .
c1 fn + c2 gn
1
2
n n

Orismc 4.2.7 An {fn }

n=1 enai mi akolouja sunartsewn pou enai oris-

mnec sto snolo E R, orzoume sto E tic epektetamnec pragmatikc

sunartseic supn fn , inf n fn , lim supn fn , lim inf n fn me tic paraktw
isthtec:

(sup fn )(x) = sup(fn (x)),

n

(inf fn )(x) = inf (fn (x)),

n

(lim sup fn )(x) = lim sup(fn (x)),

n

(lim inf fn )(x) = lim inf (fn (x)).

n

(1)n
n , x
lim supn fn (x) = x,

Pardeigma 4.2.8 Gia thn akolouja {fn }

n=1 me fn (x) = x +
R isqei supn fn (x) = x + 21 , inf n fn (x) = x 1,
lim inf n fn (x) = x, x R.
85

4.3 Omoimorfh sgklish

Orismc 4.3.1 Dnontai do pragmatikc sunartseic f kai g , orismnec
kai oi do sto snolo E R. Orzoume wc apstash twn f kai g ton
epektetamno pragmatik arijm

d(f, g) = sup{|f (x) g(x)| : x E}.

Gia thn apstash twn f kai g ja qrhsimopoiome epshc kai touc sumbolismoc dE (f, g) kai kf gkE .

Pardeigma 4.3.2 An f (x) = x, g(x) = x2 , x [0, 1], tte

1
d[0,1] (f, g) = sup{x x2 : x [0, 1]} = max (x x2 ) = .
4
x[0,1]

Pardeigma 4.3.3 An f (x) = tan1 x, g(x) = 2, x R, tte

dR (f, g) = sup{| tan1 x 2| : x R} = sup(2 tan1 x) = 2 +
xR

.
2

Pardeigma 4.3.4 An f (x) = x, g(x) = sin x, x R, tte

dR (f, g) = sup |x sin x| = +.
xR

Orismc 4.3.5 Dnetai mi akolouja pragmatikn sunartsewn {fn }

n=1
pou enai orismnec sto snolo E R. Lme ti h {fn }
n=1 sugklnei
o f sto
omoimorfa sto E proc th sunrthsh f : E R kai grfoume fn
E , an limn dE (fn , f ) = 0.

Qrhsimopointac tra ton orism tou orou pragmatikc akoloujac kai

ton orism thc apstashc sunartsewn, blpoume ti mi akolouja sunartsewn {fn }
n=1 sugklnei omoimorfa sto E proc th sunrthsh f : E R an
kai mno an gia kje > 0, uprqei no N (pou exarttai mno ap to )
ttoio ste
|fn (x) f (x)| < , n no , x E.
Gewmetrik aut shmanei ti gia kje > 0, uprqei no N ttoio ste
ta grafmata twn sunartsewn fn ap to no kai pra brskontai olklhra
msa sth znh pltouc 2 grw ap to grfhma thc f .
o f sto E , tte f
f sto E .
Jerhma 4.3.6 An fn
n

86

Apdeixh.
o f sto E kai |f (x) f (x)| d (f , f ), isqei
'Estw x E . Epeid fn
n
E n
limn |fn (x) f (x)| = 0. 'Ara limn fn (x) = f (x).

To Jerhma 4.3.6 odhge sthn exc mjodo gia na brskoume to omoimorfo rio mic akoloujac sunartsewn {fn } (efson bbaia h akolouja sugklnei omoimorfa): Prta brskoume to shmeiak rio pou enai mia
sunrthsh f . Lgw tou jewrmatoc, an h {fn } sugklnei omoimorfa, ja
sugklnei omoimorfa proc thn f . Upologzoume ( ektimome), loipn, thn
pragmatik akolouja d(fn , f ) kai exetzoume an sugklnei sto 0. Gia ton upologism ( thn ektmhsh) tc d(fn , f ) suqn enai qrsimec diforec mjodoi
tou Diaforiko Logismo.

Pardeigma 4.3.7 'Estw

fn (x) =

x
, x R.
1 + nx2

Gia kje x R, isqei

lim fn (x) = 0.

f sto R, pou f h mhdenik sunrthsh. Epomnwc

'Ara fn

d(fn , f ) = sup |fn | = sup

R

x
.
1 + nx2

Upologzoume thn pargwgo thc fn :

fn0 (x) =

1 nx2
.
(1 + nx2 )2

Oi rzec thc paraggou enai ta shmea 1/ n kai isqei fn (1/ n) =

1/(2 n). Epshc

lim |f (x)| = 0.
x

'Ara h |fn | qei mgisto so me 1/(2 n), dhlad d(fn , f ) = 1/(2 n). H
o f
akolouja aut tenei sto 0 tan n . Sumperanoume loipn ti fn
sto R.

Pardeigma 4.3.8 'Estw fn (x) =

1
nx ,

x (0, ). H {fn } sugklnei

shmeiak prc th mhdenik sunrthsh f . H sgklish den enai omoimorfh
diti d(fn , f ) = sup |1/(nx)| = +, n N.
87

Pardeigma 4.3.9 'Estw

fn (x) =

2n
, x (0, ).
nx + 3

f sto (0, ), pou f (x) = 2/x. H sgklish den enai omoimorfh

Tte fn
sto (0, ) diti

d(0,) (fn , f ) = sup

x(0,)

nx2

6
= +, n N.
+ 3x

o f sto [a, +) gia opoiodpote a > 0, diti

'Omwc fn

d[a,) (fn , f ) = sup

x[a,)

nx2

6
6

0, tan n .
2
+ 3x
na + 3a

Prtash 4.3.10 Dnontai sunartseic fn , n N kai f orismnec sto sno-

lo E . An uprqei pragmatik akolouja {an } ttoia ste

(a) x E, n N, |fn (x) f (x)| an ,
(b) limn an = 0,
o f sto E .
tte fn
Apdeixh.
Ap tic upojseic (a) kai (b) prokptei mesa ti

0 dE (fn , f ) an 0.
o f sto E .
'Ara fn

Pardeigma 4.3.11 'Estw fn (x) = nx , x [0, 1]. Isqei |fn |

'Ara fn

o f

sto [0, 1], pou f h mhdenik sunrthsh.

1
n

0.

o f sto E kai g
o g sto E kai c , c R,
Jerhma 4.3.12 (a) An fn
n
1 2

o c f + c g sto E .
tte c1 fn + c2 gn
1
2
o f g
(b) An epiplon oi {fn }, {gn } enai omoimorfa fragmnec, tte fn gn
sto E .

Apdeixh.
(a) 'Estw > 0. Lgw thc omoimorfhc sgklishc, uprqei no N ttoio
ste

|fn (x) f (x)| <

kai |gn (x) g(x)| <

, x E, n no .
2|c1 |
2|c2 |
88

Tte x E, n no , isqei

|(c1 fn (x) + c2 gn (x)) (c1 f (x) + c2 g(x))|

|c1 | |fn (x) f (x)| + |c2 | |gn (x) g(x)| < |c1 |

+ |c2 |
= .
2|c1 |
2|c2 |

o c f + c g sto E .
'Ara c1 fn + c2 gn
1
2

(b) Ap thn upjesh uprqei M > 0 ttoio ste

|fn (x)| M kai |gn (x)| M, x E, n N.

f sto E , dhlad lim
Lgw tou Jewrmatoc 4.3.6, isqei fn
n fn (x) =
f (x), x E . 'Ara |f (x)| M, x E .
'Estw > 0. Ap thn omoimorfh sgklish, uprqei no N ttoio ste

|fn (x) f (x)| <

2M

kai |gn (x) g(x)| <

, x E, n no .
2M

Tte x E, n no , isqei

|fn (x)gn (x) f (x)g(x)|

|fn (x)gn (x) f (x)gn (x)| + |f (x)gn (x) f (x)g(x)|
= |fn (x) f (x)| |gn (x)| + |f (x)| |gn (x) g(x)|

<
M +M
= .
2M
2M

H upjesh sto (b) ti oi {fn }, {gn } enai omoimorfa fragmnec den mpore
na paraleifje. Aut fanetai ap to epmeno pardeigma.

Pardeigma 4.3.13 'Estw fn (x) = x + n1 , x R. H {fn } den enai omoi-

morfa fragmnh akolouja sunartsewn. Sugklnei shmeiak sto R prc th

sunrthsh f me f (x) = x. H sgklish enai omoimorfh diti d(fn , f ) = 1/n
f 2 sto R. H sgklish mwc den enai
gia kje n N. Profanc fn2
omoimorfh sto R. Prgmati, gia kje n N,

2x
1
2 2

+ 2 = +.
d(fn , f ) = sup
n
xR n
To akloujo jerhma mac bohj na apofassoume (sunjwc se apodexeic jewrhmtwn) an mia akolouja sugklnei omoimorfa qwrc na gnwrzoume
th sunrthsh rio.
89

Jerhma 4.3.14 (Kritrio Cauchy gia omoimorfh sgklish) Dne-

tai mi akolouja sunartsewn {fn } pou enai orismnec sto snolo E R.

H {fn } sugklnei omoimorfa proc kpoia sunrthsh sto E an kai mno an
gia kje > 0, uprqei no N ttoio ste

(4.1)

|fn (x) fm (x)| < , n, m no , x E.

Apdeixh.
'Estw > 0. Upojtoume ti h {fn } sugklnei omoimorfa sto E . 'Estw f
h sunrthsh-rio. Tte uprqei no N ttoio ste

|fn (x) f (x)| < , x E, n no .

2
Epomnwc, an x E, n no , m no , tte

|fn (x) fm (x)| |fn (x) f (x)| + |f (x) fm (x)| < .

Antistrfwc: An x E , h pragmatik akolouja {fn (x)} enai Cauchy;
ra sugklnousa. 'Estw f (x) to ri thc. 'Etsi orzetai mi sunrthsh
f sto E . Ja dexoume ti f
o f sto E .
f : E R kai isqei fn
n
'Estw > 0. Dialgoume no ttoio ste na isqei h (4.1) me 2 sth jsh
, dhlad

|fn (x) fm (x)| < , n, m no , x E.

2
Gia stajeropoihmno n parnoume rio m kai prokptei

|fn (x) f (x)|

< , x E, n no ,
2

o f sto E .
dhlad fn

4.4 Omoimorfh sgklish kai sunqeia

f f
o f
Sthn pargrafo aut ja antimetwpsoume to erthma: An fn
n
kai lec oi fn enai suneqec, enai kai h f suneqc? Ja dome ti h omoimorfh
sgklish, se antjesh me th shmeiak, eggutai th sunqeia thc f .

Ac xanakoitxoume to Pardeigma 4.2.5: 'Eqoume fn (x) = xn , x [0, 1]

f sto [0, 1], pou
kai fn
(
0, x [0, 1),
f (x) =
1, x = 1.
'Olec oi fn enai suneqec sto [0, 1] en h f den enai suneqc sto [0, 1].
90

o f sto E , x E kai lec oi f enai suneqec sto

Jerhma 4.4.1 An fn
o
n

xo , tte kai h f enai suneqc sto xo .

Apdeixh.
An to xo enai apomonwmno shmeo to E , tte h f enai suneqc sto xo .
'Estw, loipn, ti to xo enai shmeo sussreushc to E . 'Estw > 0; ap
thn upjesh, uprqei no N ttoio ste

|fn (x) f (x)| < , x E, n no .

3
Epeid h sunrthsh fno enai suneqc sto xo , uprqei > 0 ttoio ste

|fno (x) fno (xo )| < , x (xo , xo + ).

3
'Ara, gia x (xo , xo + ),
|f (x) f (xo )| |f (x) fno (x)| + |fno (x) fno (xo )| + |fno (xo ) f (xo )| < ,
pou shmanei ti h f enai suneqc sto xo .

Pardeigma 4.4.2 'Estw fn (x) =

1
nx ,

x (0, ). 'Opwc edame sto

Pardeigma 4.3.8, h {fn } sugklnei shmeiak sto (0, ) prc th mhdenik
sunrthsh f . H sgklish den enai omoimorfh sto (0, ). H oriak sunrthsh
f enai suneqc sto (0, ).

Pardeigma 4.4.3 'Estw

fn (x) =

1
n,
2
n,

x [0, 1),
x [1, 2].

Gia kje n N kai kje x [0, 2], isqei 0 fn (x) 2/n. 'Ara h
akolouja sunartsewn {fn } sugklnei omoimorfa sto [0, 2] proc th mhdenik sunrthsh. H sunrthsh-rio enai suneqc parlo pou lec oi sunartseic fn enai asuneqec.
To akloujo enai na merik antstrofo tou Jewrmatoc 4.4.1.

Jerhma 4.4.4 (Kritrio Dini gia omoimorfh sgklish) Dnetai mi

akolouja sunartsewn {fn } pou enai orismnec sto snolo K R. Upojtoume ti

f sto K .
(a) fn
(b) 'Olec oi fn enai suneqec sto K .
(g) H f enai suneqc sto K .
(d) To K enai sumpagc.
(e) H akolouja {fn } enai ete shmeiak axousa ete shmeiak fjnousa.
o f sto K .
Tte fn
91

Apdeixh.
Upojtoume ti h {fn } enai shmeiak fjnousa; an enai shmeiak axousa, h
apdeixh enai parmoia. Jewrome thn akolouja sunartsewn gn = fn f
pou enai fjnousa kai sugklnei shmeiak sto K proc th mhdenik sunrthsh.
Arke na dexoume ti h sgklish enai omoimorfh.
'Estw > 0. An x K , tte 0 gn (x) & 0. 'Ara uprqei nx N ttoio
ste
0 gnx (x) < .
Epeid h gnx enai suneqc sto x, uprqei perioq (x) tou x tsi ste
(4.2)

0 gnx (t) < ,

t (x) K.

H akolouja sunartsewn {gn } enai shmeiak fjnousa; ra, lgw thc (4.2),
(4.3)

0 gn (t) < , t (x) K, n nx .

Oi perioqc (x) apotelon anoikt kluyh tou sumpagoc sunlou K .

Epomnwc uprqoun peperasmnou pljouc shmea x1 , x2 , . . . , xN to K ttoia ste
K (x1 ) (x2 ) (xN ).
Jtoume no = max{nx1 , nx2 , . . . , nxN }. Tte, lgw thc (4.3),
(4.4)

0 gn (t) < , t K, n no ,

pou shmanei ti h {gn } sugklnei omoimorfa sto K proc th mhdenik sunrthsh.

Pardeigma 4.4.5 'Estw

fn (x) =

x2
, x R.
n

f
H {fn } enai shmeiak fjnousa akolouja suneqn sunartsewn kai fn
sto R, pou f h mhdenik sunrthsh. H sgklish den enai omoimorfh sto
R, diti
dR (fn , f ) = +, n N.

H {fn } ikanopoie lec tic upojseic to krithrou to Dini ektc ap thn

upjesh (d): to R den enai sumpagc.
92

Pardeigma 4.4.6 'Estw

(
fn (x) =

n2 x2 2nx, x [0, 2/n],

0,
x [2/n, 2].

f sto [0, 2], pou f h mhdenik sunrthsh. H sgklish den enai

Tte fn
omoimorfh sto [0, 2], diti

1
= 1, n N.
d[0,2] (fn , f ) = fn
n

H {fn } ikanopoie lec tic upojseic to krithrou to Dini ektc ap thn

upjesh (e).

4.5 Enallag orwn

Sthn pargrafo aut ja exetsoume to exc erthma: Ac upojsoume ti
qoume mia akolouja sunartsewn {fn } pou enai lec orismnec sto snolo
E R. 'Estw na shmeo sussreushc to sunlou E . Ktw ap poic
sunjkec mporome na knoume enallag twn orwn gia x kai gia n ?
Me lla lgia ja exetsoume pte isqei h isthta

lim lim fn (x) = lim lim fn (x).

n x

x n

Jerhma 4.5.1 Dnontai akolouja sunartsewn {fn } sto snolo E kai

na shmeo sussreushc to E . Upojtoume
o f sto E ,
(a) fn
(b) Gia kje n N, to rio limx fn (x) uprqei; stw an := limx fn (x).
Tte h akolouja {an } sugklnei kai isqei

lim an = lim f (x),

dhlad

lim lim fn (x) = lim lim fn (x).

n x

x n

Apdeixh.
'Estw > 0. Ja dexoume prta ti h akolouja {an } enai akolouja
Cauchy. Epeid h {fn } sugklnei omoimorfa sto E , uprqei no N ttoio ste

|fn (x) fm (x)| < , n, m no , x E.

3
93

Ap thn upjesh (b), gia n, m N, uprqei > 0 ttoio ste gia kje
x E me 0 < |x | < ,

|fn (x) an | <

|fm (x) am | < .

3

kai

'Ara an n, m no kai x E me 0 < |x | < , tte

|an am | |an fn (x)| + |fn (x) fm (x)| + |fm (x) am | < .

Sunepc h akolouja {an } enai akolouja Cauchy.
Afo h {an } enai akolouja Cauchy, ja enai kai sugklnousa. 'Estw
a := lim an . Uprqei tte n1 N ttoio ste

|an a| < , n n1 .
3
Ap thn upjesh (b), uprqei n2 N ttoio ste

|fn (x) an | < , n n2 , x E.

3
Jtoume N := max{n1 , n2 }. Ap thn upjesh (a), uprqei > 0, ttoio
ste

|fN (x) f (x)| < , x E me 0 < |x | < .

3
Epomnwc, an x E me 0 < |x | < , tte

|f (x) a| |f (x) fN (x)| + |fN (x) aN | + |aN a| < ,

dhlad limx f (x) = a.

4.6 Omoimorfh sgklish kai oloklrwsh

'Ena basik kai suqn emfanizmeno erthma sthn Anlush enai pte mporome na bloume to rio msa sto oloklrwma. Pi sugkekrimna: pte
isqei h isthta

Z
(4.5)

lim

n a

fn (x) dx =

lim fn (x) dx.

a n

f sto R, pou
Pardeigma 4.6.1 'Estw fn (x) = n(0,1/n] (x). Isqei fn

f h mhdenik sunrthsh. 'Omwc gia kje n N,

94

R1
0

fn = 1 6= 0 =

R1
0

f.

o f .
To akloujo jerhma lei ti h isthta (4.5) isqei tan fn

Jerhma 4.6.2 Dnetai mi akolouja sunartsewn {fn } pou enai lec suneqec
o f sto [a, b], tte h f enai oloklhrsimh sto
sto disthma [a, b]. An fn
[a, b] kai isqei

Z
(4.6)

lim

fn =

n a

f.
a

Apdeixh.
Ap to Jerhma 4.4.1 h f enai suneqc, ra kai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b].
Epshc isqei
Z b
Z b Z b

0
fn
f
|fn f | (b a) d(fn , f ).
a

Lgw omoimorfhc sgklishc, limn d(fn , f ) = 0 kai to jerhma apodeqthke.

To jerhma aut mpore na apodeiqje me thn upjesh ti oi fn enai

oloklhrsimec sto [a, b] (kai qi kat' angkh suneqec); bl. ta bibla [4], [8],
[10] thn 'Askhsh 4.8.33.

Pardeigma 4.6.3 'Estw

2n
, x (0, ).
nx + 3

fn (x) =

f sto (0, ), pou f (x) = 2/x. H

'Opwc edame sto Pardeigma 4.3.9, fn
o f sto [a, +) gia
sgklish den enai omoimorfh sto (0, ). 'Omwc fn
opoiodpote a > 0. Smfwna me to Jerhma 4.6.2,

Z
lim

n 1

2n
dx =
nx + 3

Z
1

To rio

2
dx = 2(log 2 log 1) = 2 log 2.
x

Z
lim

n 0

2n
dx
nx + 3

den mpore na breje me ton dio trpo. Gia na to brome upologzoume prta
to oloklrwma kai met parnoume rio gia n :

Z
lim

n 0

2n
dx = lim [2 log(nx+3)]10 = lim 2[log(n+3)log 3] = +.
n
n
nx + 3
95

Pardeigma 4.6.4 To snolo Q[0, 1] enai arijmsimo. 'Estw q1 , q2 , q3 . . .

mia arjmhs tou. Orzoume thn akolouja sunartsewn
(
1, an x = q1 , q2 , . . . , qn ,
fn (x) =
0, an x [0, 1] \ {q1 , q2 , . . . , qn }.

Gia kje n N, h sunrthsh fn qei peperasmnou pljouc shmea asunR1

qeiac. 'Ara enai oloklhrsimh sto [0, 1]; epshc profanc isqei 0 fn = 0.
Exetzoume tra th sgklish thc akoloujac {fn }. Ekola apodeikne f sto [0, 1], pou
tai ti fn
(
1, an x = Q [0, 1],
f (x) =
0, an x [0, 1] \ Q.
Upologzontac ta pnw kai ktw ajrosmata Riemann, brskoume ti h f den
enai oloklhrsimh sto [0, 1]. H {fn } den sugklnei omoimorfa sto [0, 1].

4.7 Omoimorfh sgklish kai paraggish

Sthn pargrafo aut exetzoume to erthma: Pte mporome na enallxoume
tic prxeic thc paraggishc kai tou orou; pte, dhlad, isqei

lim f 0
n n

(4.7)

= [ lim fn ]0 ?
n

To pardeigma pou akolouje deqnei ti h omoimorfh sgklish thc {fn } den

eggutai thn isq thc (4.7).

Pardeigma 4.7.1 'Estw fn (x) =

sin nx
n ,

x (0, 2). Tte |fn (x)| n1 .

'Ara h {fn } sugklnei omoimorfa sto (0, 2) proc th mhdenik sunrthsh.
'Omwc fn0 (x) = cos nx. H akolouja {fn0 } den sugklnei (shmeiak) sto (0, 2)
diti fn0 () = (1)n .

Pardeigma 4.7.2 'Estw

fn (x) =

nx
, x R.
1 + n2 x2

H {fn } sugklnei shmeiak sto R proc th mhdenik sunrthsh f . H sgklish

den enai omoimorfh. Prgmati, ekola apodeiknetai ti

1
1
dR (fn , f ) = fn
=
n
2
96

gia kje n N. H akolouja twn paraggwn enai h

fn0 (x) =

n n3 x2
, x R.
(1 + n2 x2 )2

Parathrome ti h {fn0 } sugklnei shmeiak sto R \ {0} proc th mhdenik

sunrthsh, en h fn0 (0) = n sugklnei sto +.

Pardeigma 4.7.3 'Estw

fn (x) =

sin(nx)
, x R.
n1/2

Isqei |fn (x)| n1/2 gia la ta n kai la ta x. 'Ara h {fn } sugklnei omoimorfa sto R proc th mhdenik sunrthsh f . H akolouja twn paraggwn
enai h
fn0 (x) = n1/2 cos(nx), x R.
Ja dexoume ti gia kje x R, h akolouja arijmn {fn0 (x)} den enai
fragmnh; epomnwc ote kai sugklnousa. Stajeropoiome x R.
An n N kai | cos(nx)| 1/2, tte |fn0 (x)| n1/2 /2.
An n N kai | cos(nx)| < 1/2, tte | cos(2nx)| = |2 cos2 (nx) 1| > 1/2. 'Ara
0
|f2n
(x)| = (2n)1/2 | cos(2nx)|

(2n)1/2
.
2

Sumperanoume ti to snolo {n N : |fn0 (x)| n1/2 /2} enai peiro. Epomnwc h {fn0 (x)} den enai fragmnh. Telik loipn h akolouja {fn }
apoteletai ap paragwgsimec sunartseic kai enai omoimorfa sugklnousa,
en h akolouja twn paraggwn {fn0 } den sugklnei gia kanna x R.
To jerhma pou akolouje deqnei ti ktw ap isqurc pro
upojseic, h
(4.7) isqei:

Jerhma 4.7.4 Dnetai mi akolouja sunartsewn {fn } pou enai oris-

mnec sto disthma [a, b]. Upojtoume ti:

(a) 'Olec oi fn qoun suneq pargwgo sto [a, b].
(b) H pragmatik akolouja {fn (xo )} sugklnei gia na toulqisto xo [a, b].
(g) H akolouja twn paraggwn {fn0 } sugklnei omoimorfa sto [a, b].
Tte:
(i) h {fn } sugklnei omoimorfa sto [a, b] prc mi sunrthsh f .
(ii) H f enai paragwgsimh sto [a, b].
o f 0 sto [a, b].
(iii) fn0
97

Apdeixh.
Prta ja dexoume ti h akolouja {fn } sugklnei shmeiak sto [a, b] prc mia
sunrthsh f . 'Estw C = limn fn (xo ) kai stw g(x) = limn fn0 (x), x
o g sto [a, b]. Ap to Jemelidec
[a, b]. Ap upjesh tou jewrmatoc, fn0
Jerhma to Logismo prokptei ti
Z x
(4.8)
fn (x) = fn (xo ) +
fn0 , x [a, b].
xo

Parnoume ria sthn (4.8) gia n kai, lgw to Jewrmatoc 4.6.2,

prokptei
Z x
(4.9)
lim fn (x) = C +
g, x [a, b].
n

xo

Rx
f sto [a, b].
Orzoume f (x) = C + xo g, x [a, b]. H (4.9) shmanei ti fn
Epshc ap to Jemelidec Jerhma to Logismo prokptei ti f 0 = g kai
o f 0 sto [a, b].
epmnwc fn0
o f sto [a, b]: Gi x [a, b],
Mnei na dexoume ti fn
Z x

|fn (x) f (x)| = fn (xo ) f (xo ) +

(fn0 f 0 )
Zxox
|fn (xo ) f (xo )| +
|fn0 f 0 |
xo

|fn (xo ) f (xo )| + (b a) d(fn0 , f 0 ).

'Ara d(fn , f ) |fn (xo ) f (xo )| + (b a) d(fn0 , f 0 ). Parnontac ria gia
o f sto [a, b].
n prokptei ti fn

To jerhma aut mpore na apodeiqje kai qwrc thn upjesh ti oi fn0

enai suneqec all h apdeixh enai pi dskolh; bl. ta bibla [4] [8].

4.8 Askseic
4.8.1 Apodexte to Jerhma 4.2.6.
4.8.2 Exetste th sgklish (shmeiak kai omoimorfh) thc akoloujac sunartsewn fn (x) = x2n /(1 + x2n ), x R, n N.
4.8.3 Dexte ti sto Pardeigma 4.2.2 h sgklish enai omoimorfh se kje kleist
disthma [a, b] all den enai omoimorfh sto R. Exetste epshc th sgklish thc
akoloujac twn paraggwn.
98

4.8.4 Gia mi pragmatik akolouja {an }

n=1 isqei limn an = a R. Jew-

rome thn akolouja twn stajern sunartsewn fn (x) = an , x R. Dexte ti

o
fn
f sto R, pou f enai h stajer sunrthsh f (x) = a, x R.

4.8.5 'Estw f mia pragmatik sunrthsh orismnh sto E R. Jewrome thn

o
akolouja twn sunartsewn fn = f, n N. Dexte ti fn
f sto E .
o
4.8.6 An fn
f sto E kai kajemi ap tic sunartseic fn enai fragmnh sto E ,

dexte ti h akolouja sunartsewn {fn } enai omoimorfa fragmnh sto E .

4.8.7 'Estw F na snolo pragmatikn sunartsewn. Lme ti h sunrthsh f

proseggzetai omoimorfa sto snolo E ap sunartseic to sunlou F an gi

kje > 0, uprqei g F ttoia ste dE (f, g) < .

Dexte ti h sunrthsh f proseggzetai omoimorfa sto E ap sunartseic to
o
sunlou F an kai mno an uprqei akolouja {gn }
n=1 F ttoia ste gn f sto
E.

4.8.8 Swst Ljoc?

(a) An fn
f sto E kai kajema ap tic sunartseic fn enai fjnousa sto E tte
kai h f enai fjnousa sto E .

(b) An fn
f sto E kai kajema ap tic sunartseic fn enai gnhswc fjnousa
sto E tte kai h f enai gnhswc fjnousa sto E .
o
(g) An fn
f sto E kai kajema ap tic sunartseic fn enai fragmnh sto E tte
h akolouja sunartsewn {fn } enai omoimorfa fragmnh sto E .
o
(d) An oi sunartseic fn enai suneqec sto R kai fn
f se kje kleist disthma
[a, b], tte kai h f enai suneqc sto R.
o
(e) An oi sunartseic fn enai suneqec sto [0, 1] kai fn
f sto [0, 1], tte
Z
n

11/n

lim

fn =
0

f.
0

o
o
(st) An fn
f se kje disthma [a, b], tte fn
f sto R.

4.8.9 Brete mia akolouja suneqn sunartsewn fn : (0, 1) R pou na sugklnei

shmeiak all qi omoimorfa sto (0, 1) kai h oriak sunrthsh enai suneqc sto
(0, 1).
4.8.10 Brete mia akolouja suneqn sunartsewn fn : [0, 1] R pou na sugklnei shmeiak sto [0, 1] prc th mhdenik sunrthsh all isqei
Z

lim

fn 6= 0.
0

4.8.11 An h f : R R enai omoimorfa suneqc kai fn (x) := f (x + n1 ), dexte

o
ti fn
f sto R.

99

4.8.12 Meletste wc proc th sgklish thn akolouja sunartsewn fn : [0, 1] R

me

(
fn (x) =

n2 x,
1
(n+1)x1 ,

x [0, n1 ),
x [ n1 , 1].

4.8.13 Dexte ti h akolouja sunartsewn {fn } me

(

fn (x) =

x
n,
1
n,

an n rtioc,
an n perittc,

sugklnei shmeiak all qi omoimorfa sto R. Brete upakolouja tc {fn } h

opoa na sugklnei omoimorfa sto R.

4.8.14 Exetste tic paraktw akoloujec sunartsewn wc proc thn omoimorfh

sgklish sto [0, 1].
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

1
,
1 + (nx 1)2
x2
fn (x) = 2
,
x + (nx 1)2
fn (x) = xn (1 x),
fn (x) = nxn (1 x),
fn (x) = n3 xn (1 x)4 ,
nx2
fn (x) =
,
1 + nx
1
fn (x) =
.
1 + xn
fn (x) =

4.8.15 Exetste tic paraktw akoloujec sunartsewn wc proc thn omoimorfh

sgklish sto A.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)

2x
fn (x) = arctan 2
, A = R,
x + n3

x2
fn (x) = n log 1 +
, A = R,
n
1 + xn
, A = (0, ),
fn (x) = n log
nx
p
2n
fn (x) =
1 + x2n , A = R,

n
fn (x) = n( x 1), A = [1, a], a > 1.

4.8.16 Dnetai sunrthsh f : [a, b] R. Orzoume

fn (x) =

[nf (x)]
, x [a, b].
n

o
Dexte ti fn
f sto [a, b].

100

4.8.17 ? Orzoume fn (x) = n sin 4 2 n2 + x2 . Dexte ti h {fn } sugklnei omoi-

morfa sto [0, a], a > 0. Exetste an h {fn } sugklnei omoimorfa sto R.

4.8.18 Mi akolouja omoimorfa suneqn sunartsewn sugklnei omoimorfa

sto R. Dexte ti h sunrthsh-rio enai ki aut omoimorfa suneqc sto R.
4.8.19 Upojtoume ti h f : R R enai paragwgsimh kai h f 0 enai omoimorfa

suneqc sto R. Jtoume

fn (x) =

f (x + 1/n) f (x)
, x R.
1/n

o
Dexte ti fn
f 0 sto R. Dexte me antipardeigma ti h upjesh tc omoimorfhc
sunqeiac enai aparathth.

4.8.20 ? Mi akolouja poluwnmwn sugklnei omoimorfa sto R. Dexte ti h

sunrthsh-rio enai polunumo.

4.8.21 'Estw fn (x) = np x(1 x2 )n , x [0, 1], n N, pou p mia pragmatik

parmetroc. Dexte ti gia kje tim to p, h {fn } sugklnei shmeiak sto [0, 1]
proc kpoia sunrthsh f . Gia poic timc to p h sgklish enai omoimorfh? Gia
R1
R1
poic timc to p isqei limn 0 fn = 0 f ?

4.8.22 'Estw fn (x) =

1
1+n2 x2 ,

x [0, 1], n N. Dexte ti h {fn } sugklnei

shmeiak all qi omoimorfa sto [0, 1] proc mi sunrthsh f . Exetste an isqei
R1
R1
h isthta limn 0 fn = 0 f ?

4.8.23 'Estw fn (x) =

x
1+nx2 ,

4.8.24 'Estw fn (x) =

1
nen2 x2

x R, n N.
(a) Dexte ti h {fn } sugklnei omoimorfa sto R proc mia sunrthsh f .
(b) Dexte ti h {fn0 } sugklnei shmeiak sto R proc mia sunrthsh g .
(g) Dexte ti f 0 (x) = g(x) gia kje x 6= 0 all f 0 (0) 6= g(0).
o
(d) Gia poi disthmata [a, b] isqei fn0
g sto [a, b]?
, x R, n N.
(a) Dexte ti h {fn } sugklnei omoimorfa sto R proc mia sunrthsh f .
(b) Dexte ti h {fn0 } sugklnei shmeiak sto R proc th sunrthsh f 0 .
(g) Dexte ti h sgklish thc {fn0 } den enai omoimorfh se kje disthma pou
periqei to 0.
(d) Dexte ti h sgklish thc {fn0 } enai omoimorfh se kje kist disthma pou
den periqei to 0.

4.8.25 Dexte ti h akolouja sunartsewn fn (x) = (1 + x/n)n sugklnei omoi-

morfa proc thn ex se kje kleist disthma. Dexte epshc ti h sgklish den enai
omoimorfh sto R.

101

4.8.26 Gia kajemi ap tic paraktw akoloujec sunartsewn, brete to shmeiak

touc rio kai ta diastmata sta opoa h sgklish enai omoimorfh. Epshc exetste
th sgklish twn paraggwn kai twn oloklhrwmtwn.
(a) fn (x) = xenx , x [0, ).
(b) fn (x) = nxenx , x [0, ).
4.8.27 ? Dnetai h akolouja sunartsewn fn (x) = xn , x [0, 1], n N kai h

suneqc sunrthsh g : [0, 1] R me g(1) = 0. Dexte ti h akolouja sunartsewn

{gfn } sugklnei omoimorfa sto [0, 1].

4.8.28 Meletste se sqsh me to kritrio to Dini (Jerhma 4.4.4) tic paraktw

akoloujec suanrtsewn:
(a) fn (x) = 1 xn , x [0, 1].
(b)
(
0, an x (0, 1/n),
fn (x) =
1, an x {0} [1/n, 1].
o
4.8.29 Dnetai mi akolouja sunartsewn fn : E [a, b]. An fn
f sto E kai

h sunrthsh g enai suneqc sto [a, b], dexte ti

o
g fn
g f sto E.

4.8.30 Dnontai mi akolouja sunartsewn fn : E R kai mi sunrthsh g :

o
A E . Dexte ti an fn
f sto E , tte
o
fn g
f g sto A.
o
4.8.31 Upojtoume ti fn
f sto E kai ti kajemi ap tic fn enai suneqc

sto E . An x E kai {xn } enai mia akolouja sto E ttoia ste limn xn = x,
dexte ti limn fn (xn ) = f (x).
(To apotlesma aut mpore na qrhsimopoihje gia na apodexoume ti mia akolouja
sunartsewn den sugklnei omoimorfa).

4.8.32 ? 'Estw ti h fn : [a, b] R ikanopoie thn anisthta |fn (x)| 1 gia kje

x [a, b] kai kje n N. Dexte ti uprqei upakolouja {fnk } ttoia ste to

rio limk fnk (q) na uprqei gia kje q Q [a, b].

4.8.33 ? Dnetai mi akolouja sunartsewn {fn } pou enai lec oloklhrsimec

o
(kat Riemann) sto disthma [a, b]. An fn
f sto [a, b], tte h f enai oloklhrsimh
sto [a, b] kai isqei
Z b
Z b
lim
fn =
f.
n

102

4.8.34 Dnontai sunartseic {fn } kai f pou enai oloklhrsimec (kat Riemann)
sto disthma [a, b]. Upojtoume ti uprqei M > 0 ttoio ste |fn (x)| M kai
o
|f (x)| M , gi kje x [a, b]. An gia kje > 0, fn
f sto [a + , b ], tte
isqei
Z b
Z b
lim
fn =
f.
n

4.8.35 ? ('Orio diplc akoloujac) Dnetai mia dipl akolouja, dhlad mia sunrthsh

f : N N R. Gia kje n N, orzoume th sunrthsh gn : N R me thn isthta

gn (m) = f (m, n), m N.
o
Upojtoume ti gn
g sto N, pou g(m) = limn f (m, n). An to epanalambanmeno rio
lim lim f (m, n)
m n

uprqei, dexte ti to dipl rio limm,n f (m, n) epshc uprqei, kai isqei

lim lim f (m, n) =

m n

lim f (m, n).

m,n

4.8.36 ? Gia x [0, ) kai n N, orzoume

f1 (x) =

x,

fn+1 (x) =

x + fn (x).

Dexte ti:
(a) 0 = fn (0) < fn (x) < fn+1 (x) < 1 + x, n N, x > 0.
(b) H {fn } sugklnei omoimorfa sto [a, b] gia 0 < a < b < all den sugklnei
omoimorfa sto [0, 1].
(Updeixh: Epagwg kai Dini).

4.8.37 ? (a) Brete mia akolouja sunartsewn fn : [0, 1] R ttoia ste: (i)

Gia kje x [0, 1], h pragmatik akolouja {fn (x)} den sugklnei, kai (ii) isqei
R1
limn 0 fn = 0.
(b) Brete mia akolouja suneqn sunartsewn fn : [0, 1] R ttoia ste: (i)
Gia kje x [0, 1], h pragmatik akolouja {fn (x)} den sugklnei, kai (ii) isqei
R1
limn 0 fn = 0.
(g) Brete mia akolouja sunartsewn fn : [0, 1] R ttoia ste: (i) Gia kje
R1
x [0, 1], h pragmatik akolouja {fn (x)} den sugklnei, kai (ii) isqei 0 fn = 1
gia kje n N.

4.8.38 ? Dnontai mi akolouja suneqn sunartsewn fn : E R kai na pukn

o
uposnolo D tou E . An fn
f sto E kai fn
f sto D, dexte ti h f enai
suneqc sto E .

103

4.9 Shmeiseic
H omoimorfh sgklish prwtoemfansthke sta msa to 19ou aina (bl. [2, sel.160]).
O Karl Weierstrass kai oi majhtc tou antilfjhkan grgora th jemelidh shmasa thc kai anptuxan me austhrthta th sqetik jewra. Bl. epshc kai to rjro
[G.H.Hardy, Sir George Stokes and the concept of uniform convergence, Proc. Cambridge Philosophical Soc. 19 (1918), 148-156].
O orismc thc omoimorfhc sgklishc me qrsh thc apstashc d(fn , f ) uprqei
sto [10].
Asfalc to pi qrsimo apotlesma gia thn omoimorfh sgklish enai to
jerhma gia thn enallag oloklrwshc kai orou (bl. Jerhma 4.6.2 kai 'Askhsh
4.8.34). Uprqei na isqurtero apotlesma to opoo apodeqjhke ap ton Arzel`a
to 1885.

Jerhma 4.9.1 Dnetai mi akolouja sunartsewn {fn } pou enai lec oloklhrsimec

(kat Riemann) sto disthma [a, b]. Upojtoume ti fn

f sto [a, b] kai ti h f
enai oloklhrsimh sto [a, b]. An uprqei M > 0 ttoio ste

|fn (x)| M,
tte

n N, x [a, b],

Z
lim

fn =
a

f.
a

To jerhma aut enai eidik perptwsh to Jewrmatoc Kuriarqomenhc Sgklishc

to Lebesgue (bl. [2], [5], [8]). Uprqoun mwc kai apodexeic tou (dskolec) qwrc
qrsh thc jewrac to Lebesgue. Bl. [F.Cunningham, Taking limits under the
integral sign, Math. Mag. 40 (1967), 179-186], [H.Kestelman, Riemann integration
of limit-functions, Amer. Math. Monthly 77 (1970), 182-187], [W. A. Luxemburg,
Amer. Math. Monthly 78 (1971), 970-979].
Sto [1] uprqei kai h lsh thc 'Askhshc 4.8.35 h opoa enai pollc forc
qrsimh.
Oi nnoiec thc shmeiakc kai thc omoimorfhc sgklishc mporon na oriston me
ton dio akribc trpo kai gia akoloujec pragmatikn ( migadikn) sunartsewn
pou enai orismnec se opoiodpote snolo. Ta jewrmata 4.3.6, 4.3.14, 4.4.1, 4.4.4,
5.2.1 (me tic profanec tropopoiseic stc diatupseic kai stic apodexeic touc)
suneqzoun na isqoun.

104

Keflaio 5

Seirc sunartsewn
5.1 Eisagwgik
Orismc 5.1.1 Dnetai mi akolouja sunartsewn {fn }
n=1 pou enai lec

orismnec sto snolo E R. Jewrome thn akolouja sunartsewn {sn }

n=1
pou orzontai ap thn isthta

sn (x) = f1 (x) + f2 (x) + + fn (x), x E.

An h {sn } sugklneiPshmeiak sto E proc mi sunrthsh s, tte lme ti h
seir sunartsewn
n=1 fn sugklnei shmeiak sto E proc th sunrthsh s
kai grfoume

s=
fn .
n=1
o s sto E , tte lme ti h seir sunartsewn
An sn
omoimorfa sto E proc th sunrthsh s kai grfoume
o

s=

n=1 fn

sugklnei

fn .

n=1

H
{sn } onomzetai akolouja twn merikn ajroismtwn thc seirc
Pakolouja

f
.
n
n=1

Pardeigma 5.1.2 'Estw fn (x) = xn1 , x (1, 1), n N. Tte

sn (x) = f1 (x) + f2 (x) + + fn (x) =
105

1 xn
.
1x

 s sto (1, 1), pou s(x) =

'Ara sn

1
1x ,

dhlad

1 X n1
=
x
.
1x
n=1

H sgklish den enai omoimorfh sto (1, 1) diti

d(1,1) (sn , s) =

|x|n
= +.
x(1,1) |1 x|
sup

H sgklish enai omoimorfh sto [a, a] gia opoiodpote a me 0 < a < 1.

Prgmati
|x|n
an
d[a,a] (sn , s) = sup
=
0.
1a
x[a,a] |1 x|
Efarmzontac sthn akolouja twn merikn ajroismtwn {sn } ta difora
jewrmata pou apodexame stic prohgomenec paragrfouc parnoume anloga jewrmata gia tic seirc sunartsewn. 'Etsi prokptoun ta aklouja:
P
P
o

Jerhma 5.1.3 An s=
n=1 fn sto E , tte s=
n=1 fn .

Jerhma 5.1.4
P (Kritrio Cauchy gia omoimorfh sgklish) H seir
sunartsewn
n=1 fn sugklnei omoimorfa proc kpoia sunrthsh sto E
an kai mno an gia kje > 0, uprqei no N ttoio ste
(5.1)

n+p

fk (x) < , n no , p N, x E.

k=n+1

Apdeixh.
'Estw
merikn ajroismtwn tc seirc sunartsewn
P {sn } h akoloujaPtwn

n=1 fn sugklnei omoimorfa sto E an kai mno an

n=1 fn . Ex orismo h
h {sn } sugklnei omoimorfa sto E . Ap to kritrio Cauchy gia thn omoimorfh sgklish akoloujin sunartsewn (Jerhma 4.3.14), h {sn } sugklnei
omoimorfa sto E an kai mno an gia kje > 0, uprqei no N ttoio ste

n no , p N, x E,
'Omwc

sn+p (x) sn (x) =

|sn+p (x) sn (x)| < .

n+p
X

fn (x)

k=n+1

ki epomnwc to jerhma apodeqjhke.

106

Jerhma
5.1.5 An oi sunartseic fn , n N, enai suneqec sto xo E kai
P

n=1 fn

o
s=

sto E , tte h s enai suneqc sto xo .

Apdeixh.
To jerhma prokptei mesa ap to Jerhma 4.4.1.

Jerhma 5.1.6
P An oi sunartseic fn , n N, enai suneqec sto disthma
o
[a, b] kai s=

n=1 fn

sto [a, b], tte

s=
a

Z
X
n=1 a

fn .

Apdeixh.
'Estw {sn } h akolouja twn merikn ajroismtwn tc seirc sunartsewn
P

o
n=1 fn . Ap thn upjesh, sn s sto [a, b]. Epeid lec oi fn enai suneqec
sto [a, b], kai h sn = f1 + + fn ja enai suneqc sto [a, b] gia kje
n N. Lgw to Jewrmatoc 4.4.1, h s enai suneqc sto [a, b], (ra kai
oloklhrsimh). Tra to Jerhma 4.6.2 kai h grammikthta to oloklhrmatoc dnoun
!
Z b
Z b
Z b X
Z b
n Z b
n
X
X
fk .
fk =
fk = lim
s = lim
sn = lim
a

n a

n a

k=1

k=1

k=1

Jerhma 5.1.7 Upojtoume ti:

(a) 'Olec oi fn qoun suneq

pargwgo sto [a, b].
P
f
(b) H seir (arijmn)
n=1Pn (xo ) sugklnei gia na toulqisto xo [a, b].
0
(g) H seir twn paraggwn
n=1 fn sugklnei omoimorfa sto [a, b].
Tte:
P
(i) h seir sunartsewn
n=1 fn sugklnei omoimorfa sto [a, b] prc mi
sunrthsh s.
(ii) H s enai
sto [a, b].
Pparagwgsimh
0.
o
(iii) s0 =
f
n=1 n
Apdeixh.
To jerhma prokptei mesa ap to Jerhma 4.7.4.

5.2 To kritrio to Weierstrass

To kritrio to Weierstrass enai to shmantiktero kritrio omoimorfhc
sgklishc gia seirc sunartsewn.
107

Jerhma 5.2.1 (Kritrio to Weierstrass) 'Estw {fn } akolouja sunart-

sewn sto E R. Upojtoume ti uprqei mi akolouja pragmatikn arijmn

{Mn }
n=1 ttoia ste

|fn (x)| Mn , x E, n N.
P
P
An h seir (arijmn)
n=1 Mn sugklnei, tte h seir sunartsewn
n=1 fn
sugklnei omoimorfa sto E .
Apdeixh.
'Estw > 0. Lgw thc upjeshc, isqei
n+p
n+p
n+p

X
X
X

(5.2)
fk (x)
|fn (x)|
Mk , x E, n N, p N.
k=n+1

Epeid h seir

k=n+1

n=1 Mn

sugklnei, uprqei no N ttoio ste

n+p
X

(5.3)

k=n+1

Mk < , n no , p N.

k=n+1

Ap tic (5.2) kai (5.3) prokptei ti

(5.4)

n+p

fk (x) < , x E, n no , p N.

k=n+1

Lgw tou krithrou Cauchy (Jerhma 5.1.4), h seir sunartsewn

sugklnei omoimorfa sto E .

n=1 fn

Pardeigma 5.2.2 Jewrome th seir sunartsewn

(5.5)

X
sin(nx)
n=1

n3

Isqei

sin(nx)
1

n3 n3 , n N, x R.
P 1
Epshc h seir arijmn
n=1 n3 sugklnei. Ap to kritrio to Weierstrass sumperanoume ti h seir (5.5) sugklnei omoimorfa sto R proc mi
sunrthsh s.
108

H antstoiqh seir twn paraggwn enai h

X
cos(nx)

(5.6)

n=1

n2

Ki aut ap to kritrio to Weierstrass sugklnei omoimorfa sto R. Oi

seirc (5.5) kai (5.6) ikanopoion tic upojseic to Jewrmatoc 5.1.7 gia
kje disthma [a, b]. Epomnwc h sunrthsh s enai paragwgsimh sto [a, b]
kai isqei

X
cos(nx)
s0 (x) =
, x [a, b].
n2
n=1

Epeid to [a, b] enai opoiodpote disthma, h parapnw isthta isqei gia

kje x R.
P
Pardeigma 5.2.3 Jewrome th seir sunartsewn
n=1 fn me
(
1
1
0, an 0 x 2n+1
2n1
x 1,
fn (x) = 1
1
an x = 2n ,
n,
kai h fn orzetai grammik kai suneqc se kajna ap ta diastmata [1/(2n+
1), 1/(2n)] kai [1/(2n), 1/(2n 1)]. Parathrome ti

sup{fn (x) : x [0, 1]} =

1
.
n

'Ara to kritrio to Weierstrass den mpore na efarmoste. Ja dexoume ti

parla aut h seir sugklnei omoimorfa sto [0, 1].
'Estw x [0, 1]. Tte uprqei monadikc fusikc m = m(x) ttoioc ste

1
1
x<
.
2m + 1
2m 1

P
'Etsi gia n 6= m, fn (x) = 0. 'Ara h seir arijmn
n=1 fn (x) qei mno na
mh mhdenik ro kai epomnwc sugklnei. Sunepc h dojesa seir sunartsewn sugklnei shmeiak sto [0, 1] proc mi sunrthsh s. 'Estw {sn } h
akolouja twn merikn ajroismtwn. Isqei
d[0,1] (sn , s) =
(5.7)

sup (s(x) sn (x)) = sup ((fn+1 (x) + fn+2 (x) + . . . )

x[0,1]

x[0,1]

sup fn+1 (x) = fn+1

x[0,1]

o s sto [0, 1].

'Ara sn

109

1
2(n + 1)

1
0.
n+1

5.3

Ta kritria twn Abel kai Dirichlet

Sthn pargrafo aut ja apodexoume do akmh kritria omoimorfhc sgklishc gia seirc sunartsewn. Ja qreiastome to akloujo lmma pou
ofeletai ston Abel.

Lmma 5.3.1 ('Ajroish kat mrh) Dnontai do akoloujec pragmatikn

arijmn {an } kai {bn }. Jtoume

sn = a1 + a2 + + an gia n N

kai

s0 = 0.

An n, m N kai m n, tte
n
X

ak bk =

k=m

n1
X

sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn sm1 bm .

k=m

Apdeixh.
n
X

ak bk =

k=m

n
X

(sk sk1 )bk =

k=m
n
X
k=m

n
X

sk bk

sk bk

sk bk+1 =

sk1 bk

k=m

k=m
n1
X

n
X

n1
X

sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn sm1 bm .

k=m

k=m1

Sta do jewrmata pou akoloujon qoume do akoloujec sunartsewn

{fn } kai {gn } pou enai orismnec sto snolo E R. Me {sn } sumbolzoume
thn akolouja sunartsewn me
sn (x) = f1 (x) + + fn (x), n N, x E.

Jerhma 5.3.2 (Kritrio

P to Abel) Upojtoume ti:
(a) H seir sunartsewn
n=1 fn sugklnei omoimorfa sto snolo E , (dhlad
h {sn } sugklnei omoimorfa sto E ).
(b) H {gn } enai montonh sto E .
(g) H {gn } enai omoimorfaPfragmnh sto E .
Tte h seir sunartsewn n fn gn sugklnei omoimorfa sto E .
Apdeixh.
'Estw > 0. Upojtoume ti h {gn } enai fjnousa; (an enai axousa, h
110

apdeixh enai parmoia). Lgw thc upjeshc (g), uprqei M > 0 ttoio
ste
(5.8)

|gn (x)| M, n N, x E.

o s sto E . JAp thn upjesh (a), uprqei sunrthsh s ttoia ste sn

toume sn = sn s. H akolouja sn sugklnei omoimorfa proc th mhdenik
sunrthsh. 'Ara uprqei N N ttoio ste

|sn (x)| <

(5.9)

1
,
4M

n N,

x E.

Qrhsimopointac tic (5.8), (5.9) kai to Lmma 5.3.1 brskoume ti gia

N < m < n kai x E ,
n

n1

fk (x)gk (x) =
sk (x)(gk (x) gk+1 (x)) + sn (x)gn (x) sm1 (x)gm (x)

k=m
k=m
n1

=
sk (x)(gk (x) gk+1 (x)) + sn (x)gn (x) sm1 (x)gm (x)

k=m
n1
X

|sk (x)|(gk (x) gk+1 (x)) + |sn (x)|gn (x) + |sm1 (x)|gm (x)

k=m

(gm (x) gn (x) + |gn (x)| + |gm (x)|)

4M

4M = .
4M

Ap to kritrio to Cauchy
Pgia omoimorfh sgklish (Jerhma 1.4.3) prokptei

ti h seir sunartsewn n fn gn sugklnei omoimorfa sto E .

Jerhma 5.3.3 (Kritrio to Dirichlet) Upojtoume ti:

(a) H akolouja {sn } enai omoimorfa fragmnh sto E .

(b) H {gn } enai montonh sto E .
(g) H {gn } sugklnei omoimorfa
sto E proc th mhdenik sunrthsh.
P
Tte h seir sunartsewn n fn gn sugklnei omoimorfa sto E .

Apdeixh.
'Estw > 0. Upojtoume ti h {gn } enai fjnousa; (an enai axousa, h
apdeixh enai parmoia). Lgw kai thc upjeshc (g), uprqei N N ttoio
ste
(5.10)

0 gn+1 (x) gn (x) <

1
, n N,
2M

111

x E.

Lgw thc upjeshc (a), uprqei M > 0 ttoio ste

(5.11)

|sn (x)| M, n N, x E.

Qrhsimopointac tic (5.10), (5.11) kai to Lmma 5.3.1 brskoume ti gia

N < m < n kai x E ,

n
X

n1

fk (x)gk (x) =
sk (x)(gk (x) gk+1 (x)) + sn (x)gn (x) sm1 (x)gm (x)

k=m

k=m
n1
X

|sk (x)|(gk (x) gk+1 (x)) + |sn (x)|gn (x) + |sm1 (x)|gm (x)

k=m

n1
X

!
(gk (x) gk+1 (x)) + gn (x) + gm (x)

k=m

= 2M gm (x) 2M

= .
2M

Ap to kritrio to Cauchy
Pgia omoimorfh sgklish (Jerhma 1.4.3) prokptei
ti h seir sunartsewn n fn gn sugklnei omoimorfa sto E .

Ta kritria
P sunartsewn
P twn Abel kai Dirichlet efarmzontai se seirc
f
g
.
Fusik,
kje
seir
sunartsewn
thc morfc
n
n
n Fn mpore na
n
grafe me polloc trpouc sthn parapnw morf. Gia na efarmsoume loipn
ta kritria me epituqa, prpei na knoume thn katllhlh paragontopohsh
Fn = fn gn . Ja dome tra merik paradegmata efarmogc twn krithrwn.

Pardeigma 5.3.4 Jewrome th seir sunartsewn

X
(1)n
, x [0, ).
n2 x + n

n=1

Gia a > 0, isqei

(1)n
1

n2 x + n an2 , x [a, ), n N.
'Etsi to kritrio to Weierstrass dnei ti h seir sugklnei omoimorfa sto
[a, ). Epeid to a enai tuqaoc jetikc arijmc sumperanoume ti h seir
sugklnei shmeiak sto (0, ). H seir sugklnei kai gia x = 0.
112

Ja dome tra me qrsh to krithrou to Abel ti h seir sugklnei

omoimorfa sto [0, ). Jtoume

(1)n
1
, gn (x) =
, x [0, ), n N.
n
nx + 1
P (1)n
H seir
arijmn
sugklnei. 'Ara h seir twn stajern sunartn=1
n
P
sewn
n fn sugklnei omoimorfa sto [0, ). Epshc h {gn } enai fjnousa kai omoimorfa fragmnh akolouja sunartsewn sto [0, ). 'Etsi to
kritrio to Abel efarmzetai kai dnei thn omoimorfh sgklish thc arqikc
seirc sto [0, ).
fn (x) =

Mporome na dexoume thn omoimorfh sgklish thc seirc kai me qrsh

tou krithrou to Dirichlet jtontac n (x) = (1)n kai n (x) = 1/(n2 x+n).
Jtoume

h(x) =

X
(1)n
, x [0, ).
n2 x + n

n=1

Lgw thc omoimorfhc sgklishc h sunrthsh h enai suneqc sto [0, ).

'Ara

X
X
(1)n
(1)n
=
lim
h(x)
=
h(0)
=
.
lim
x0+
n2 x + n x0+
n
n=0

n=0

Pardeigma 5.3.5 'Estw {bn } mia fjnousa akolouja pragmatikn ari-

jmn me lim bn = 0. Jewrome thn seir sunartsewn

bn xn , x [1, 1 ],

n=0

pou 0 < < 2. Parathrome ti gia n 0 kai x [1, 1 ], isqei

n

X xn+1 1
2
2

.
xk =

x1
|x 1|

k=0

'Etsi ap to kritrio to Dirichlet sumperanoume ti h seir sugklnei omoimorfa sto [1, 1 ].

Pardeigma 5.3.6 'Estw {bn } mia fjnousa akolouja pragmatikn arijmn me lim bn = 0. Jewrome thn seir sunartsewn

bn cos(nx),

x [, 2 ],

n=1

113

pou 0 < < . Me qrsh thc tautthtac

x
x
x
sin kx
2 cos(kx) sin = sin kx +
2
2
2
apodeiknetai ekola ti gia x (0, 2),

cos x + cos(2x) + + cos(nx) =

sin(nx + x/2) sin(x/2)

.
2 sin(x/2)

Epomnwc gia x [, 2 ],

| cos x + cos(2x) + + cos(nx)|

1
1

.
sin(x/2)
sin(/2)

'Etsi ap to kritrio to Dirichlet sumperanoume ti h seir sugklnei omoimorfa sto [, 2 ].

Pardeigma 5.3.7 Enai gnwsto ap to Logism ti

(5.12)

X
xn
n=1

= log(1 x),

x (1, 1).

Ap to Pardeigma 5.3.5, h parapnw seir sugklnei omoimorfa sto [1, 1

] gia kje (0, 2). Epomnwc orzei mia suneq sunrthsh sto [1, 1).
Lgw sunqeiac, h isthta (5.12) isqei gia kje x [1, 1). Gia x = 1
prokptei h isthta

X
(1)n1

(5.13)

n=1

= log 2.

Pardeigma 5.3.8 (Oriak

jerhma to Abel) 'Estw {an }
n=0 mia akolouP

ja ttoia ste h seir

ti h seir

n=0 an

sugklnei. Ap to kritrio to Abel prokptei

an xn

n=0

sugklnei omoimorfa sto [0, 1] kai tsi orzei mi suneq sunrthsh f :

[0, 1] R. 'Ara

lim

x1

X
n=0

an x = lim f (x) = f (1) =

x1

114

X
n=0

an .

Paratrhsh 5.3.9 Diatupsame ta kritria twn Abel kai Dirichlet gia

akoloujec sunartsewn {fn } kai {gn }. H eidik perptwsh ma kai oi do

ap tic akoloujec na enai akoloujec arijmn enai
P shmantik;
P ta kritria
efarmzontai loipn kai gia seirc tic morfc
a
f

n n n
n an bn , pou
an , bn R.

Pardeigma 5.3.10 To kritrio gi enallssousec seirc (Jerhma 2.2.13)

prokptei mesa ap to kritrio to Dirichlet.

5.4 Dunamoseirc
Oi dunamoseirc enai mi shmantik kathgora seirn sunartsewn.

Orismc 5.4.1 An {ak }

k=0 enai
P mi akolouja pragmatikn arijmn kai

xo R, h seir sunartsewn
kntro xo kai suntelestc ak .

k=0 ak (x

xo )k onomzetai dunamoseir me

Jerhma 5.4.2 Dnetai mi akolouja pragmatikn arijmn {ak }

k=0 kai
na xo R. Jtoume

p
k
R = lim sup |ak |
.
k

(a) H dunamoseir k=0 ak (x xo )k sugklnei shmeiak kai apoltwc sto

(xo R, xo + R).
P
k
(b) An x
/ [xo R,P
xo + R], h seir
k=0 ak (x xo ) den sugklnei.

(g) H dunamoseir k=0 ak (x xo )k sugklnei omoimorfa se kje kleist

disthma [a, b] me [a, b] (xo R, xo + R).
Apdeixh.
(a) Efarmzoume to kritrio thc rzac: An |x xo | < R, tte

lim sup
k

q
p
|x xo |
k
|ak (x xo )k | = |x xo | lim sup k |ak | =
< 1.
R
k

(b) An |x xo | > R, tte pwc sto (a),

lim sup
k

q
|x xo |
k
|ak (x xo )k | =
> 1.
R
115

(g) An x [a, b], tte |x xo | max{|a|, |b|} < R. Dialgoume r me

max{|a|, |b|} < r < R. Tte

p
1
1
>
= lim sup k |ak |.
r
R
k
'Ara uprqei no N ttoioc ste

p
k

1
|ak | , k no .
r

Epomnwc

|x xo |k
|ak (x xo | |

rk

max{|a|, |b|}
r

Epeid max{|a|, |b|} < r, h gewmetrik seir

k
, k no .

P max{|a|,|b|} k
k=0

'Ara ap to kritrio to Weierstrass h dunamoseir

lnei omoimorfa sto [a, b].

sugklnei.

k
k=1 ak (x xo )

sugk

Orismc 5.4.3 O arijmc

1

p
k
R = lim sup |ak |
.
k

P
k
onomzetai aktna sgklishc thc dunamoseirc
k=0 ak (xxo ) kai to disthma (R, R) onomzetai disthma sgklishc thc dunamoseirc.
Lgw tou Jewrmatoc 5.4.2, kje dunamoseir orzei mi sunrthsh sto
disthma sgklisc thc.

5.5

Mi suneqc, poujen paragwgsimh sunrthsh

Ja apodexoume ti uprqei suneqc sunrthsh f : R R pou den enai

paragwgsimh se kanna shmeo to R. O prtoc pou kataskease ttoia
sunrthsh tan o Weierstrass.

Jerhma 5.5.1 Uprqei sunrthsh f : R R pou enai suneqc sto R

all den enai paragwgsimh se kanna shmeo to R.
116

Apdeixh.
Jewrome th sunrthsh
(5.14)

(x) = |x|,

x [1, 1].

Epektenoume th sto R jtontac

(5.15)

(x + 2) = (x), x R.

'Etsi qoume orsei mi suneq periodik sunrthsh : R R me perodo 2.

Gia th isqei
(5.16)

|(x) (y)| |x y|, x, y R.

Orzoume
(5.17)

f (x) =

n
X
3
n=0

(4n x), x R.

Lgw to Jewrmatoc 5.2.1, h parapnw seir sunartsewn sugklnei omoimorfa sto R kai epmnwc h f enai kal orismnh kai suneqc sto R.
'Estw x R. Ja dexoume tra ti h f den enai paragwgsimh sto x.
Arke na brome mi akolouja m 0 ttoia ste h akolouja

f (x + m ) f (x)
m
na m sugklnei, tan m .
Jewrome thn akolouja
(5.18)

m =

1 1
, m N,
2 4m

pou to prshmo epilgetai tsi ste kannac akraioc na mhn enai anmesa
sto 4m x kai sto 4m (x + m ). Aut mporome na to petqoume diti 4m |m | =
1
2.
Orzoume
(5.19)

sn,m =

kai parathrome ti
(a) sn,m = 0 tan n > m
perptwsh),

(4n (x + m )) (4n x)
m
(o 4m m enai rtioc akraioc se aut thn
117

(b) |sn,m | 4n tan n = 0, 1, . . . , m (lgw thc (5.16) ),

(g) |sm,m | = 4m gia kje m N.
Telik loipn qoume

m n

m1

X
f (x + m ) f (x) X
3
1

=
s

3n = (3m + 1).

n,m

m
4
2
n=0

n=0

5.6

Mi qwroplhrwtik kamplh

Mi suneqc sunrthsh F : [a, b] R2 onomzetai eppedh kamplh. An

F ([a, b]) = [0, 1] [0, 1], dhlad an h kamplh gemzei to tetrgwno Q :=
[0, 1] [0, 1], tte enai qwroplhrwtik kamplh. Ja kataskeusoume mia
ttoia kamplh.
Orzoume sunrthsh : [0, 2] R jtontac

t [0, 31 ] [ 53 , 2],
0,

3t 1,
t [ 31 , 23 ],
(t) =

1,
t [ 32 , 34 ],

3t + 5, t [ 4 , 5 ].
3 3

Epektenoume th sto R jtontac

(t + 2) = (t).
H enai suneqc sto R, periodik me perodo 2, qei mgisto 1 kai elqisto
0. Sqediste th grafik thc parstash.
Jewrome tic sunartseic

x(t) =

X
(32n2 t)
n=1

2n

y(t) =

X
(32n1 t)
n=1

2n

Ap to kritrio to Weierstrass oi parpnw seirc sunartsewn sugklnoun

omoimorfa sto R. 'Ara oi sunartseic x, y enai suneqec sto R. Jewrome thn kamplh F : [0, 1] R2 me F (t) = (x(t), y(t)). Ja dexoume ti
F ([0, 1]) = Q. Enai faner ti F ([0, 1] Q. Antistrfwc, stw (a, b) Q.
Jewrome tic mh termatizmenec duadikc parastseic twn a, b:

a = 0.2 a1 a2 . . . ,
118

b = 0.2 b1 b2 . . .

me aj , bj {0, 1}. Jewrome ton arijm c me triadik parstash

c = 0.3 (2c1 )(2c2 ) . . . ,

pou c2n1 = an kai c2n = bn , n = 1, 2, . . . . Dhlad

c = 0.3 (2a1 )(2b1 )(2a2 )(2b2 ) . . .

Epeid 3

n
n=1 3

= 1, isqei c [0, 1]. Ja dexoume tra ti

(3k c) = ck+1 ,

(5.20)

k = 0, 1, 2, . . .

Isqei

3k c = 3k 0.3 (2c1 )(2c2 ) = 3k

X
2cn

3n

n=1

=2

X
X
cn
cn
+
2
nk
nk
3
3

n=1

n=k+1

= (rtioc arijmc) + dk ,
pou

dk = 2

cn

n=k+1

3nk

=2

X
cn+k
n=1

3n

Epeid h qei perodo 2, isqei (3k c) = (dk ). Diakrnoume do periptseic:

P
n = 1 . Ap to orism tc petai
(a) An ck+1 = 0, tte 0 dk 2
n=2 3
3
ti (dk ) = 0 = ck+1 kai h (5.20) apodeqjhke se aut thn perptwsh.
(b) An ck+1 = 1, tte 23 dk 1. 'Ara (dk ) = 1 = ck+1 .
'Etsi loipn apodexame thn (5.20) h opoa tra dnei mesa ti

(32n2 c) = c2n1 = an

kai

(32n1 c) = c2n = bn .

'Ara x(c) = a kai y(c) = b, dhlad F (c) = (a, b). Epomnwc h kamplh F
enai qwroplhrwtik.

5.7 Askseic
5.7.1 Brete to megaltero snolo sto opoo oi paraktw seirc sunartsewn
sugklnoun shmeiak.

1
,
1
+
xn
n=1
n1

X
x2
,
1 x 2n
n=1

X
2n + xn
,
1 + 3n xn
n=1

xn
,
1 + xn
n=1
x

X
log n
n=2

X
n=1

119

xlog n ,

xn1
,
(1 xn )(1 xn+1 )
n=1

X
n=0

sin2 (2

p
n2 + x2 ).

5.7.2 Meletste tic paraktw seirc sunartsewn wc proc thn omoimorfh sgklish sto snolo A.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

n=1

arctan(n2 (1 + x2 )) ,

log(1 + nx)
,
nxn
n=1

X
n=1

n2 x2 en

|x|

A = [2, ),

A = R,

x2 (1 x2 )n1 ,

A = [1, 1],

n=1

n2
(xn + xn ),
n!
n=1

X
n=1

2n sin

1
,
3n x

log 1 +

n=2

A = R,

A = {x R : 1/2 |x| 2},

A = (0, ),

x2
n log2 n

A = (a, a), a > 0.

5.7.3 Dexte ti h seir sunartsewn

x
((n

1)x
+
1)(nx + 1)
n=1
sugklnei shmeiak sto [0, ) kai brete th sunrthsh-rio.

5.7.4 Exetste th sgklish (apluth, shmeiak, kai omoimorfh) twn paraktw

seirn sunartsewn kai meletste th sunqeia twn sunartsewn stic opoec sugklnoun.

X
xn sin(nx)
,
n!
n=0

X
n=0

xn ,

n2n xn ,

n=1

X
n=1

5.7.5 Dexte ti h seir sunartsewn

X
x sin(n2 x)
n2
n=1

sugklnei shmeiak sto R proc mi suneq sunrthsh.

120

logn (x + 1),

X
n=1

|x|

5.7.6 Upojtoume ti h seir sunartsewn

n=1 fn sugklnei omoimorfa sto

snolo A R kai ti h sunrthsh gP
: A R enai fragmnh.

(a) Dexte ti h seir sunartsewn n=1 gfn sugklnei omoimorfa sto A.

(b) Dexte me antipardeigma ti h upjesh pwc h g enai fragmnh enai aparathth
gia to (a).
(g) Ti P
prpei na upojsoume gia th sunrthsh h ste h ooimorfh sgklish
thc
P

seirc n=1 hfn na sunepgetai thn omoimorfh sgklish tc seirc n=1 fn sto
A?

ti an h
5.7.7 Dexte P

fn2 sugklnei shmeiak stoPA proc mi fragmnh

n=1 cn fn sugklnei on=1 cn < , tte h seir sunartsewn

sunrthsh kai
moimorfa sto A.
Updeixh: Cauchy-Schwarz.

n=1

5.7.8 Jewrome th seir sunartsewn

X
2n (3x 1)n
.
n
n=1

Brete to megaltero snolo sto opoo aut sugklnei apoltwc kai to megaltero
snolo sto opoo sugklnei shmeiak. Dexte ti sugklnei omoimorfa sto disthma
[1/6, 1/3].

5.7.9 Jewrome th seir sunartsewn

X
1 x+1
.
n
x
n=1
Brete to megaltero snolo sto opoo aut sugklnei apoltwc kai to megaltero
snolo sto opoo sugklnei shmeiak. Dexte ti sugklnei omoimorfa sto disthma
[2, 1].

5.7.10 (a) Upojtoume ti oi sunartseic

P fn : [0, 1] (0, ), n N enai lec
suneqec kai ti h seir sunartsewn
n=1 fn sugklnei omoimorfa sto [0, 1).
P
Dexte ti h seir arijmn n=1 fn (1) enai sugklnousa.
P
(b) Brete to megaltero snolo A sto opoo h seir n=1 enx cos(nx) sugklnei
shmeiak. Enai h sgklish omoimorfh sto A?
5.7.11 (a) Diatupste kai apodexte to anlogo tou krithrou tou Dini (Jerhma
4.4.4) gia seirc sunartsewn.
(b) Upojtoume ti oi sunartseic
fn : [a, b] (0, ), n N enai lec suneqec kai
P
ti h seir sunartsewn n=1 fn sugklnei shmeiak proc mi suneq sunrthsh
sto [a, b]. Dexte ti h sgklish enai omoimorfh sto [a, b].
121

5.7.12 Dnetai h seir sunartsewn

1
.
1
+
n2 x2
n=1
Brete ta snola sta opoa sugklnei shmeiak kai omoimorfa. Exetste an h
sunrthsh-rio enai suneqc kai fragmnh.

5.7.13 Dexte ti h seir sunartsewn

x2 + n
n2

(1)n

n=1

sugklnei omoimorfa se kje kleist disthma.

5.7.14 An oi seirc

sunartsewn

n=1

an kai

n=1 bn

sugklnoun apoltwc, dexte ti h seir

(an cos nx + bn sin nx)

n=1

sugklnei omoimorfa sto R.

5.7.15 Exetste th sgklish thc seirc

2x
.
1 + n3 x2
n=1

5.7.16 Apodexte ti an > 12 , h seir

X
n=1

n (1

x
+ nx2 )

sugklnei omoimorfa se kje disthma [a, b]. Enai h sgklish omoimorfh sto R?

5.7.17 (a) Gia poi x h seir

sgklish omoimorfh?
(b) Dexte ti

P
n=1

2X

nenx sugklnei? Se poi diastmata enai h

nenx dx =

1 n=1

e
.
e2 1

5.7.18 ? Orzoume th suneq sunrthsh f1 : [0, 1] [0, 1] wc exc: Jtoume

f1 (0) = 0, f1 (1/3) = 1/2 = f (2/3), f1 (1) = 1 kai sth sunqeia epektenoume

grammik sta diastmata [0, 1/3], [1/3, 2/3], [2/3, 1].
Orzoume th suneq sunrthsh f2 : [0, 1] [0, 1] wc exc: Jtoume f2 (x) = f1 (x)
gia x = 0, 1/3, 2/3, 1 kai f2 (1/9) = 1/4 = f2 (2/9), f2 (7/9) = 3/4 = f (8/9) kai

122

sth sunqeia epektenoume grammik sta diastmata [0, 1/9], [1/9, 2/9], [2/9, 1/3],
[1/3, 2/3], [2/3, 7/9], [7/9, 8/9], [8/9, 1].
Suneqzontac aut th diadikasa kataskeuzoume ma akolouja sunartsewn {fn }.
(a) Dexte ti
1
kfn+1 fn k n+1 .
2
(b) Dexte ti h seir sunartsewn

f1 +

(fn+1 fn )

n=1

sugklnei omoimorfa sto [0, 1] proc th sunrthsh to Cantor.

5.7.19 Dexte ti h seir sunartsewn

X
(1)n
nx
n=1

sugklnei omoimorfa sto [a, ) gia kje a > 0. Dexte epshc ti h parapnw
seir sugklnei shmeiak all qi omoimorfa sto (0, ).

5.7.20 Dnetai akolouja {an } ttoia ste h seir

h seir sunartsewn

an sugklnei. Dexte ti

X
an
x
n
n=1

sugklnei omoimorfa sto [0, ). Dexte epshc ti

X
X
an
=
an .
x0+
nx
n=1
n=1

lim

5.7.21 'Exetste th sgklish thc seirc sunartsewn

X
(1)n
, x [0, 1].
nenx
n=1

5.7.22 Dexte ti oi paraktw seirc sunartsewn sugklnoun omoimorfa sto

123

snolo A.

(a)
(b)
(c)

(1)n+1

n=1

xn
,
n

sin(nx)
,
n
n=1

A = [0, 1],
A = [, 2 ], 0 < < ,

X
sin(n2 x) sin(nx)
,
n + x2
n=1

A = R,

(d)

enx
,
(1)n+1
n + x2
n=1

(e)

X
(1)n+1
arctan(nx),
n + x2
n=1

(f)

X
(1)n+1 cos(x/n)

,
n + cos x
n=2

(g)

X
(1)[ n]
p
,
n(n + x)
n=1

A = [0, ),
A = R,
A = [a, a], a > 0,

A = [0, ).

5.7.23 Upojtoume
Pti oi sunartseic fn , n N enai lec suneqec sto snolo
A kai ti h seir n=1 fn sugklnei omoimorfa sto A. Dexte ti an to xo A
enai shmeo sussreushc to A, tte
lim

xxo

fn (x) =

n=1

fn (xo ).

n=1

5.7.24 Efarmste thn prohgomenh skhsh gia na apodexete tic paraktw istht-

ec:

(a)

X
(1)n+1 n
x = log 2,
x1
n
n=1

(b)

X
(1)n+1
= log 2,
x1
nx
n=1

(c)
(d)
(e)

lim

lim

lim

x1

lim

x0+

(xn xn+1 ) = 1,

n=1

n=1

1
2n nx

= 1,

2
x2
=
.
2
2
x
1+n x
6
n=1
lim

124

5.7.25 ? Dnontai akoloujec sunartsewn {fn } kai {gn } orismnec sto snolo

E R. Orzoume sn = f1 + + fn . Upojtoume ti:

(a) H P
{sn } enai omoimorfa fragmnh sto E .
(b) H n |gn gn+1 | sugklnei omoimorfa sto E .
(g) H {gn } sugklnei
omoimorfa sto E proc th mhdenik sunrthsh.
P
Dexte ti h n fn gn sugklnei omoimorfa sto E .

5.7.26 ? Dnetai fjnousa akolouja {bn }

n=0 [0, ) ttoia ste

Dexte ti oi seirc

bn cos(n) kai

n=0

n bn

= .

bn sin(n)

n=0

sugklnoun all
P den sugklnoun apoltwc gia kje 6= k, (k Z).
Updeixh: An n bn | cos(n)| < , tte

X
1X
bn (1 + cos(2n)) =
bn cos2 (n) < .
2 n
n

5.7.27 Dexte ti an h seir

lnei.

5.7.28 Dexte ti

P
n=1

an apoklnei, tte kai h seir

P
n=1

nan apok-

X
log(n + 1) log n
< .
(log n)2
n=2

5.7.29 ? Brete akolouja sunartsewn fn sto [0, 1] ttoia P

ste h seir

na sugklnei apluta kai omoimorfa sto [0, 1] all h seir

klnei omoimorfa sto [0, 1].

n=1

n=1 fn
|fn | na mn sug-

5.7.30 ? Upojtoume ti:

(a) Oi sunartseic
Plec montonec sto [a, b].
P fn , n N enai
(b) Oi seirc n=1 |fn (a)| kai n=1
P|fn (b)| sugklnoun.
Dexte ti h seir sunartsewn n=1 fn sugklnei apluta kai omoimorfa sto
[a, b].

5.7.31 Dexte ti h sunrthsh f (x) =

5.7.32 Dexte ti h sunrthsh f (x) =

1
n=1 n2 +x2

P
n=1

5.7.33 Dexte ti h sunrthsh f (x) =

P
n=1

R.

5.7.34 Dexte ti h sunrthsh f (x) =

cos(nx)
n2 +1

sto (/4, /4).

125

enai paragwgsimh sto [/6, 11/6].

sin(nx2 )
n3 +1

P
n=1

enai paragwgsimh sto R.

qei suneq pargwgo sto

n(tan x)n qei suneq pargwgo

5.7.35 Dexte ti h sunrthsh zta to Riemann

(x) =

X
1
x
n
n=1

enai peirec forc paragwgsimh sto (1, ).

5.7.36 Brete to megaltero snolo sto opoo oi paraktw seirc sunartsewn

sugklnoun shmeiak.

X
n=1

n3 x n ,

X
2n n
x ,
n!
n=1

X
(x 1)2n
,
2n n3
n=1

X
2n n
x ,
n2
n=1

n
n
+
1
n=1

2x + 1
x

X
n=1

f (x) =

n(tan x) ,

2n xn ,

n=1

2n xn! ,

n=1

X
(n!)2
(x1)n ,
(2n)!
n=1

n2

X
1
.
arctan
x
n=1

n=1

Jewrome th sunrthsh

X
n4n n
x (1x)n ,
n
3
n=1

5.7.37 Dnetai mi dunamoseir

(2+(1)n )n xn ,

P
k=0

ak (x xo )k me aktna sgklishc R > 0.

ak (x xo )k , x (xo R, xo + R).

k=0

(a) Dexte ti h f enai suneqc sto (xo R, xo + R).

(b) Dexte ti h f enai paragwgsimh sto (xo R, xo + R) kai mlista h pargwgc
thc upologzetai me paraggish thc dunamoseirc ro proc ro, dhlad

f 0 (x) =

kak (x xo )k1 , x (xo R, xo + R).

k=1

(g) An [a, b] (xo R, xo +R), dexte ti h f enai oloklhrsimh kata Riemann sto
[a, b] kai mlista to oloklrwm thc upologzetai me oloklrwsh thc dunamoseirc
ro proc ro, dhlad

f=
a

ak
(b xo )k+1 (a xo )k+1 .
k+1

k=0

5.7.38 Dnetai mi dunamoseir f (x) :=

R > 0. Dexte ti gia kje k N, isqei f

P
(k)

126

ak (x xo )k me aktna sgklishc
(xo ) = k!ak .

k=0

5.7.39 Oi dunamoseirc

an xn ,

qoun aktnec sgklishc R1 , R2 ,

antstoiqa.
P
n
(a) Dexte ti an R1 6= R2 , tte h dunamoseir
n=1 (an + bn )x qei aktna
sgklishc R3 = min{R1 , R2 }. P
Ti sumbanei an R1 = R2 ?

(b) Dexte ti h dunamoseir n=1 (an bn )xn qei aktna sgklishc R4 R1 R2 .

Dexte me pardeigma ti h anisthta mpore na enai austhr.

5.7.40 H dunamoseir

n=1

n=1 bn x

an xn qei aktna sgklishc R me 0 < R < . Upologste thn aktna sgklishc twn paraktw dunamoseirn.

2n an xn ,

n=1

n=1

nn an xn ,

n=1

X
nn n
x ,
n!
n=1

a2n xn .

n=1

5.7.41 Dexte ti an mi dunamoseir sugklnei omoimorfa sto R, tte enai

polunumo.
Updeixh: 'Askhsh 4.8.20.
5.7.42 Brete thn aktna sgklishc R thc dunamoseirc

x2n+1
(2n + 1)!!
n=1
kai dexte ti to jroism thc f ikanopoie thn exswsh f 0 (x) = 1 + xf (x), x
(R, R).

5.7.43 Dexte ti h dunamoseir

X
x3n
(3n)!
n=1

sugklnei shmeiak sto R kai ti to jroism thc f ikanopoie thn exswsh f 00 (x) +
f 0 (x) + f (x) = ex , x R.

5.8 Shmeiseic
To kritrio to Weierstrass gia th sgklish seirn anafretai suqn wc Weierstrass M-test. Dnei ektc thc omoimorfhc kai apluth sgklish thc seirc. Gia
seirc sunartsewn pou den sugklnoun apoltwc qrhsimopoiontai sunjwc ta
kritria twn Abel kai Dirichlet. Ta kritria aut ofelontai kurwc ston idiofu
Norbhg majhmatik N.Abel. O tpoc thc jroishc kat mrh anakalfjhke ap
ton Abel to 1826. Gia thn parousash twn krithrwn twn Abel kai Dirichlet kai tic
efarmogc touc qrhsimopoisame kurwc ta bibla [5] kai [10]. Sta [1], [10] uprqoun
perisstera gia th jewra twn dunamoseirn.

127

Oi trigwnometrikc seirc enai oi seirc sunartsewn thc morfc

(ak cos kx + bk sin kx),

k=1

pou ak , bk R, k N. H melth autn twn seirn apotele mroc enc eurtatou

kai shmantiko kldou thc anlushc pou onomzetai Anlush Fourier. Gia mi
eisagwg sthn Anlush Fourier parapmpoume sta bibla [1], [5] kai [6].
To prto pardeigma poujen paragwgsimhc, suneqoc sunrthshc dhmosiethke
ap ton Weierstrass. Istorik episkphsh ttoiou edouc paradeigmtwn uprqei sto
biblo [E.W.Hobson, The Theory of Functions of a Real Variable, 2 vols., Cambridge
Univ. Press, 1927] kai sto rjro [G.H.Hardy, Weierstrass non-differentiable function, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 17 (1916), 301-325].
O prtoc pou kataskease mia qwroplhrwtik kamplh tan o G.Peano to
1890. To pardeigma pou parajtoume enai to I.J.Schoenberg, [The Peano curve of
Lebesgue, Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 44 (1938), 519], ] o opooc tropopohse na prohgomeno pardeigma to H.Lebesgue. 'Alla paradegmata qwroplhrwtikn kampuln, kajc kai sqetikc kataskeuc uprqoun sta aklouja rjra: [J.Holbrook,
Stochastic independence and space-filling curves, Amer. Math. Monthly 88 (1991),
426-432], [T.Lance and E.Thomas, Arcs with positive measure and a space-filling
curve, Amer. Math. Monthly 98 (1991), 124-127], [E.H.Moore, On certain crinkly
curves, Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 1 (1900), 72-90, 507], [H.Sagan, Approximating polygons for Lebesgues and Schoenbergs space filling curves, Amer. Math.
Monthly 93 (1986), 361-368], [H.Sagan, An elementary proof that Schoenbergs space filling curve is nowhere differentiable, Math. Magazine 65 (1992), 125-128],
[W.C.Swift, Simple constructions of non-differentiable functions and space-filling
curves, Amer. Math. Monthly 68 (1961), 653-655], [L.Wen, A space-filling curve,
Amer. Math. Monthly 90 (1983), 283], [G.T.Whyborn, What is a curve?, Amer.
Math. Monthly 49 (1942), 493-497].

128

Keflaio 6

O qroc twn suneqn

sunartsewn
'Estw E na mh ken uposnolo to R. Me C(E) sumbolzoume to snolo
twn suneqn sunartsewn f : E R, en me B(E) sumbolzoume to snolo
twn fragmnwn sunartsewn f : E R. An to E enai sumpagc, tte
isqei C(E) B(E). Gia f B(E), orzoume kf k = sup{|f (x)| : x E}.
H sunrthsh k k : B(E) [0, ) enai mi nrma sto B(E). Idiatero
endiafron parousizei o qroc C[a, b], pou [a, b] na kleist disthma.
Sto keflaio aut meletme kurwc ta exc erwtmata:
1. 'Estw K sumpagc uposnolo to R. Ktw ap poic sunjkec mi
akolouja sunartsewn to C(K) qei upakolouja pou sugklnei omoimorfa? To erthma aut sqetzetai me thn nnoia thc isosunqeiac pou eisgetai
sthn pargrafo 6.1.
2. Enai to snolo twn poluwnmwn pukn msa sto C[a, b]? Me lla lgia:
mporome gia kje suneq sunrthsh f sto [a, b] na brome mi akolouja
poluwnmwn pou na sugklnei omoimorfa proc thn f ? 'Opwc ja dome sthn
paragrafo 6.3, h apnthsh enai jetik kai ofeletai sto Weierstrass.
Diforec llec idithtec twn qrwn C(E) kai B(E) parousizontai stic
askseic.

6.1 Isosunqeia. To Jerhma Arzel`a-Ascoli

Kje fragmnh akolouja pragmatikn arijmn qei sugklnousa upakolouja. Isqei kti anlogo gia akoloujec sunartsewn?
129

Pardeigma 6.1.1 'Estw

fn (x) =

x2
, x [0, 1], n N.
x2 + (1 nx)2

Tte |fn (x)| 1 ki epomnwc h {fn } enai omoimorfa fragmnh sto [0, 1].
0 sto [0, 1]. 'Omwc f (1/n) = 1, n N. 'Ara kami upakolouEpshc fn
n
ja thc {fn } den sugklnei omoimorfa sto [0, 1].
To pardeigma aut deqnei ti qreizetai kpoia epiplon upjesh po
na exasfalzei thn parxh omoimorfa sugklnousac upakoloujac.

Orismc 6.1.2 'Estw F mi oikogneia pragmatikn sunartsewn. H F

onomzetai shmeiak fragmnh sto E R an uprqei sunrthsh : E

R ttoia ste

|f (x)| (x), x E, f F.
H F onomzetai omoimorfa fragmnh sto E an uprqei M > 0 ttoio
ste
|f (x)| M, x E, f F.

Orismc 6.1.3 'Estw E na mh ken uposnolo to R. Mi oikogneia

sunartsewn F onomzetai isosuneqc sto E an gia kje > 0, uprqei
> 0 ttoio ste
(6.1)

f F, x, y E me |x y| < , isqei |f (x) f (y)| < .

n
Pardeigma 6.1.4 'Estw F = {fn }
n=1 , pou fn (x) = x , x [0, 1]. Pro-

fanc h F enai omoimorfa fragmnh sto [0, 1]. H F den enai isosuneqc
sto [0, 1]. Prgmati, stw x [0, 1). Dialgoume n arkontwc meglo ste
xn < 1/2. Tte |fn (1) fn (x)| = 1 xn > 1/2, dhlad den isqei h (6.1).
H F enai isosuneqc sto [0, a] gia opoiodpote a me 0 < a < 1. Aut
apodeiknetai wc exc: Gi x, y [0, a] kai n N,
(6.2) |fn (x) fn (y)| = |xn y n |

= |x y| |y n1 + y n2 x + + yxn2 + xn1 |
|x y|nan1 .
'Omwc limn nan1 = 0. 'Ara uprqei M > 0 ttoio ste nan1
M, n N. Jtoume = /M kai h (6.2) sunepgetai ti an |x y| < ,
tte

|fn (x) fn (y)| <

M = .
M
130

Pardeigma 6.1.5 Gi 0 < K < kai 0 < 1, orzoume

Lip(K, ) = {f C[0, 1] : |f (x) f (y)| K|x y| , x, y [0, 1]}.
H oikogneia sunartsewn Lip(K, ) enai isosuneqc, diti an > 0, jtoume
= (/K)1/ kai tte gi |xy| < , isqei f Lip(K, ), |f (x)f (y)| <
K = . H Lip(K, ) den enai ote shmeiak, ote omoimorfa fragmnh
diti periqei lec tic stajerc sunartseic. Epeid |f (x)| |f (0)|+K, f
Lip(K, ), x [0, 1], h upo-oikogneia sunartsewn

Lipo (K, ) := {f Lip(K, ) : f (0) = 1}

enai shmeiak fragmnh sto [0, 1].

Jerhma 6.1.6 An E enai na to pol arijmsimo snolo kai F enai mi

oikogneia pragmatikn sunartsewn, shmeiak fragmnh sto E , tte kje

akolouja {fn }
n=1 F qei upakolouja pou sugklnei shmeiak sto E .
Apdeixh.
Upojtoume ti to E enai arijmsimo. (H apdeixh gia peperasmno E enai
pi ekolh). 'Estw ti E = {x1 , x2 , . . . }. H akolouja (arijmn) {fn (x1 )}
enai fragmnh; ra h {fn } qei upakolouja {f1,k } ttoia ste h {f1,k (x1 )}
enai sugklnousa. H {f1,k (x2 )} enai fragmnh; ra h {f1,k } qei upakolouja {f2,k } ttoia ste h {f2,k (x2 )} enai sugklnousa. Suneqzontac aut
th diadikasa kataskeuzoume arijmhsmou pljouc akoloujec sunartsewn
Sn , n = 1, 2, . . . :

S1

f1,1 , f1,2 , f1,3 , f1,4 , . . .

S2

f2,1 , f2,2 , f2,3 , f2,4 , . . .

S3

f3,1 , f3,2 , f3,3 , f3,4 , . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
pou qoun tic idithtec:
(a) H Sn enai upakolouja thc Sn1 , n = 2, 3, . . . .
(b) Gia kje n N, h akolouja {fn,k (xn )}
k=1 enai sugklnousa.
Jewrome tra th diagnia akolouja {fn,n }
n=1 . Gia opoiodpote m

N, h akolouja {fn,n }n=m enai upakolouja thc Sm ; lgw tou (b), aut

sunepgetai ti h akolouja {fn,n (xm }

n=1 enai sugklnousa. 'Ara h {fn,n }n=1
sugklnei shmeiak sto E .

To jerhma po akolouje enai to shmantiktero jerhma gia thn isosunqeia. Sundei thn nnoia aut me thn omoimorfh sgklish. Sthn apdeix
tou qreizetai to akloujo topologik apotlesma. Jumzoume prta ti na
uposnolo E enc sunlou K enai pukn sto K an E = K ; gia pardeigma,
to Q enai pukn sto R.
131

Lmma 6.1.7 An K enai na sumpagc uposnolo tou R tte to K qei na

to pol arijmsimo pukn uposnolo.

Apdeixh.
'Estw k N. Profanc isqei

[
1
1
K
x ,x +
.
k
k
xK

Epeid to K enai sumpagc, uparqoun peperasmnou pljouc shmea tou

(k) (k)
(k)
x1 , x2 , . . . xnk ttoia ste

nk
[
1 (k) 1
(k)
K
x j , xj +
.
k
k
j=1

'Estw

E=

(k)

(k)

{x1 , x2 , . . . , x(k)
nk }.

k=1

To E enai to pol arijmsimo kai pukn uposnolo to K .

Jerhma 6.1.8 (Arzel`a-Ascoli) 'Estw K na sumpagc uposnolo to

R. An F C(K) enai mia shmeiak fragmnh kai isosuneqc oikogneia
sunartsewn, tte
(a) H F enai omoimorfa fragmnh sto K .
(b) Kje akolouja {fn }
n=1 F qei upakolouja po sugklnei omoimorfa
sto K .
Apdeixh.
(a) Epeid h F enai isosuneqc sto K , uprqei > 0 ttoio ste
(6.3)

f F kai x, y K me |x y| < , isqei |f (x) f (y)| < 1.

Epeid to K enai sumpagc, uprqoun peperasmnou pljouc shmea tou

p1 , p2 , . . . , pm ttoia ste

K V (p1 , ) V (p2 , ) V (pm , ),

pou V (pj , ) = (pj , pj +). Epeid h F enai shmeiak fragmnh, uprqoun
jetiko arijmo M1 , M2 , . . . , Mm ttoioi ste
(6.4)

f F, |f (pj )| Mj , j = 1, 2, . . . , m.
132

Jtoume M = max{M1 , M2 , . . . , Mm }. 'Estw x K . Tte x V (pj , ) gia

kpoio j {1, 2, . . . , m} kai lgw twn (6.3), (6.4), isqei

f F, |f (x)| |f (pj )| + 1 M + 1.
'Ara h F enai omoimorfa fragmnh sto K .
(b) 'Estw {fn }
n=1 mi akolouja to F kai stw E na to pol arijmsimo, pukn uposnolo to K (h parxh ttoiou E exasfalzetai ap to
Lmma 6.1.7). Ap to Jerhma 6.1.6 prokptei ti h {fn } qei mi upakolouja {fnk }
k=1 ttoia ste h {fnk (x)} enai sugklnousa gia kje x E .
Ja dexoume ti h {fnk } sugklnei omoimorfa sto K . Gia na aplopoisoume touc sumbolismoc jtoume fnk = gk . 'Estw > 0. Lgw isosunqeiac
uprqei > 0 ttoio ste
(6.5)

f F kai x, y K me |x y| < , isqei |f (x) f (y)| < .

Epeid to E enai pukn msa sto K kai to K enai sumpagc, uprqoun

peperasmnou pljouc shmea x1 , x2 , . . . , xN to E ttoia ste
(6.6)

K V (x1 , ) V (x2 , ) V (xN , ).

H {gk (x)} enai sugklnousa (ra kai Cauchy) gia kje x E , ra kai gia
x = xj , j = 1, 2, . . . , N . Epomnwc uprqoun fusiko kj , j = 1, 2, . . . , N
ttoioi ste

k, l kj , |gk (xj ) gl (xj )| < , j = 1, 2, . . . , N.

Jtoume ko = max{k1 , k2 , . . . , kn }. Tte
(6.7)

k, l ko , |gk (xj ) gl (xj )| < , j = 1, 2, . . . , N.

'Estw x K . Lgw thc (6.6), x V (xj , ) gia kpoio j {1, 2, . . . , N }

ki epomnwc h (6.5) dnei
(6.8)

|gk (x) gk (xj )| < , k N.

Telik loipon, an k, l ko , tte

|gk (x) gl (x)| |gk (x) gk (xj )| + |gk (xj ) gl (xj )| + |gl (xj ) gl (x)| < 3.
Lgw tou krithrou Cauchy gia omoimorfh sgklish (Jerhma 4.3.14), h
{gk } sugklnei omoimorfa sto K .

133

6.2 Akoloujec Dirac

Orismc 6.2.1 Mi akolouja suneqn sunartsewn Kn : R R onomzetai akolouja Dirac, an qei tic akloujec idithtec:
(D1) Kn (t) 0, n N, t R.
(D2) K
n (t) = Kn (t), n N, t R.
R
(D3) Kn (t) dt = 1, n N.
(D4) Gia kje > 0 kai kje > 0 uprqei no N ttoio ste gia kje
n no ,

Kn (t) dt +

Kn (t) dt < .

H sunjkh (D3) shmanei ti to embad ktw ap to grfhma thc Kn

enai so me 1. H sunjkh (D4) shmanei ti to embad aut sugkentrnetai
kont ston xona y so to n auxnei. Enai faner ti gia na apodexoume
thn (D4) arke na dexoume ti gia kje > 0,
Z
lim
Kn (t) dt = 0.
n

Pardeigma 6.2.2 (Akolouja Landau)

'Estw
(6.9)

(
Kn (t) =

(1t2 )n
,
cn

an

1 t 1,
an t < 1 t > 1.

0,

Oi stajerc cn epilgontai tsi ste na ikanopoietai h (D3), dhlad

Z
cn =

(1 t2 )n dt.

Shmeinoume ti epeid h Kn = 0 xw ap to [1, 1], oloklhrnoume sto

[1, 1] kai qi sto (, ). Profanc oi Kn enai lec suneqec sto R kai
ikanopoion tic sunjkec (D1) kai (D2). Mnei na apodexoume th (D4).
Prta brskoume na ktw frgma gia to cn :

Z
cn = 2

Z
2 n

(1 t ) dt = 2
0

Z
2

(1 + t)n (1 t)n dt

0
1

2
.
(1 t)n dt =
n+1
134

'Estw tra 0 < < 1 kai > 0. Isqei:

Z
Z 1
Z 1
Z 1
(1 t2 )n
Kn +
Kn = 2
Kn = 2
dt
cn
1

Z 1

(n + 1)(1 2 )n dt (n + 1)(1 2 )n .

H teleutaa posthta tenei sto 0 tan n . 'Ara uprqei no N ttoio

R
R1
ste gia n no , 1 Kn + Kn < kai h (D4) apodeqjhke.

Pardeigma 6.2.3 (Kanonik Katanom)

'Estw

(6.10)

n
2 2
pn (t) = en t /2 .
2

Enai profanc ti h akolouja aut

ikanopoie tic (D1) kai (D2). Epshc
me thn allag metablhtc u = nt/ 2 prokptei ti
Z
Z
1
2
eu du = 1
pn (t) dt =

ki epomnwc isqei kai h (D3). Gia na apodexoume thn (D4) qreiazmaste

to paraktw lmma.
Lmma: Uprqei stajer C > 0 ttoia ste gia kje M > 0,
Z
2
2
eu du C eM .
M

R
2
Apdeixh to lmmatoc: Jtoume g(M ) = M eu du, M 0. Grfontac
R u2
R M u2
g(M ) = 0 e
du 0 e
du, parathrome ti h g enai paragwgsimh
kai to Jemelidec Jerhma to Logismo dnei
2

g 0 (M ) = eM , M > 0.
'Etsi o kannac to LHospital dnei
R u2
2
e
du
g(M )
eM
lim M M 2
= lim M 2 = lim
2 = 0.
M
M e
M 2M eM
e
'Ara uprqei Mo > 0 ttoio ste gia M Mo ,
Z
2
2
eu du eM .
M

135

Sto disthma [0, Mo ] h sunrthsh

R
M

eu du
eM 2

enai fragmnh wc suneqc. 'Etsi to lmma apodeqjhke.

Erqmaste tra sthn apdeixh tc (D4) gia thn akolouja sunartsewn
{pn }. Gia > 0, lgw to lmmatoc,
r Z
r
2 2
Z
2
2
n
u2
pn (t) dt =
e
du
C exp
0,
n/2

tan n ki tsi h (D4) apodeqjhke.

Orismc 6.2.4 Jewrome du fragmnec, suneqec sunartseic f, g : R R

me thn idithta:

|f (t)| dt <

|g(t)| dt < .

H sunlix twn f, g enai h sunrthsh f g : R R me

Z
f g(x) =
f (t) g(x t) dt.

Me allag metablhtc apodeiknetai ti f g = g f , dhlad

Z
Z
f (t) g(x t) dt =
f (x t) g(t) dt.

H sunlixh kai oi akoloujec Dirac pazoun shmantik rlo sthn Anlush,

kurwc qrh sto akloujo jerhma.

Jerhma 6.2.5 'Estw f : R R mi fragmnh kai suneqc sunrthsh.

o f se kje
'Estw Kn mi akolouja Dirac. Jtoume fn = Kn f . Tte fn
kleist disthma to R.

Apdeixh.
Lgw thc (D3),

f (x) = f (x)

Kn (t) dt =

136

Kn (t)f (x) dt,

x R.

'Ara

Z
(6.11)

fn (x) f (x) =

Kn (t) [f (x t) f (x)] dt

x R.

Jewrome na kleist disthma [a, b] kai na > 0. H f enai omoimorfa

suneqc sto [a 1, b + 1]. 'Ara uprqei (0, 1) ttoio ste gi x [a, b]
kai |t| < isqei
(6.12)

|f (x t) f (x)| < .

H f enai fragmnh; stw M na nw frgma tc |f |. Lgw thc (D4), uprqei

no N ttoio ste gia kje n no ,

Kn +

.
2M

Kn <

Ap thn (6.11), parnontac aplutec timc, prokptei ti gia x R,

Z
(6.13)

|fn (x) f (x)|

Kn (t) |f (x t) f (x)| dt.

Gia na ektimsoume to prto kai to trto oloklrwma, qrhsimopoiome thn

anisthta |f (x t) f (x)| 2M kai parnoume gia x R kai n no ,

Kn (t) |f (x t) f (x)| dt 2M

Kn (t) dt < .

Gia to mesao oloklrwma sthn (6.13), qrhsimopoiome thn (6.12):

Kn (t) |f (xt)f (x)| dt

Kn =

Kn

Kn = , x [a, b].

Dexame loipn ti gia kje x [a, b] kai kje n no , |fn (x) f (x)| < 2.
o f sto [a, b].
'Ara fn

6.3 To jerhma prosggishc to Weierstrass

'Opwc edame sthn prohgomenh pargrafo h akolouja Landau enai mia
akolouja Dirac. Ja efarmsoume tra to Jerhma 6.2.5 sthn akolouja
Landau gia na apodexoume to akloujo perfhmo jerhma.
137

Jerhma 6.3.1 (Jerhma to Weierstrass) 'Estw f mi sunrthsh

suneqc sto [a, b]. Uprqei mi akolouja poluwnmwn {pn } ttoia ste
o f sto [a, b].
pn
Apdeixh.

Ja apodexoume prta to jerhma me tic epiprsjetec upojseic [a, b] =

[0, 1] kai f (0) = f (1) = 0. Epektenoume thn f sto R jtontac f (x) = 0 gia x
xw ap to [0, 1]. H epektetamnh f enai suneqc kai fragmnh sto R. 'Estw
{Kn } h akolouja Landau (bl. Pardeigma 6.2.2). Jtoume pn = Kn f .
o f sto [0, 1]. Mnei na dexoume ti
Ap to Jerhma 6.2.5 prokptei pn
kje pn enai polunumo. Isqei

Z
pn (x) =

Kn (x t)f (t) dt =

Kn (x t)f (t) dt.

Gia kje n N, h Kn enai polunumo bajmo 2n kai wc proc x kai wc proc

t. Epomnwc mpore na grafe sth morf

Kn (x t) = g0 (t) + g1 (t)x + g2 (t)x2 + + g2n (t)x2n ,

pou g0 , g1 , . . . , g2n enai polunuma wc proc t. 'Ara

pn (x) = a0 + a1 x + + a2n x2n ,

pou

Z
aj =

gj (t)f (t) dt.

'Etsi to jerhma apodeqjhke me tic epiprsjetec upojseic pou kname sthn

arq.
Apodeiknoume tra to jerhma me mnh epiprsjeth upjesh [a, b] =
[0, 1]. Jewrome th sunrthsh

h(x) = f (x) f (0) x(f (1) f (0))

h opoa enai suneqc sto [0, 1] kai h(0) = h(1) = 0. Ap to prto mroc thc
o h sto [0, 1]. Tte h
apdeixhc uprqei akolouja poluwnmwn {qn } me qn
akolouja poluwnmwn

qn f (0) x(f (1) f (0))

sugklnei omoimorfa sthn f sto [0, 1].
138

Tloc apodeiknoume to jerhma qwrc kami epiprsjeth upjesh. Jewrome th sunrthsh : [a, b] [0, 1] me

(x) =
Jtoume

xa
.
ba

g(y) = f 1 (y) = f ((b a)y + a),

y [0, 1].

H g enai suneqc sto [0, 1]. Lgw autn pou apodexame mqri tra, uprqei
o g sto [0, 1]. Jtoume
akolouja poluwnmwn {rn } me rn

xa
.
pn (x) = rn (x) = rn
ba
H {pn } enai akolouja poluwnmwn kai epiplon
o
pn = rn
g=f

sto [a, b], (bl. 'Askhsh 4.8.30).

Pardeigma 6.3.2 'Estw f : [a, b] R mi suneqc sunrthsh. Upojtoume ti gia kje n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , isqei
Z
(6.14)

xn f (x) dx = 0.

Ja dexoume ti tte f = 0. Prgmati, ap to jerhma tou Weierstrass,

o f sto [a, b]. 'Ara f p
o f 2 sto
uprqei akolouja poluwnmwn pn me pn
n
[a, b]. Epomnwc
Z b
Z b
f 2 = lim
f pn .

Rb

n a

'Omwc lgw thc (6.14), a f pn = 0 gia kje n. 'Ara

enai suneqc petai ti f = 0.

Rb
a

f 2 = 0. Epeid h f

6.4 Askseic
6.4.1 'Estw E na m ken uposnolo to R. Dexte ti o B(E) me t nrma kk
enai normikc qroc.
o
6.4.2 Dexte ti fn f sto qro B(E) an kai mno an fn
f sto E .

6.4.3 Dexte ti o B(E) enai plrhc.

139

6.4.4 Dexte ti o qroc Cb (E) := C(E) B(E) enai kleistc upoqroc to

B(E) (ra kai plrhc).
6.4.5 Dexte ti o B(E) enai lgebra sunartsewn, dhlad an f, g B(E), tte
f g B(E) kai kf gk kf k kgk . Epiplon dexte ti, an fn f kai gn g
sto qro B(E), tte fn gn f g sto qro B(E).
6.4.6 Mi suneqc sunrthsh q : [a, b] R onomzetai polugwnik an uprqoun
shmea a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b ttoia ste h q na enai grammik se kajna ap
ta diastmata [xj1 , xj ], j = 1, 2, . . . , n. Dexte ti an f C[a, b], tte uprqei
o
akolouja polugwnikn sunartsewn {qn } ttoia ste qn
f sto [a, b].
6.4.7 Dexte ti kje polugwnik sunrthsh enai Lipschitz. Dexte ti oi sunartseic Lipschitz enai puknc msa ston C[a, b].
6.4.8 Me qrsh polugwnikn sunartsewn dexte ti o C[a, b] enai diaqwrsimoc

qroc.

6.4.9 Mia sunrthsh s : [a, b] R onomzetai klimakwt an uprqoun shmea

a = x0 < x1 < < xn = b ttoia ste h s na enai stajer se kajna ap
ta diastmata [xj1 , xj ), j = 1, 2, . . . , n. Dexte ti an f C[a, b], tte uprqei
o
akolouja klimakwtn sunartsewn {qn } ttoia ste qn
f sto [a, b].
o
6.4.10 An fn
f sto [a, b], dexte ti to snolo {f }{fn : n N} enai sumpagc

sto qro C[a, b].

6.4.11 An F enai mi isosuneqc oikogneia sunartsewn sto E , dexte ti kje

sunrthsh f F enai omoimorfa suneqc sto E .
6.4.12 Dexte ti kje peperasmno uposnolo to C[a, b] enai isosuneqc.
6.4.13 An F enai mi isosuneqc oikogneia sunartsewn sto E , dexte ti kje
uposnolo thc F enai isosuneqc.
6.4.14 Swst Ljoc? An kje sunrthsh mic oikogneiac sunartsewn sto
(0, 1) enai omoimorfa suneqc, tte h oikogneia enai isosuneqc.
6.4.15 'Estw K sumpagc uposnolo to R. Dexte ti na isosuneqc uposnolo
tou C(K) enai shmeiak fragmno an kai mno an enai omoimorfa fragmno.
6.4.16 'Estw E na mh ken uposnolo tou R. Mi oikogneia sunartsewn F
C(E) onomzetai isosuneqc sto shmeo x E an gia kje > 0, uprqei > 0
ttoio ste
f F, y E me |x y| < , isqei |f (x) f (y)| < .
(a) Upojtoume ti to E enai sumpagc. Dexte ti h F enai isosuneqc sto E an
kai mno an enai isosuneqc se kje shmeo tou E .
(b) Brete mi oikogneia sunartsewn pou enai isosuneqc se kje shmeo to R
all den enai isosuneqc sto R.

140

6.4.17 'Estw K sumpagc uposnolo to R. An {fn } enai mi omoimorfa sugklnousa akolouja sto C(K), dexte ti to snolo {fn : n N} enai omoimorfa
fragmno kai isosuneqc.
6.4.18 'Estw K sumpagc uposnolo to R. An F enai mia isosuneqc oikogneia
sto K kai h akolouja {fn } F sugklnei shmeiak sto K , dexte ti h {fn }
sugklnei omoimorfa sto K .
6.4.19 'Estw K sumpagc uposnolo to R. An h akolouja {fn } C(K) enai
fjnousa kai sugklnei shmeiak sto K prc th mhdenik sunrthsh, dexte ti to
snolo {fn : n N} enai isosuneqc.
6.4.20 Qrhsimopoiste tic Askseic 6.4.16-6.4.19 gia na dsete mi na apdeixh
tou krithrou tou Dini (Jerhma 4.4.4).
6.4.21 Dnontai na sumpagc uposnolo K to R kai mi akolouja {fn }
C(K). An to snolo {fn : n N} enai isosuneqc sto K , dexte ti to snolo
{x K : {fn (x)} sugklnei} enai kleist uposnolo tou K .
6.4.22 Gia mi akolouja paragwgsimwn sunartsewn fn : [a, b] R isqei
|f 0 (x)| 1, x [a, b], n N.
An h {fn } enai shmeiak fragmnh, dexte ti h {fn } qei upakolouja pou sugklnei
omoimorfa sto [a, b].

6.4.23 Dnetai mi akolouja sunartsewn {fn } pou enai suneqec sto [a, b] kai
paragwgsimec sto (a, b). Upojtoume ti h {fn0 } enai omoimorfa fragmnh sto
(a, b) kai h {fn } sugklnei shmeiak sto [a, b]. Dexte ti h {fn } sugklnei omoimorfa sto [a, b].
6.4.24 Dnontai arijmo K kai me 0 < K < kai 0 < 1. Dexte ti to

snolo

{f Lip(K, ) : f (0) = 0}
enai sumpagc uposnolo to C[0, 1].

6.4.25 Dnetai mi omoimorfa fragmnh akolouja sunartsewn {fn }

n=1 pou

enai oloklhrsimec sto disthma [a, b]. Orzoume

Z
Fn (x) =

fn (t) dt, x [a, b].

a

Dexte ti uprqei upakolouja {Fnk }

k=1 pou sugklnei omoimorfa sto [a, b].

141

6.4.26 Dnontai na sumpagc snolo K kai mi oikogneia sunartsewn F

C(K).
(a) An h F enai shmeiak fragmnh, dexte ti kai to perblhm thc sto qro C(K)
enai epshc shmeiak fragmno.
(b) An h F enai omoimorfa fragmnh, dexte ti kai to perblhm thc sto qro
C(K) enai epshc omoimorfa fragmno.
(g) Swst Ljoc? An h F enai isosuneqc, tte kai to perblhm thc sto qro
C(K) enai epshc isosuneqc.
6.4.27 Dnontai na sumpagc snolo K kai na snolo sunartsewn F C(K).
Dexte ti to F enai sumpagc uposnolo to C(K) an kai mno an to F enai
kleist, shmeiak fragmno, kai isosuneqc.
R
6.4.28 Orzoume ton telest T : C[a, b] C[a, b] me thn isthta T f (x) = ax f .
Dexte ti o T apeikonzei ta fragmna snola se isosuneq (kai ra sumpag)
snola.
6.4.29 'Estw K(x, y) mia sunrthsh suneqc sto [a, b] [a, b].

Rb
(a) An f C[a, b] kai g(x) = a f (t)K(x, t) dt, dexte ti g C[a, b].
(b) Orzoume ton telest T : C[a, b] C[a, b] me thn isthta
Z b
T f (x) =
f (t)K(x, t) dt.
a

Dexte ti o T apeikonzei ta fragmna snola se isosuneq snola kai ti o T

enai suneqc.

6.4.30 'Estw F (x, y) mia sunrthsh suneqc sto [0, 1] [0, 1]. Gi y [0, 1],
orzoume th sunrthsh Fy : [0, 1] R me Fy (x) = F (x, y). Dexte ti to snolo
twn sunartsewn {Fy : y [0, 1]} enai isosuneqc sto [0, 1].
6.4.31 Dexte ti ktw ap tic upojseic to Orismo 6.2.4, to genikeumno olok-

lrwma

f (t) g(x t) dt

pou orzei th sunlixh do sunartsewn uprqei gia kje x R.

6.4.32 Dexte ti ktw ap tic upojseic to Orismo 6.2.4

(a) (f1 + f2 ) g = f1 g + f2 g .
(b) f g = g f .
6.4.33 Dexte ti h akolouja sunartsewn
Kn (t) =

n
,
(1 + n2 t2 )

enai akolouja Dirac.

142

t R, n N,

6.4.34 Dnetai sunarthsh K : R R jetik, suneqc, rtia, sh me to 0 xw ap

na fragmno disthma kai
Z
K(t) dt = 1.

Orzoume Kn (t) = nK(nt). Dexte ti h {Kn } enai akolouja Dirac.

6.4.35 Brete mi sugkekrimnh sunrthsh K pwc sthn parapnw skhsh pou na

enai epiplon kai peirec forc paragwgsimh.
6.4.36 'Estw K mi peirec forc paragwgsimh sunrthsh sto R ttoia ste
K = 0 xw ap na fragmno disthma. 'Estw f mi fragmnh, suneqc sunrthsh
sto R. Dexte ti h K f enai peirec forc paragwgsimh kai (K f )0 = K 0 f .
6.4.37 (a) An p enai na polunumo kai > 0, dexte ti uprqei polunumo q me
rhtoc suntelestc ttoio ste d[a,b]] (p, q) < .
(b) Dexte ti o C[a, b] enai diaqwrsimoc.
(g) Dexte ti o C(R) den enai diaqwrsimoc.
6.4.38 ? 'Estw Pn to snolo twn poluwnmwn me bajm mikrtero so to n.
Dexte ti to Pn enai (n + 1)-distatoc dianusmatikc upoqroc to C[a, b]. Dexte
ti to Pn enai kleist uposnolo to C[a, b].
Swst Ljoc?

[
C[a, b] =
Pn .
n=1

6.4.39 'Estw f mi suneqc sunrthsh sto [a, b]. To Jerhma to Weierstrass

o
eggutai thn parxh mic akoloujac poluwnmwn {pn } me pn
f sto [a, b]. 'Estw
mn o bajmc to poluwnmou pn . An h f den enai polunumo, dexte ti mn .
6.4.40 An h f qei suneq pargwgo sto [a, b] kai > 0, dexte ti uprqei
polunumo p ttoio ste kf pk < kai kf 0 p0 k < .
6.4.41 Kataskeuste mi akolouja poluwnmwn pou sugklnei omoimorfa sto
[0, 1] all h akolouja twn paraggwn den sugklnei omoimorfa.

6.4.42 ? Dexte
ti uprqei akolouja poluwnmwn {pn } ttoia ste pn
0 sto
R

[0, 1] all

1
0

pn (x) dx 3.

6.4.43 Dnetai suneqc sunrthsh f : [1, +) R. Upojtoume ti to rio

limx f (x) uprqei. Dexte ti gia kje > 0, uprqei polunumo p ttoio ste
|f (x) p(1/x)| < gia kje x [1, ).
6.4.44 ? Mi akolouja poluwnmwn sugklnei omoimorfa sto R. Dexte ti h

sunrthsh-rio enai polunumo.

143

6.5 Shmeiseic
H nnoia thc isosunqeiac mpore na oriste kai gia oikogneiec pragmatikn migadikn sunartsewn pou enai orismnec se na metrik qro (X, ): H F onomzetai isosuneqc sto X an an gia kje > 0, uprqei > 0 ttoio ste

f F, x, y X me (x, y) < , isqei |f (x) f (y)| < .

Ta Jewrmata 6.1.6 kai 6.1.8 isqoun kai s' aut to geniktero plasio me tic diec
apodexeic.
H nnoia thc isosunqeiac kai to Jerhma Arzel`a-Ascoli enai suneisforc twn
Italn majhmatikn C.Arzel`a kai G.Ascoli. H prth xekjarh diatpwsh to jewrmatoc gia to qro C[0, 1] gine ap ton Arzel
a to 1895. H genkeush to jewrmatoc se metrikoc qrouc enai rgo to M.Frechet to 1906. Gia perissterec
plhroforec parapmpoume sta bibla [2], [5], [8]. H nnoia thc isosunqeiac qrhsimopoietai kai sth Migadik Anlush; kurwc sth jewra twn kanonikn oikogenein
olmorfwn armonikn sunartsewn. Bl. [L.V.Ahlfors, Complex Analysis, 3rd
edition, McGraw-Hill, 1979] kai [W.Rudin, Real and Complex Analysis, 3rd edition, McGraw-Hill, 1987].
To jerhma to Weierstrass gia thn poluwnumik prosggish suneqn sunartsewn apodeqjhke to 1885. Mia sntomh istorik episkphsh kajc kai lla
sqetik apotelsmata uprqoun sta rjra [[A.Shields, Polynomial approximation,
Math. Intelligencer 9 (1987), 5-7], [E.R.Hedrick, The significance of Weierstrasss
theorem, Amer. Math. Monthly 20 (1927), 211-213], [S.D.Fisher, Quantitative
approximation theory, Amer. Math. Monthly 85 (1978), 318-332].
Uprqoun pollc apodexeic to jewrmatoc. H pi stoiqeidhc ofeletai sto
Lebesgue kai baszetai sthn paratrhsh ti oi polugwnikc sunartseic enai puknc
sto C[a, b]. Gia thn apdeixh aut bl. [2, Ch.11]. Mi llh apdeixh gine ap ton
Sergei Bernstein to 1912; bl. [2], [10]. To jerhma to Weierstrass mpore epshc na
proljei mesa ap to jerhma to Fejer gia thn ajroisimthta twn seirn Fourier;
bl. [1, Ch.11]. H apdeixh pou dnoume sthn 6.3 ofeletai ston E.Landau. Thn
protimsame diti enai ap teqnik poyh apl kai ekolh. H apdeixh aut uprqei
kai sta bibla [4], [8] kai [S.Lang, Undergraduate Analysis, 2nd edition, Springer,
1997].
Oi nnoiec thc sunlixhc kai twn akoloujin Dirac qoun meglh shmasa sthn
Anlush kai mlista sthn Armonik. Perissterec plhroforec uprqoun sto biblo
[6]
Shmantikc genikuseic to jewrmatoc to Weierstrass apodeqjhkan ap ton
M.H.Stone to 1937. Gia th jewra to Stone parapmpoume sta [2], [4], [5].

144

Bibliografa
[1] T. Apostol, Mathematical Analysis. Second Edition. Addison-Wesley
Publ. 1974.
[2] N. L. Carothers, Real Analysis. Cambridge Univ. Press 2000.
[3] W. J. Kaczor, M.T. Nowak, Problems in Mathematical Analysis I, II,
III. American Mathematical Society 2000.
[4] W. Rudin, Principles of Mathematical Analysis. Third Edition.
McGraw-Hill 1976.
[5] K. Stromberg, An Introduction to Classical Real Analysis. Wadsworth
1981.
[6] R. L. Wheeden and A. Zygmund, Measure and Integral. Marcel Dekker
1977.
[7] Ap. Giannpouloc, Eisagwg sthn Anlush I. Diajsimo sthn istoselda

http://eudoxos.math.uoa.gr/ apgiannop
[8] P. Xenikkhc, Pragmatik Anlush. Deterh 'Ekdosh. Ekd. Zth 1999.
[9] M. Papadhmhtrkhc, Eisagwg sthn Anlush. Diajsimo sthn istoselda

http://www.math.uoc.gr/ papadim/
[10] M. Papadhmhtrkhc, Eisagwg sthn Anlush II. Diajsimo sthn istoselda

http://www.math.uoc.gr/ papadim/

145

Euretrio
jroish kat mrh 110
jroisma seirc 27
akolouja Cauchy 12
akolouja merikn ajroismtwn 27, 105
akolouja sunartsewn 83
axousa 84
omoimorfa fragmnh 84
fjnousa 84
fragmnh 84
Dirac 134
Landau 134, 137
akraa shmea 43
aktna sgklishc 116
anaditaxh seirc 34
anisthta Jensen 70
nw frgma 1
nw prac (supremum) 2
nw fragmno snolo 1
antero rio akoloujac (limsup) 15
algebrikc arijmc 22
algrijmoc Eukledh 41
axwma plhrthtac 2
apeiroginmeno 51
apluth sgklish 28
apstash sunartsewn 86
arister pargwgoc 67
arq kibwtismo 6
arqimdeia idithta 3
gewmetrik seir 28
dexi pargwgoc 67
disthma sgklishc 116
dipl akolouja 103
dunamoseir 115, 126
dunamosnolo 23
elqisto 1
enallssousa seir 34, 115
enallssousa armonik seir 35

Jerhma

jemelidec to Logismo 82
kuriarqomenhc sgklishc 104
oriak to Abel 114
paraggishc to Lebesgue 82
Arzel`
a-Ascoli 132, 144
Bolzano-Weierstrass 10, 26
Cantor 23
Riemann 36
Weierstrass 137

isodnama snola 7
isosunqeia 130
kamplh

eppedh 118, 63
eujugrammsimh 64
qwroplhrwtik 118, 128
ktw prac (infimum) 2
ktw frgma 1
ktw fragmno snolo 1
kattero rio akoloujac (liminf) 15
kritrio
enallassousn seirn 34, 115
lgou 33
oloklhrmatoc 29
oriakc sgkrishc 31
rzac 32
sgkrishc 30
sumpknwshc 48
Abel 110, 115, 127
Cauchy 90, 106
Dini 91, 102, 103, 121, 141
Dirichlet 111, 115, 127
Weierstrass 108, 127
kmansh sunrthshc 57
mgisto 1
mkoc kamplhc 63

146

mh termatizmenh parstash arijmo

41, 50

to pol arijmsimo 7
tpou Cantor 50
uperarijmsimo 7
fragmno 1
Cantor 42, 51, 56

oikogneia sunartsewn
isosuneqc 130
omoimorfa fragmnh 130
shmeiak fragmnh 130
olik kmansh sunrthshc 57
oloklrwma Riemann-Stieljes 82
omoimorfh prosggish 99
omoimorfh sgklish 86
oriakc arijmc akoloujac 13, 15,
26

tleio snolo 50, 50

termatizmenh parstash arijmo 40,
49
tomc Dedekind 26
upakolouja 9
fragmno snolo 1

parstash arijmo 40, 49

peperasmno snolo 7
seir 27
seir sunartsewn 105
seir Fourier 82, 128, 144
shmeiak sgklish 84
stajer to Euler 48
sunrthsh
apluta suneqc 64
axousa 55
afinik 67
gnhswc axousa 55
gnhswc montonh 55
gnhswc fjnousa 55
klimakwt 140
kolh 66
kurt 66
logarijmik kurt 81
montonh 55
olikc kmanshc 61
omoimorfa suneqc 53
polugwnik 140
suneqc 53
fjnousa 55
fragmnhc kmanshc 57
Cantor 45, 51, 56, 78, 123
Lipschitz 54, 65, 68, 72, 78,
81, 140
sunlixh 136, 142, 144
sunistsec sunartseic 63
snolo
peiro 7
arijmsimo 7
peperasmno 7
tleio 50, 50

147

Abel 110, 127

Arzel`
a 104, 144
Ascoli 144
Bernstein 144
Bolzano 26
Cantor 26, 51
Frech
et 144
Jordan 82
Landau 144
Lebesgue 82, 144
Lipschitz 81
Peano 128
Stokes 104
Stone 144
Weierstrass 116, 104, 128, 129,144

148