Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The Romance of Chinese Art (Art Ebook)
The Romance of Chinese Art (Art Ebook)
CHINESE BRONZES
||
th Unilwt
(1MS-65S
(206 B.C.
B.C.)
in
AD. 220)
THE ROMANCE OF
CHINESE ART
BY THE FOLLOWING AUTHORITIES:
Hobson
Laurence Binyon
Oswald Sir6n
Benjamin March
R. L.
Lt
Col. E. F. Strange
Charles F. Kelley
George
F.
Kunz
Kojiro Tomita
A.
Harada
Jiro
F.
Carl
Kendrick
W.
Warren
E.
Garden City
Cox
in fiolour
and
Bishop
^Halftone
CO., INC.
New York
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PUBLISHER'S
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FOREWORD
is
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
of articles from
of the
its
pages, and to
its
in his
Preface explains the make-up and comments upon the scope and authority
of this volume.
We
believe
it
to be the
made
generally
a valuable compilation
made
possible.
2011
http://www.archive.org/details/romanceofchineseOOgard
aimmaaBraasmiKmBninKnaB a^^
PREFACE
A,
.s
museums,
manner one
this
if
for those
much
finds
for here in
the
chief
The
strange sounding names need no longer be meaningless and one can, with
help,
know
exactly
when
its
made
ever since the 15th century, or any of the other dynasties, provinces or
cities
The
exhibits.
tell
at a glance
in the
world at any given time, and trace the influences which spread
Commencing with
China, written by Carl
W. Bishop
Development of
general survey can be had of the main influences, religious and other, which
fields in
which they
on new
and a
felt
it
in the arts
may have
PREFACE
may
be called the
As Chinese Architecture
chiefly
is
known
it is
West
with some care, the more so because Chinese Sculpture sprang from Chinese
Architecture, and
interest
Sculpture that
it is in
Museums
today.
we
find a large
Chinese figures, both stone and wood, and the western world
T'ang China.
equals in
It will
now beginning
is
be found that he has told the story so simply and so directly that
it is
fascinating reading.
many have
else, so far as I
interest in Oriental
Art at
all
has heard
in so
how
it
why.
The
reader will find the writers of the other articles, on Bronze and
Brass, Enamel, Iron, Ivory Carving, Lacquer, Jewellery, Textiles, etc., the
makes
its
The
way through
fills
it
understanding
is
myth,
to
bound
for there
is
in
commanding
is
mind
as
it
to
has come
down through
it
is,
men.
To
under-
own life.
and much that
Many myths
to enrich one's
is
have been
plenty of
Eastern Art, to
own way
the reader's
another;
ample beauty
is
in his
from one
result
whom
book.
PREFACE
One
of the most mysterious of the arts, one which Europe has never
been able to
country of
rival
its
Chinafrom the
very name
by R. L. Hobson of
the British Museum who has probably written more than any one other man
on this subject. Every word in his article is worth the reading, first because
most of the larger museums of the world contain examples of all the wares
its origin, is
more
told
and
artistic rises
any
other.
of China are
falls
From
the primitive
potteries of four or five thousand years ago, through the strong, sturdy
modellings of the
the
more
T'ang
to
Ming dynasty, and then on down the ever-declining, ever more refined art
of the Kang Hsi, Yung Cheng and Chien Lung periods, there is a perfect
reflection of the moods and characteristics of a marvellous people.
We of
the Western hemisphere have learned from French and English importations
of centuries back to enjoy the beauties of the porcelains of the later Chinese
periods,
countries;
have
and now
in recent years
less
hand of man,
is
all
arts of
all
like those of
it
Egypt
are
medium of pottery we now know almost every detail of the lives of the Chinese who lived several thousand years ago: how they built their barns and
houses, how they saddled their horses, how the ladies did up their hair, what
musical instruments they used, and a thousand other interesting and intimate
things.
Is this
we are now
and fascinating
But
Chinese Art.
It
little
originality
and
in
our
own
intelligence,
they have in fact often been leaders in thought and invention. To be sure
they may find our Western ways difficult to copy or perhaps, to put it another
way, they
may
it
ix
PREFACE
technical excellence, in beauty of conception,
tive
in executions.
and
little
Western
was
for the
Our
intelligence has
making of a
first laid
produced skyscrapers,
also they
huge guns;
lens, printing,
paper
battleship or an airplane
finest porcelains
and pot-
dis-
Warren
E.
Cox
IKmgEaaOPBmiKai^m iKjgKJilMi^^
CONTENTS
PAGE
i.
PERIODS OF ART
Warren
E.
Cox
A. F. Kendrick, F.R.S.A.
Keeper of Textiles
3.
in the Victoria
12
Carl W. Bishop
Associate Curator of the Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution,
4.
Washington
ARCHITECTURE
20
Oswald Siren
Director, National
5.
CHINESE PAINTING
52
Prints, British
Museum, London
WOOD CARVING
JlRO
65
HA RAD A
Imperial Household Museums, Japan
7.
CHINESE SCULPTURE
68
Oswald Siren
Director, National
CONTENTS
PAGE
8.
SCREEN
101
KOJIRO TOMITA
Keeper of Japanese Art,
9.
Museum
109
Hobson
JEWELLERY
137
Anonymous
11.
ENAMEL
140
12.
Museum, London
146
IRON IN ART
159
Benjamin March
Curator of Asiatic Art, Detroit Institute of Arts
14.
IVORY CARVING
Jiro
161
Harada
Imperial Household Museums, Japan
15.
LACQUER
164
16.
Museum, London
F.
173
Kelley
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
xu
189
wmmmww.
%>.
>
ILLUSTRATIONS
COLOUR PLATES
I
Chinese Bronzes
Frontispiece
PAGE
106
III
107
IV
7/5
T'ang Vase
779
II
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII
122
(a.d.
960-1260)
123
126
130
135
142
178
HALFTONE PLATES
Woven Brocade Hanging
Chinese Textiles
9
12
13
Two
of China
18
City Walls
xi 11
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
at Si-an, Shen-Si
6.
Pagodas
7.
8.
Buddhist Buildings
9.
10
1 1
12
13.
Temple-Tower
19
22
23
30
31
34
35
38
The Chinese
Style in
Two Gateways
14.
46
15.
16.
54
55
62
18.
17.
63
19.
66
20.
Animals
67
21.
Sculptures at the
22.
Monsters
23.
78
24.
25.
79
82
26.
in
in
Tomb
of
Wu
Chinese Sculpture
70
71
27.
83
86
28.
87
29.
94
30.
93
31.
in the
T'ang Style
102
32.
23-
34.
Pre-T'ang Potteries
///
35.
11S
36.
37.
38.
39.
xiv
Han Dynasty
103
no
no
126
127
ij.}
ILLUSTRATIONS
PAGE
40.
Chinese Porcelains
J35
41.
142
42.
'43
43.
The Cloisonne
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
Chinese Lacquer
49.
*47
162
Work
Work
146
or Silk Backgrounds
i6j
166
of the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries
Han
167
Dynasties
174
xv
twwww-W.&'W-W-W.wmm\vw/&w^
PERIODS OF ART
A,
.n
fine
art period
is
main
arts,
both
istics.
These
human
beings
who
created
difficult
so equipped,
is
these characteristics
by the greatest of
experts.
That
authorities agree
and
which clearly indicate the time and geographical location on the earth's surface wherein
denied.
It
is
some
certain
work of
on such expert
art
classification quite as
As
is
is
as
much
art,
based.
first
period between 500 B.C. and 350 B.C., there seems to occur at times a nearly
movement called
field
of art.
Dynasty (1368
to 1644)
was
From
its
arts;
in northern
Europe was
still
and
at its height.
in the
It
CHINESE ART
that though the individual causes seem to differ, in
religious fervour, in others the
pomp
some
Yet when we study that small part of the history of man of which we
have records we find that the development of civilization has extended over
only a comparatively brief period of time and that
may
look
down upon
same
at
world
it
much like
it is
evident on closer
They understood
the Westerners.
about the same time and, though they have never taken
interest in iron
and
steel, it
was
and gun-
battleships.
man
races of
there a
not so surprising
It is therefore
that at certain given times man's development in the various parts of the
artistic
achievements.
it
of the
Renaissance Italy.
the
to that felt in
probably the result of the oppressions of war and at the same time reactions
against a too materialistic wealth.
What
trend.
e
To
a remarkable
show
rigllfl
of a loss ^f identification.
The Japanese
artist
is
like the
China.
Undoubtedly
this
is
going to prove
happy
PERIODS OF ART
as for civilization
is
is
a discouraging one.
There
A much
little
itself to this
melting
all artists.
down
amusement and
of art,
is
it is
these two obstacles are overcome there can never be great art such as there
Thus we must
There
best art.
as those of
modern,
is
more
loss
in spite of (or
perhaps because
new means
available to
Alan R.
the
artists of
W.
is
Priest.
J.
to Professor Alfred
Coomaraswamy and
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RENAISSANC
ISM
owing to the continually increasing speed in the development of art periods throughout the world, but to alter and add to the geographical subdivisions because of
more or less individual national development. England, starting with the Roman period, developed partly distinct from, but parallel with, the continent. Korea and
united by Europeans who brought to It and developed an entirely new culture in this area. Many authorities include Carolingian and Romanesque under the general
inder "North Africa" and the Syrian under "Western Asia" are sometimes considered variant forms of the Byzantine; even the widely divergent Armenian style is octh shores of the Adriatic.
lies which felt its influence.
With this section it may be seen that Gothic art started between a.d. iioo and a.d. 1200 in the "Early and Rayonnant" style in France
ihort time, giving way to the Renaissance.
In Germany perhaps because of the same national characteristics that made the Baroque so appealing, at a later date, Gothic
ind later the "perpendicular" style.
It may also be seen that there was a revival in Gothic art between A.D. 1800 and A.D. 1900 not only in Germany, France, and Eng>enods, can be traced In the various countries and the approximate dates easily fixed in mind.
rears
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ili
WWW.W.W.W.W.WjM^W.W^U^.WMimw^iW.^^iW^.'^.
Woven fabrics
region of
myth
were
stuffs
of China.
like.
The
The
site lay
in the
Lop
The stuffs
B.C.,
is
lost in the
known
earliest
to exist
were
China
in
and replaced by an
with
Han
The
patterns of dragons,
to later work.
put of
artistic
griffins,
wares
is
Considerable numbers of
then in contact with Persia both by land and sea, and this western intercourse
is
It
is
conspicuously seen
in a silk
banner
(a.d. 572-623),
and
now removed from Nara (the old imperial capital) to the Tokyo museum.
The design is a typical Sassanian hunting-scene, with the king on horseback
attacking a lion; the
manner of representation
Many
Nara
in fine silks
T'ang dynasty.
is,
in
Japan.
as k'o-ssu,
is first
Gobi desert
9
CHINESE ART
region differ remarkably
fine silk
warp
is
On
assumed a
first
perhaps assignable
little
"Han"
silks
civilized form.
The
dim period
patterns are
many
Numbers
brought to the West at that time and under the Ming dynasty which followed
in
Some
are at Regensburg
medan
in
other
Moham-
With the
for
Chinese
textiles.
Canton
in
the trading ships of Portugal, Spain, England, France, Holland and other
countries brought
home
During
this
went on
made
silk fabrics,
un-
Dragons,
as before.
stuffs.
In China a landscape
kind of ornamentation.
ings, trees
and
described.
figures
any other
by the Chinese,
is
commemo-
here reproduced.
Woven Fabrics of Japan. Textile art in Japan owes a great deal to the
Chinese. The ancient royal treasure at Nara, already mentioned, contains
sonic of the most remarkable early Chinese stuffs in existence.
that
The
inference
Japan was then very largely dependent upon the more ancient
10
civiliza-
AND EMBROIDERIES
TEXTILES
general grounds.
is
confirmed on more
They
control; they
Gregory XIII.
in
them
silk
From
in the textiles of
Japan.
visiting Pope
They brought with
in return velvets
may
and brocades.
well advanced,
Japan closed her doors entirely to the foreigner, until in 1858 the country
was reopened to European and American trade by Com. Perry, U. S. Navy.
Japanese
Ducks
are
shown
growing
in
the stream, fowls with their chicks, cranes on the wing; with these are land-
scape effects
lakes
trees, castles
and bridges.
may have
in
one
Different
fabric.
silk
II
MHLVflBJM^ JM J lUM^^
i
AESTHETIC DEVELOPMENT OF
CHINA
emerged
eventually to
make
in the
basin of the
influence felt in
or Yellow River,
in late prehistoric
its
Huang Ho
all
far
been found.
An
important exception
the
is
still
farther west.
It is
So
far
of evolution out of an earlier copper period like that which took place in the
Occident.
On
which
all es-
in other lands
in
dynasty, the date of whose beginning no one knows, but which terminated
Chou
period, with
hi the present
millennium
\ir\
man)
12
its
It
is,
is
B.C.,
it is
it
its
especially linked,
imperfectly.
respects,
B.C.
first
It
may
was distinguished
for colour
INC.
z I
i E
o 8
^ 2
o I
< 6
h
<
UJ
o
u
E
c
.
AESTHETIC DEVELOPMENT
use not only of bronze but also of gold, ivory, jade, featherwork and orna-
mental
textiles.
Neolithic art, retained because of their traditionally sacred character and the
belief that
any alteration
The high
in
great bronze ceremonial vessels used in connection with the ancestor worship
of the nobility.
and mastery of technique, have never been surpassed, and command the
admiration of students and art-lovers the world over.
The
Chou
period witnessed a
with that of
its
B.C.
saw
its
vigorous western
fief
The
of Ch'in.
hitherto loosely federated States into a centralized empire, of which he declared himself
first
emperor.
Of
little.
were then
cast,
vessels
of that material have been ascribed to the period, with hardly sufficient
That
reason.
The
doubt.
it
establishment, having
fulfilled,
little
however,
its
is
no
after its
The
Han
Dynasty.
over the empire, with but one brief interval, from 206
period of over 400 years
Then
first
is
This
Of
its
much
vived save certain foundation mounds and city and boundary walls of
rammed
earth.
Sculpture in stone
form of low
13
CHINESE ART
Painting underwent a great development,
lished.
its
materials, instruments
tiles
known; but
are
it
Only
landscape.
in the
2nd century
names of individual
did the
The
to
with but
life,
little
attempt at
a.d.,
artists begin to
be recorded.
known
for
millenniums
Han mortuary
in the
Occident,
now
sometimes inspired
vessels,
known
The
to collectors.
first
light
on the
life
of the time.
also
may
it
known
of disunion and
this,
of the
civil
The
Han
found buried
Clay
rich
now
western lands,
dynasty,
in
made
men,
much
first
in con-
jade or some
appeared
in
China.
figures of
tombs, throw
be noted that
in
in
underwent a
The downfall
utensils,
relief,
first
Yet, in spite of
In architecture, probably
toward the close of the period, arose the practice of uptilting the corners of
roofs, regarded
on
by Westerners
scape, are
known
improved and
of
to us
human
as so characteristically Chinese.
figures
diversified in form,
Paintings
artists.
Han
dynasty.
New
Religious Factor.
It
was, however,
uas due
to the introduction
its
calculable,
14
rather than
in religious
all
The effect
This
of this upon
to the effect
in-
AESTHETIC DEVELOPMENT
The famous
tion of Christianity.
in
century, but in
its
maximum development
its
The
art which now developed in northern China under the Toba Tatar or North
Wei dynasty (a.d. 386-534) was no direct outgrowth of this. It must have
flowered locally under the stimulus of the new religious faith, although
its
even Hellenistic ideas which reached China by the great Central Asiatic
caravan-routes.
It
is
best exemplified
by the remarkable
Lung-men
by
Honan,
Its best
work
is
in regions
character-
spiritual
Very
new
series of sculptured
in
little later,
local
Malacca.
brought with
it
an art
little
it
affected
southern India,
in
Maurya dynasty of
Straits of
reflecting
Among
survive,
still
much
is
yet
known
its
it
has hitherto
the religion of the masses in feudal days was liberated by the destruction of
the nobility, and acquired great influence during
dynasties.
its
are
much
Its
works, however,
After
is
exceptional.
the close of the 6th century, China was again united under the brilliant but
short-lived Sui dynasty (a.d. 589-618).
This
in turn
CHINESE ART
sway vied with that of the Han as
one of the greatest epochs of Chinese history. Under its earlier rulers, China
had nothing to fear from comparison with any realm on earth, whether that
of Byzantium, of Sassanid Persia or the newly founded power of Islam.
of the T'ang (a.d. 618-906), whose long
much
close,
its
spiritual
became individual
To
noteworthy development.
all
reflecting
portraits.
Wu
Tao-tzu, greatest of
Almost
Two
all
schools appeared,
seriously developed.
all
character; but fortunately a very few secular examples survive, while others
are
known through
copies
by
In pottery also the T'ang period reached a higher stage than hitherto.
some
known
T'ang grave
Bronze, long since displaced by iron for the manufacture of weapons and
tools,
was
in greater
richly gilt.
China and Indo-China and jade from Turkistan were carved into a variety
of ornamental shapes.
is
also
noteworthy
its
came
to an
end early
in
and
I half.
16
its
till
in
principle,
The T'ang
The dynasty,
After
which maintained
appearance.
first definite
for slightly
its
over a century
power was
restricted for
AESTHETIC DEVELOPMENT
a further similar period to that part of the country situated south of the
Yangtse River,
until
it
was
finally
attained before.
Taoism, through
a corresponding emotion.
plation, provided
Thus
spirit
and arouse
its
in
Europe
Au-
During
inward
its
its
this
extremely
losing,
it
is
artistic
epoch, pottery
something of the
true,
strength and vigour of the best T'ang examples, but acquiring nevertheless
2th century, was conquered soon after the opening of the 13th by the
so
much
of the Old
World
at that time.
Half a century
subdued the realm of the Southern Sungs, and China was thus
The
after,
it
Buddhism has
left
a visible impress.
It
was
then that began that tendency to resort to antiquity for models which later
became
so pronounced.
outburst of popular fury drove out the decadent later Mongols and led to the
accession of the
Ming dynasty,
worthy
The
Ming
achievements
in architecture,
Nearly
period (1368-1644)
all
is
especially note-
and pagodas
still
existing in
China were
17
CHINESE ART
was sought from the earlier epochs, especially
But original work was done, and Ming celadons, polythat of the T'ang.
chromes and blue-and-white ware are well known. It was during the latter
tery.
Here too
inspiration
was
first
as
shown by
its
best
art.
we owe by
Ming
artists
who
chiefly
upon
industriously
first
Ming
level.
cloisonne
is
characterized by a boldness
Much work
of a high technical
order was done in the carving of jades and other semi-precious stones and
ivory, in dignity
In general,
the art of this time, perhaps largely owing to the revival of Confucianism
with
worship of antiquity,
its
falls far
earlier
periods.
life
its
close
Like
all its
predecessors, the
decadence, the central power becoming weaker and weaker until at last
overthrown
in a
was
the I'.mpire an
it
great rebellion.
enormous expansion.
Ch'ing, produced several rulers of first-rate ability; but their genius displayed
itself to better
the arts.
18
advantage
in statecraft
but
in the
development of
I.L.I
TWO
1.
CITY
Portion of the city wall of Peking; west side, outer view. It is provided with 44 bastions and coated with bricks. The battlements are
WALLS
2.
Portion of the city wall and the double bastion at south gate in Si-an,
Shen-si, built at the end of the 14th century, and repaired in places.
It encloses an almost square city, and has double gate-towers, square
bastions and round corner-towers
PAGODAS AT
1th centurl.i
Mlng
ChUo
Si
SI
AN. SHEN-SI
4
Ta
Sl-*n;
AESTHETIC DEVELOPMENT
had
little originality,
development
and excess of
ornamentation.
be done.
left so little to
It
was
in the
Manchu
in fine-
was done
in the
to 1683.
tendency toward elaboration of form and decoration became more and more
marked, and some of the pieces of the Ch'ien-lung period have never been
excelled in these respects.
The weaving
With
it
went a steady
in
China
will lead to
Other Regions.
Chinese
gradually
made
another period of
it
it
was
carried.
{qq.v.),
During the
During the T'ang period, and again under the dynasty of the Mings, the
influence of China penetrated far and wide through the Indian Archipelago;
Formosa was partially subdued and assimilated, Borneo and the Philippines
underwent Chinese contacts of which traces still remain, and even distant
Ceylon for a time was a tributary of the Ming emperors.
As so often occurs in cases of culture diffusion, the influence of Far
Eastern aesthetic development continues to be widely
felt,
although mori-
bund or dead in the lands which saw its birth. Interest in it grows apace,
and collections, researches and publications are multiplied. In the light of
recent critical study, largely by Chinese and Japanese scholars themselves,
it is
history,
19
BOKJAVAUWAU^^^
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
1hhe
art of building
in
closely
dependent on the
intimate feeling of the Chinese people for the significance and beauty of
They arranged
nature.
of earth, water and air," their ambition being not to dominate nature by
their creations, as
reach a perfect
harmony or order of
in the creations
of nature.
It
was
the
same kind
less the
as that
which
so as to
it,
is
reflected
forces.
This
is
most
But
name used
palaces:
and some
is
which were
it
This
earlier imperial
to
in the
human
representative of the
The
indeed very
applied
in
sophical
little in
common
world.
ideas which
have
result rather
their roots in
most ancient
20
human
traditions.
This
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
The
architecture.
many
principles of construction
centuries, as
have
and palaces.
The
importance.
It
relatively late
practically
all
earlier buildings,
r-t-i
ravages of
fire
and warfare, and the people have never made any serious
It
was mainly
for the
Chinese created more permanent abodes, and thus the tombs are the most
ancient architectural
are
will
be mentioned
later.
soil
It
CHINESE ART
great
shortly after he
No
differ-
of such a wall had existed before his time, but he planned his defence against
the nomadic tribes on a very
much
What-
laid the
many
The
in the
course of time,
in
is
is still
ruler.
of great impor-
quite simple.
It is built
On
is
many
parts almost
wall
is
like
faith of
Walls, walls and yet again walls, form the framework of every Chinese
They surround it, they divide it into lots and compounds, they mark
city.
more than any other structures the basic features of the Chinese communiThere is no real city in China without a surrounding wall, a condition
ties.
which indeed
is
expressed by the fact that the Chinese used the same word
It
is
and a
is
These walls
cities
community, even
hardly a village of
any age or
size in
of a wall around
to small
towns and
villages.
There
is
but to every
temples, however dirty and ditch-like the sunken roads, the walls are
there and as a rule kept in better condition than
a city in northwestern
famine and
22
fire
still
Many
is left
standing and no
human
being
lives,
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
still
and watchtowers.
These
bare brick walls with bastions and towers, sometimes rising over a moat or
again simply from the open level ground where the view of the far distance
is
tell
any walls now standing are older than the Ming dynasty)
broken battlements.
them or
change
to
many
little
to refashion
their proportions.
still
may
be seen at
some out-of-the-way places; before the towns were built there were villages
or camps of mud and straw huts surrounded by fences or ramparts of a
temporary character.
Types and Construction of Buildings. Whether the buildings were imperial tombs, Buddhist temples or memorial shrines dedicated to great
philosophers or, on the other hand, of a profane nature, such as imperial
palaces, dwelling-houses or administration offices,
and
walls
istic
of
all
in closed
all
these extensive
all
The
secondary buildings are arranged at the sides of the courtyards, the facades,
the doors and the gates of the principal buildings
tion
all
religious traditions.
It
many
still
compound
is
as 20 courtyards
larger
it is
number
compounds
of such units.
As each
of the arrangements from the outside, and at the larger palaces the different
courtyards are also divided the one from the other by secondary walls with
The courts vary in size and the streets follow along the
Through such an arrangement the inner portions of the Purple Forbidden City of Peking became almost labyrinthine.
decorative gateways.
walls.
The
23
CHINESE ART
The most common
among
these types
is
i.e.,
divided by rows of round pillars or columns into three or more naves of which
usually arranged as an open portico; in other cases the open
the foremost
is
colonnade
continued
is
The
all
interior
is,
as a rule,
lighted
a second row of windows, giving a brighter effect; these are at a higher level.
Very important
Wl
is
made
-I
and the
When
is
is
created,
i.e.,
this
the substructure
type of building
is
and
cities.
They seem
to
earliest times.
the centre of many of the old cities in northern China, but similar buildings
The
general
name
ever,
not used for the pagodas, whereas small buildings of two or more
is
for larger,
many
storeyed buildings
is
lou, a
storeys often are called ko, and the open small pavilions ting.
One finds
in
some of the
palatial
compounds
as well
at
Furthermore,
many
private
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
dwelling-houses, particularly where they are connected with gardens, socalled langy
i.e.,
common
tien> the
The
structure.
terrace
may
many
large temples, or
it
it
may
the
be simply a stone-lined
always contributes to
lift
the
It
is,
by a
hall or
frame
is
rise
The
walls
may
tance.
They
columns.
is
is
The
usually not
is
it is
reduced to a few
The
between the columns are on the whole quite wide, and sometimes
that
intervals
it
happens
create
like
The two
is
indicated
other purpose than to end the hall; they have no decorative importance and
no such emphasis as
in the classic
25
CHINESE ART
to
The
be seen.
or the corners
side walls
may
may
The Chinese
be accentuated by columns.
They employed
architects.
builders were
columns as the
classical
the marble
to
mainly on the
by the
possible also
They
buildings.
framework.
columns
is
rendered
are not provided with capitals and they do not support the
into, or
transverse
The ends
in front
of the
beams form a kind of architrave which keeps the outer colonnade together.
In larger buildings of comparatively late periods brackets or cantilevers are
tie
above
The
these.
is
real
situated
project in the earlier buildings only from the heads of the columns; but in the
later buildings they
as on the posts,
of a cornice.
one
It is
mainly
may
The
constructive system
demanded
more than
as well
Nevertheless,
is
many
of the
often nothing
is
The
covered
by a lean-to shed roof while the main span or saddle roof covers the central
portion of the building which rises to a greater height.
a coffered or painted ceiling over this portion but
more
Sometimes there
is
often, particularly in
left entirely
uncovered.
Roofs.
buildings
26
is
It is
This
is
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
not to be found on the short (gable) ends of the building but in the middle
of the southern facade, which usually has also a free-standing row of columns.
Most
of the important buildings are indeed placed so that they can be ap-
preciated only in full-front view, and their peculiar decorative effect thus
roof.
The
builders
may have
adhering to the enormous roof masses, and this was most successfully done
by curving the
lines.
sides
rising
minor decorative
in
works
in clay
common
such as the
if
reliefs
The
much
from the
Han tombs
in
of
Shantung and
some small clay models dating from the Han and Wei dynasties, it seems
In the T'ang time
that the curved roof was then not very far developed.
(7th to 9th century) the characteristic shape of the roof was, however, fully
developed.
It
roof
is
may
be looked for
those which
first
still
in
in
northern provinces.
effect of these roofs,
building.
When
If so,
it
would
body of the
in the north),
and
The
it,
air.
and
In
becomes the
to be disengaged
many
effect
from the
their decorative
ornamentation
with figures and animals on the ridges and on the corner ribs serve also to
strengthen the impression of a decorative superstructure.
When
is
a lean-to
27
CHINESE ART
shed roof; the upper one, a span-roof
down
but
China and
in
roofs sloping to
form.
Tai
It
Ho
in
four sides.
all
Tien
This
is,
found on ceremonial
to be
is
in the
is
very
common
Japan, but there are also buildings with complete hipaccording to the Chinese, the finest
edifices
sacrificial halls
if-A-?^~^
Roof
may
be seen on some
many
reliefs
of the
to be seen at
Yung Ho Kung
dynasty, and
Han
(the Yellow
this
Temple)
flying bridges.
crated as a
Lung
era)
stance the
Yu Hua
Forbidden City.
have been
imposed
still
halls
which indeed
temples
in
Suchow with
may
if
three super-
built in the
28
(q.v.).
same way,
In smaller buildings
all
the transversal
their
ends
beams may be
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
supported by columns which increase in length towards the middle of the
common
beams
It
is,
however, more
rest directly
on
pillars,
while the upper ones are carried by brackets and small posts rising from the
The
lower beams.
may
of brackets and
cantilevers which support this projecting part of the roof will be specially
this that
it is in
one
may
The
and concave
tiles
is
lung
tzu.
series of fantastic
The main
ridge-post
is
very high and decorated at both ends with a kind of fish-tailed owl, called
cJiih wen,
ing against
On
fire
tiles
are of unglazed, lightly baked grey clay, but on the present imperial buildings
all
deep-blue roof
tiles.
Green
tiles
tiles,
members of
walls.
29
and
CHINESE ART
The columns as well as the filled-in walls between them have usually a
warm vermilion tone which becomes most beautiful when softened by dampThe beams and the brackets below the eaves are painted
ness and dust.
with conventionalized flower ornaments
The door
white contours.
with ornaments
in gold,
On
the whole
it
seems as
if
Pavilions
is
fitted
later times
Minor
in blue
significance
lost.
and Gateways.
halls in right
angle to the central axis, indicated by the entrance door, there are
more
may
is
flat
may
be
made
bamboo
of
i.e.,
The most
or tent-shaped roof.
the walls
had
in pictures represent-
or basket-work.
The more
elaborate
roundings
in
Peking.
in the imperial
parks since
early times.
may
was
still
hills
be seen
in
trees;
how
trees, clinging
on the rocks or rising on stones out of the mirroring water, often give us
a
It
was
also pre-eminently
On
in
the larger pavilions the roofs are usually divided into two or three
storeys, thus adding greatly to the picturesque effect of the building, particularly
when
it is
30
it
number
Peking as well as
in Pei
of
may
>
->
Kodo
2.
Wooden pagoda,
IN
3.
4.
Stone
relief
Lung Men
of
c.
pagoda
*t- tl {-^\
l
.1
Wan
T;>,
1801
!<
of
canal
IN
in ,v..n.l,k
tw
D.-*.i
or.
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
They have no
parks.
which
may
walls, simply
When
air.
the portions
between the successive roofs are enlarged and provided with balconies or
colonnades the pavilion becomes a real tower, such as for instance the Fo
Ko (Buddha's Perfume
Summer palace.
Hsiang
Tower), which
rises
the^>W
lou,
effect,
yet forming an
free-standing gateways
i.e.,
many
Chinese
cities
mark the entrance to some sacred precincts, such as tomb or temple areas.
The object of their erection was often to commemorate some outstanding
local character or some important event in the history of the place or simply
The earliest p'ai lou
to mark a spot notable for its beauty or its sacredness.
were, no doubt, simply large gateways made of wood and provided with
These could easily be developed into more important
inscribed tablets.
structures by adding at the sides more posts and gateways, and they were
soon executed in stone as well as in wood. From an architectural point of
or
view they
may
(which
may
4 or
8 or 12
tall
by the
an open
flat pavilion.
The supporting
may
masts, which
be
by cross-beams
in
lions,
and
is
also
flat slabs
by carved or painted
decorated with
reliefs.
pan-tiles.
The whole
They
are essentially
wooden
material, but that has not prevented the Chinese from executing the
in brick
and
in stone.
The
largest
same
CHINESE ART
Ming tombs near Nankow and at the tombs of the Ch'ing emperors at
Hsi Ling and Tung Ling, but the most elaborately decorated marble p'ai lou
may be seen in some of the old cities in Shantung, such as Chufu and Weihat the
sien.
sham
They also
Closely connected with the p'ai lou are those highly decorative
fagades which
human
in
in
Under
ssu.
yuan period
masts or
pillars are
indeed
much
in
common
tiles,
High
made
of
is
Of
inserted.
glazed
may
When
a span-roof
be created.
buildings are the balustrades which line the terraces and staircases in front
of the buildings.
They
may
32
in
sculptured
made
of white marble
finials
between which
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
development, on the terraces of the Three Great Halls (San
Forbidden City
and broken
in
in Peking.
many
Ta
T'ien) in the
wood
construction,
it
Although
Chinese architecture
is
princi-
made
earliest times
in
The
great
RACKETING SYSTEM FROM THE CH U TZU AN, SHAO LIN SSU, SUNG STYLE
majority of the
still
existing buildings in
Wan
Li era
(i
late
573-1619).
The only important exceptions to this general rule are the pagodas made of
brick and mud, several of which may be ascribed to the T'ang period (618
906) and a few to even earlier times.
On
work
walls, substructures
sense as
wood
and the
construction.
like,
the whole,
it
in the
same
Shih (The
Method
of Architecture).
modern
reprint)
is
founded on the
CHINESE ART
Chieh, collected from various sources.
It gives
Chinese towards the end of the Sung period considered the fundamentals of
architecture.
No
particularly described
are the plinths and corner pilasters, stairs, balustrades, dragon heads on
and stones
staircases, thresholds
these various kinds of stonework are very accurate, but they are of
all
no great importance
The
constructive methods
are treated only in the third part of the book, which contains
framework of buildings,
large
work
Then
in
wood,"
i.e.,
"Rules
for smaller
Fa
in
wood,"
i.e.,
doors,
details,
works
Then
etc.
for
or
"Rules
tiles
such materials.
Turning
Men
to the existing
important example of
of
in spite
its
name
is
square house (each side about 7.35 metres), was erected a.d. 534.
It
is
coated with finely cut and fluted limestone slabs, but the interior body of the
walls
may
be partly of mud.
It
is
made
its fine
The
solid
proportions
house-shaped tomb
34
may
and self-contained
make
Han dynasty
in
one of the
It is possible that
brick
pillars of the
it
in
may have
the
more or
^jif^^JV^^ "*
i'iH
S#*4
.w**
ZjM
1
pi
m
fr
r J*ft
*Tfif
r?
-
TWO HALLS
1.
2.
Pao Ho Tien, one of the Three Great Halls, in the Purple Forbidden
City, Peking; built 1627, repaired 1765
The Hall of Classics, at the Confucius Temple, Peking. The upturned
IN
PEKING
corners suggest aspiration, as, in another form, the
to do. The tent form is sometimes regarded as the
possible origin of the characteristic shape of Chinese roofs
lines
roof
of
Gothic
is
said
IHN
2.
3.
City. Peking
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
The next
date
in
among
the
more common
is
dirt in
will
real towers or
wood
construction.
It
in different
Ming
period,
and
now
if
in
also in
city gate-
it
is
of the
monument
The shape
structures,
and
usually finds
if
is,
wooden columns
closely,
one
the interiors.
The
substructures of the gate and bell towers are in most cases pierced
somewhat pointed,
Yuan
These
as passages.
period.
The
may
drum tower
be either round
in
Peking which
it
was used
known
in
Vaulting
China
in early
in the
the
cities, barrel
vaults
is
We do not know exactly when cupolas first came into use, but we have reason
to
As an
evi-
the
rooms of
in the
T'ang period.
in later times
but in close
35
CHINESE ART
adherence to the original model which, of course, was of Persian origin.
is
Omi mountain
on the
(1573-16 1 9).
The
to be
in
One
room
Wan
is
Li
here
is
At
bronze elephant
also accomplished
near Tsinanfu
Peking
Ming
to appear.
city,
or transversal barrel vaults, but outwardly they were provided with the usual
may
Among
Wu Liang Tien in Suchow and Shuan Ta Ssu in Taitwo halls on Wu Tai Shan. The facades are divided by
be mentioned the
arches and columns, but these are partly inserted in the wall and the capitals
are stunted or turned into cantilevers, the entablature reduced to an architrave, the cornice replaced
Chinese brackets
ples of
is
may have
how
to the Chinese.
Such buildings
An
made
after Tibetan
towers and
sham
fortresses
masonry work
in
is
in
illustrated
by the buildings
hills in
The
Peking,
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
known by
may
Manchu emperors
was erected
must
in its
windows with
and
and more
summer resort
Llama cloister
in
They have
Chinese.
larger
Still
in
after the
tourists.
all
tried to give
some
life
pilasters
solid character
it
tiles,
still
Buddhist
China since the end of the Han dynasty, and though the
may
no longer preserved, we
The
first
it
was not
due
largely
2nd century
until the
to the pilgrims
new
made
the
but also of
its
buildings.
It
a.d. that
it
became
monument
may have
in
reproductions, reverting
Kanishka,
to
it
was
built
been
China.
many
As
more or
one
took
far as
less
No
monk who
may
much admired
directly to the
famous pagoda of
into three or
mast with
more
its
storeys.
Very
characteristic of this
At
present there are no such pagodas preserved in China, but ancient engravings
The
oldest
pagoda
in
China
still
standing
in
is
existed.
at
Honan.
it
was
built
37
CHINESE ART
The
and windows
in a
lowest section
The upper
{q.v.).
pi-
section of the
tower has the shape of a convex cone, divided by narrow cornices into 15
low, blind storeys.
It
is
The
wooden pagodas.
The
main
is
is
is
rings,
an
verified
by the
style of
storey.
solid
and severe,
same
at the
There
is
no other pagoda of as early date but the type returns with some
modifications in
some
Nan T'a
(the
The
in Chihli.
more
former, which was built at the beginning of the 8th century, shows a
typically Indian style with
its
substructure while the latter, which was built at the beginning of the 12th
century, has a stiffer appearance without any incurvation of the outline or
by
its
To
godas at Chengtingfu,
Mu
period,
wooden
is
Chinese constructions.
storeys with
It
same group of buildings belong also the paT'a (T'ien Ning Ssu) built about 1078 in nine
the
cornices,
built at a
somewhat
Nan T'a
at
their
make
later
Pa
Li
Yuan
dimensions are
as
baked
clay.
Both have
13
but they lack the elastic incurvation which gives to the pagoda at Sung
Many
was 1,000
38
character.
ft.
in a.d.
There are
516 at Lo-yang at
View
in
TWO GATEWAYS
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
merely as a general indication of unusual height) and consisted of nine
storeys.
Above
corners, were
hung with no
less
it
than 500
fire in
534.
nevertheless has
wooden pagodas
in
high carrying 30
ft.
China
The
metal
gilt bells.
description
some
gilt
at an early date.
It
is
also confirmed
may
t*ang style
same
five storeys
Here one
They
are
on a square plan with corner posts and projecting roofs over the suc-
cessive storeys
discs
and ending
in the
Nara
in
Japan,
may
by
builders from
Korea or China.
The pagoda
be seen at some of
Suiko period
the bracketed roofs project quite far but narrow gradually towards the top
so that the appearance of heaviness
is
avoided.
Each
39
CHINESE ART
posts with projecting cantilevers, which at the corners are placed diagonally
The
of this period.
was developed
is
particularly characteristic
far pro-
China before
in
is
was introduced
it
The
in
earliest
sists in
the redoubling of the rafters below the eaves: instead of placing the
exist.
outermost purlins directly on the cantilevers, which project from the posts,
supporting shorter rafters are introduced which are fastened in the beams
and trusses of the roof and which carry by means of vertical struts or cushions
These may be made longer and the
roof
is
becoming
in
Yuan
though the form of the lower rafters as well as other details becomes
may
Furthermore one
modified.
solid
where the
tively short
(q.v.)
beams of the
roof, to
which the
the compara-
The
trusses
and
consummate skill.
parts of the buildings and the method of construction
The
the
essential
same
in the
pagodas and
in the
temple halls of
this period, as
Kondo
are
may
be
of Horyuji, an
A very
is,
The purpose
of this mast
is
it is
form a spire
discs.
The
rising high
if
mast very
In
dently was to
40
lift it
a little
beams
find
in
still
greater
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
danger that might
would then,
arise
so to speak, be carried
it.
In the oldest
pagodas which for the longest time have withstood storms and earthquakes
the mast
is
its
of the tower.
Quite a number of pagodas and temple halls of the 7th and 8th centuries
are to be found in Japan, but
it is
is,
in spite of the
five-
round the ground storey, the most important example, but characteris-
of the
same
style (which
was developed
in
in
storeyed pagodas at
threereliefs
The
may
T'ang period.
It
is
is
first
The
inter-
mediate shed-roofs are of the same shape, though smaller than those which
cover the main storeys; a kind of rhythmic division
is
Of
great importance for the horizontal articulation are also the far-projecting
The
brackets in double tiers under the eaves of the six successive roofs.
its
brackets being used as supports for the upper ones which reach farther out
for-
merly used cantilevers, and on the top of them may be one more tier of simiIt should
larly shaped brackets, as on other buildings of the same period.
be observed that
all
beam and
arms
of the upper brackets, while these serve as supports for the upper beams
4i
CHINESE ART
under the eaves and
hammer-beams
The same
characteristic forms
in
some
which we have paid special attention are typical features of the architecture
of this period.
i.e.,
the
Kodo
(Hall of
heavy
as
tier
The columns
one
filled
all
The
roof.
on moulded plinths.
They
provided with
it is
a slight entasis
and
rest
by a long architravebeam and provided with quadrangular cushions from which the three-armed
brackets project. These carry the upper longitudinal beam and a second
tier of brackets.
Above this follows a third row of brackets which is almost
are tied together, as usual,
by braces.
is
perfection of
wooden construction.
How
is
proved by the
reproduction of a similar temple hall on a large stone gable above one of the
42
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
gateways to the
at Sianfu.
is
may
Kondo
evidently reproduces a
it
of Toshodaiji.
It
matters
i.e. t
little
have been made spiky and the roof too small, as long
of which the lower ones have the
we
as
recognize the
legs as
may
be seen
square plan.
what
in
Yuan
illustrates
dynasties
it is
necessary to men-
is
though
still in
which has
building.
in the
five storeys,
It stands
metres square,
was
rebuilt
periods.
The
after
Later repairs
present pagoda,
fairly
is
Its general
The
shape
successive
which
is
is
a glazed cone
in five storeys;
place
first
on a
its full
In the
It
(the Large
on a
in the neigh-
in the year
Hsuan Chuang.
later on,
some
Ta Yen T'a
terraces
to
district
is
window on each
some very
side.
floors
and the
top.
The imposing
staircase
The
thin pilasters
interior division
which
still
effect of this
exists
makes
tower depends on
its fine
proportions and
43
CHINESE ART
well balanced, massive form, which
is
strengthened by
its
position on a
natural elevation.
Not
from
far
pagoda
now
called
preserved.
The
floor
is
a little higher
curve on
In
its
still
44
it
is
middle part.
worse repair
is
little
farther south-
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
ward from Sianfu.
It
was erected
in 68 1
design as Hsiao
is
was erected
in
in
architecture
It is a
in height
by the
fact that
The
in brickwork.
also with
marked by
still
teristic
is
may
also be taken as
in the
rise
On
in
each side of the Hsing Chia Ssu are smaller three-storeyed pagodas
erected to the
any
memory
cornices.
to five storeys
tombs or other
among them
is
The same
it
architectural shape
may
is
first
Sung
Ma Ssu
temple.
fire in
11 26.
Other
characteristic buildings are the Chiu T'a Ssu, or Nine-towered Pagoda, near
Kung T'a
at
CHINESE ART
impressive square tower in three high divisions, which are encumbered by
sculptural decoration.
still
remain
46
in
mud and
8th century
China
brick
1. P'ai-lou or
sacred
of
or
beautiful
spot or
commemorate
of p'ai-lous
3.
with
tall
beams
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
some examples of temples constructed
The most
is
slope of
the Ch'u
11
in
Dhyana
or
Zen Buddhism,
is
years.
year
wood,
Tzu An
Sung Shan
founder of the
at least in part of
It is a small,
An was
Each
side
has four hexagonal stone pillars but only those of the facade are even partly
visible, the others
room
are
Thanks
beams.
reliefs,
is
made
of wood, threatens to
pillars, all
is
In the
fall in (if it
still
stands, but
At the writer's visit to the place in 1921 large pieces of the eaves
were missing, and perhaps now the building has no other roof than the sky.
The most interesting parts of this structure, however, are not the carved
done
so).
stone pillars but the brackets under the eaves which illustrate
were used
in the
Sung
period.
The
how
these
Thus we
find that the brackets emerge not only from the pillars but also, between
these,
They
are placed
In the lower
in the
by the under
They
rafters,
are tied
upper
by means of braces
tier
more
closely together
tier
the brackets
to the brackets
like
rest.
may
original character
This change
brackets which they lengthen, thus making them better fitted to support the
far projecting roof.
though
The
it
The
CHINESE ART
beams or
the one tier reaching beyond the other, each one carrying
which serve
purlins.
beams or
row of brackets
its
Tower
the Bell
at
Hsiao
Lin Ssu, which according to an inscription was erected about the year 1300,
where the third storey has no less than four tiers of* gradually projecting
The
may
method
latter
is
quite
common;
as an
example
also of the
Yuan
'"
^r^~jgi
[o-j^
^^
f
-^V
l
'
hL=*"
_y
"
v_
several sloping cantilevers (or rudimentary lower rafters) which have been
joined into a kind of bed for the struts and purlins of the roof.
Yuan
may
be supple-
mented by observations on Japanese buildings from the 12th and 13th centuries, i.e., the Kamakura period.
In Japan this was a time of great building
activity,
and according
to the best
Kamakura,
Chinese
hall,
with straw.
Quite important
same
were observed at
is
carried
Chu Tsu An
The
as those which
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
closely together that they
The
purely Chinese
may
be con-
mentioned architectural
treatise
exactly the
same type
some
we
though
in 1103.
On
find brackets of
their significance
large transverse
is
The Japanese
it
T*A,
SIANFU
was considered
to
have been
It
at large
gates and temple buildings, to which one desired to give a particularly im-
This was
199.
It
has
five
is
the
Nandaimon gate
posts.
good example of
at Todaiji, which
was erected
in
is
supported by seven
tiers
At
six tiers
This kind of
won much
China;
it is
it
popularity in northern
49
CHINESE ART
Projecting roof beams have indeed been used
many
tenjiku buildings
is
by the
The
is
wood construction
in
China
after the
because no real progress can be observed, but rather a gradual decline, which
becomes evident
in the
(i
io3)
(1103)
At the beginning of the Ming dynasty one may still find buildings
constructed in the same style as those of the Yuan period, i.e., with beak-
system.
formed pieces
laid
Yuan
Tung
buildings.
same type
as those of
On
in
Fu, erected
The
mained
question
in
tions than
SO
how
use in China
is
re-
It is
CHINESE ARCHITECTURE
during the latter half of the
may
Ming
Peking.
It
is
was kept up by
fixing multiple
rows of brackets and pointed beaks below the eaves, but these have no
real
in
nobody
even
if
will
these
deny.
inner necessity.
ture of
have
The
much
lost
China depended on
its
art,
it
The forms
are
still
the
same
wood
construction.
definite function
and
which
particular quality
material.
effect of
It
The
were kept up, but once these were encroached upon by purely decorative
tendencies, both vitality and further growth were at an end.
51
'
CHINESE PAINTING
known
lives
of
We
actual achievements.
its
quantities.
But
it
must be
that very
little is
is
first
works of the great masters of the best periods, very few indeed remain.
is
It
impossible to doubt, from the evidence of what has survived, and from
tradition of
years,
is
But we
its
means of comparing
accessible.
till
greatly lessened.
possible to predict
ties,
it
The fundamental
is
im-
difficul-
The
practice
has prevailed
in all ages,
makes
it
possible to
itself.
In
religiously preserved;
CHINESE PAINTING
and these paintings form the best foundation
cases the traditional attributions have been
General Characteristics.
is
Painting
abandoned by modern
in
many
criticism.
is
though
It
peculiarities,
for study,
is
In spite of
differences
all
and
its
all
successful works
of art.
Painting, for the Chinese,
is
is
a branch of handwriting.
is
attain.
Ink
is
Many
its
demands
the favourite
beauty of tone.
for writing
European painters
Both
Coloured
a different
Fresco-painting,
{see
Church's Chemistry of Paints and Painting, p. 307, 1915), was largely practised
and probably the grandest art of China was in this form but the
mass of Chinese
seem
all
to
on
The
great
commonly,
R. Petrucci, Encyclopedic de
{see
The
latter
great length, are unrolled bit by bit and enjoyed as a reader enjoys reading
a manuscript.
is
A succession of pictures
is
continuous. Thus, in the case of landscape, for which this form has been
felicity,
depicted. Other forms are the framed picture and the small
and
memory.
He
The
album
picture.
53
CHINESE ART
having completed the mental image of what he intends to paint, he transfers
it
swiftly
to the silk.
the sensitive and powerful strokes of the brush of something personal and
unique must,
The
in
qualities prized
by the Chinese
much
in a small ink-painting of
bamboos,
a favourite subject alike with beginners and masters, are those prized in a
piece of fine handwriting, only there
simultaneous seizure of
life
is
it is
much on
too
relies
And
may
em-
this
important to
is
how
It
work
is
In the
in the subject.
to
make
other hand
which
it
European
in
plished hands.
in
art has
many
phenomena
pictures
is
by accominevitable
because suggestion
solid
is
It
be.
artists
is
many
of the
remarkable, however,
The
how
shape and mass can be given to rock forms, for instance, without losing
rectness
cessful
and
vitality of
Each
suc-
Mountains
And
The
painter's art
is
di-
the
all
associations.
association
consecrated by a poem.
like
Wang
tion of a
mood
is
Wei, distinguished
poem
or story that
in
is
both
54
But
normally aimed
When we
Many
arts.
at,
less
poem.
we
are struck
"O
0.
o
>
"5*
3->
O
00
.
vi
B
h- ,2
.0
"a
<Q
r-i
pi
H9Q
7v
_3S-
*",-
ttiti
.,
mi
SIX
iuiium or
as
-fTiii
riNi
*itt,
period.
lloni.
CHINESE PAINTING
by the early appearance of landscape art and its actual predominance.
Landscape is accounted the most important of subjects because it includes
man and
all
whole
is
Man
does not
play the central and heroic part that he plays in the art of Europe, for which
human form
the nude
is
This difference
figures.
funda-
in the
mental conception of
stead of the
the basis of Western composition, the Chinese prefer the principle of balance.
They contemplated trees and saw that they were unsymmetrical but perfectly poised.
Where in Europe we have Christian themes, in China we
have Buddhist themes; instead of the stories of classic mythology we have
the stories of Taoist legend and the fairy tale.
common
as in the
always the
life
Early Periods.
From
man
for
perhaps
life
Western
in
life
is
the
Genre-painting
less
as
(q.v.) is
common.
But
The
art.
life
of action counts
more.
we can
literary references
was
form of portraiture.
It is
not
we come
till
to the
may
be a thousand years
date, give
tiles
Han
in the
Chinese
(Eumorfopoulos
period was
The
Museum;
see
in the
all
We
like.
movement
later
the British
in
in
Designs on lacquer of
Umehara, and
dynasty that we
exist
earlier.
Han
Ku
K'ai-chih.
There
exist
two
rolls attrib-
poem on
a river
nymph,
55
is
in
is
in
CHINESE ART
These paintings are by
The one
a
in
The
Sung copy.
British
but
it is
Museum
case there
is
is
roll is
Its actual
date
disputed,
is
if
be
and
In any
Museum
may
of a marvellous subtlety
intimately expressive.
is
different hands.
is
They
are, therefore,
extremely precious
with
life,
all
accessories df singular refinement, the Freer roll, with its dragon chariot
and floating
fairies,
period.
is
The
quite primitive.
land-
is
its
beginning; and
Han
all
conjecture behind
it
Ku
we may
K'ai-chih,
famed especially
for his
But
if
we may take these two pictures attributed to him as typical of the period,
we find no trace of Indian influence in them.
Of about the 6th century are some of the earliest wall paintings in the
rock temples at Tun-huang, on China's western frontier {see Pelliot, Grottes
de Touen-houang, vol.
the
iv.) full
of animated
as those in the
movement, containing
Ku
K'ai-chih
roll.
figures of
provincial in manner.
It
was
in
The
laid
movement
The
>f
spirit of the
it is
reftlit)
56
of
artist
gift
to
first
Ho,
and
emphasis
but as the
produce the
life.
tell,
CHINESE PAINTING
life
The emphasis on
Even
movement is significant.
move and flow.
The T'ang Dynasty
forms seem to
(a.d. 618-905).
In
which lasted
grandest
but
all
rians
for
It
art.
is
all
and
critics to the
by
same
in the
T'ang
of feminine beauty: a
period in Japan.
elled
Here we
full,
air
rounded
ideal
And
face,
of smiling health.
in the
Precisely the
this
is
greatest of
new T'ang
find the
T'ang.
all
locality
of preceding periods; a
the same
of
art, for
Some fragments
Sir
Wu
to
Chinese painters.
all
China, during this epoch, was open to foreign influences as she has never
been since.
far as the
was a great
going; there
world centre.
But the
met
in the capital,
influence of greatest
But Chinese
art,
and
own
traditions,
was able
T'ang masters
may
or
and customs;
strong in
as
Among
CHINESE ART
to
Freer collection at
Washington; and
remarkable
Mr. Berenson's
famous
roll in
his style
collection.
We know
pictures.
his
it
copies.
c.
Wu
With
Tao-tzu,
He
One
have perished.
and
fine
painted over
on
silk.
may
engraved on stone, and some paintings and drawings are extant which
The
Museum by Mr.
tions
and
we may
overwhelming power of
Of
known T'ang
it
artist
infer
ers.
authenticated work by a
the
in a
600) was
300 Buddhist
All
perhaps to be discerned
is
we have only
his crea-
actual and
five portraits of
Pelliot.
certain
number
which are
in
in the British
Chinese style
same character
Museum,
is
may
in a
be taken to
more or
at Delhi
and 10th
and
in Paris.
centuries.
Those
less provincial
form.
Of much
the
Museum.
The Tun-huang pictures are largely devoted to the cult of Amitabha
Buddha, who presides over the Western Paradise, and of his spiritual son
Avalokitesvara, or Kuan-yin, the genius of Compassion, who in later times
assumes a feminine form.
in
Some
figures, are
of these
remarkable
CHINESE PAINTING
for the
and
there
no confusion or awkward-
is
Other
Buddha
legend.
in the latter,
Though mostly
the
work of
paintings as documents
is
who devoted
seen in the
Li Ssu-hsiin
(b.
None
of his style.
word
He
The
art.
is
first
eminent painter
Museum,
ascribed to
this technique.
who was
in
He matured
Wang Wei
later
(b. 699),
a style of ink-painting, in
school.
in
is
Museum, and an
earlier
(April
Scenery of the
one
in
Wang
to decay.
Zeitschrift
91 2).
Han Kan
Han Kan,
for
found
in
The
to the vigour
59
CHINESE ART
Admirable genre pictures and scenes from court
Chou Fang
in this era.
New York
is
known by
life
Boston
Museum
The
conspicuous.
is
beautiful picture
(a.d. 900-960).
whom Hsu
In
many
Chou Wen-chii for his pictures of women. Still more celebrated was Huang
Ch'uan, who painted landscape, birds, flowers, etc., and who is said to have
what
started
is
method";
i.e.,
outline.
(a.d. 960-1260).
and a great
Under
collector.
artists
from
Academy
all
similar paintings in
to
Hui Tsung,
existent in the
like
in a
bough
famous albums
in the
in
was
parts.
album-painting of a bird
certain realism
to be
aimed
at.
Eumorfopoulos
was
The
in-
small
collection,
and
Flower-painting, hardly
Wen Tung,
Of
bamboo.
the flower-
Chao Ch'ang was the most celebrated. The most eminent master
landscape of Northern Sung was Kuo Hsi, who wrote an essay on land-
painters
in
wooded peaks
in
rising
painted
His style
his
is
preserved in
many
Chao Ta-nien
hand.
for his
snow-
scenes.
lie
1040-1106).
had
Much
a reverential
of his
in
At
first
line.
Copies of
is
Li Lung-mien
earlier masters.
60
Sung
his
CHINESE PAINTING
and a few
originals
in the
He
Kokka.
is
revered by
1 1
is
known
in exile.
as Southern Sung.
The
to transform.
in external events
became a mastering
dominant, with
its
reliance
The Zen
inspiration.
on intuition,
sect of
contempt
its
and ceremonious
official life
Buddhism, now
for all
outward forms,
become
mode of thought as
The emphasis was all on
fluidity contributed
Sung-nien,
who kept
is
still
more
whom
we
are able to
this school
soon
landscape at
it
judge of
fell
its
Boston Museum),
Owing
were collected
it
in
to the
Japan,
Though
Hills
agricultural people,
in the
Ma Yuan.
down
this school
its finest;
in his
Some
and
as the glorified
This temper, to
sets of pictures
theme
"religious" a
in this
Buddha.
spirits.
And though
find
no counterpart
human
in
Europeans
We
man
more cosmic
inspiration;
art.
It is a
spirit
CHINESE ART
the
Tech-
The high
horizon
nically,
differs
from European.
precludes the need for uniting sky and ground, divided by the natural horizon
of sight, by
means of
vertical lines
and masses.
trial to
The eye
(a.d. 1260-1368).
In
this
comparatively
short period there was a tendency to go back to the style of ancient masters.
Chao Meng-fu
is
pictures of horses
now
Western
in
Countless
was Jen Jen-fa, of whom there is a good example in the Eumorfopoulos collection, and others in Japan. The four chief landscape masters
fine painter
were:
latter led
lives
Wu
Wu
The two
Chen.
man-
paintings of bamboos.
Ch'ien Hsiian
is
a master whose
name
is
very
is
less
known
in
Yen Hui
is
admired
in
Japan
in
fre-
Wang
China.
(a.d. 1368-1644).
The
art of the
Ming
period
is
Concentrated
in
herself,
earlier
contact with the world without; and her art became concerned rather with
the beauty of material things than with the expression of the interior spirit.
At the same time a reverential conservatism prescribed for the painter both
subject and manner of treatment. The painters of this period are so numerous that only a few outstanding masters can be mentioned.
The
first
Ming
Sung
art.
which also
62
lias a fine
good example
is
Lin Liang
in
Museum,
master who
the British
Wu
Wei, a
BY COURTESY OP THE
set
in
SNOW SCENE
unknown irtiit a
typical
landt:ap compoiilion
CHINESE PAINTING
Wu
in
which a certain
Of this
and
He
(i
554-1636), eminent as a
is
refined taste
and
with
new
little
with an orna-
detail,
Chou Ch'en
school were
Tung
critic as well as
and
a painter
Man's Painting,"
counted for
literary associations
accomplishment.
Wang Wei
free,
In
Ch'i-ch'ang
nique.
painters, led a
followers.
and a decora-
in a large design.
or no colour.
Tung
solidity
Ming
Tao-tzu.
in
which
(In
rather
shadowy terms
ever, as a fine
a geographical foundation
Wen
really,
how-
The
exist.)
Among
6th century,
work
is
8th centuries
is
in the later
(a.d. 1644-1911).
in the
17th
and
eccentric.
Chu Ta
More important
Wang
as
Painting
becomes
rare.
bird
and
Shih-min,
is
Among
much admired
artists of the
Wang
Chien,
gifted amateurs
Wang Hui
and
Wang
Yuan-ch'i.
Another great
is
was converted
landscapes.
to Christianity
The
Wu Li, who
was considerable
for a time in
63
CHINESE ART
China, but had no lasting effect on the
was made
ning.
tive
arts.
and taught
it
to
artists.
Chiao Ping-cheng's
went
sets
Shen Nan-pin
Japan and stayed at Nagasaki (1731-33); his work had a very stimuApart from this
effect on the naturalistic movement in Japan.
to
lating
past.
64
'wwmmw.MMMMWwmmmmw.mwmm
WOOD-CARVING
Oplendid examples
in the
of Horyuji and in
may
be found
in the
Kond5
in the Shosoin,
numbering
164, the majority of which are in wood, the most or which are in paulownia,
if
not
all,
The
752.
belief
is
Inscriptions on
also
masks used
performed
indicate the
in carving the
in
place on April 9,
and
is still
less
grotesque in appearance, as
may
be seen from the old masks scheduled as "national treasures" and preserved
in
some temples.
The no masks,
all
ence in the 16th century, taxed the resources of the talented carvers, and a
large
number of masterpieces
are
now
in possession of the
head families of
Up
to the
embellishment of the temples: carvings on the pedestals, nimbus, and baldachins of Buddhist figures, and
itself,
some
slight
such as the carving of the beam-ends into animal heads and the use
65
CHINESE ART
But in the
second half of the 16th century, the decorative wood-carving came to assume
an importance in palatial mansions of the shoguns and in shrines where woodof the kaeru-mata^ a simple decoration between the beams.
carvings were inserted into the kaeru-mata between the beams, attached
under the
rafters,
etc.,
a large
number of which
may still be seen at Kitano Jinsha and Nishi Hongwanji of Kyoto, Chikubushima Jinsha in Lake Biwa, etc. The predominance of wood-carving as
an architectural decoration
in the 17th
century
may
leums of the Tokugawa shoguns at Shiba, Tokyo, and at Nikko, where both
the interior and exterior of the buildings are profusely covered with wood-
The
The
was
in
sliding
has
made
flowers
ramma, the ventilating panel in the narrow partition wall over the
screens that separate one room from another. The ramma carving
a special development of
and
birds, animals
and
its
own,
all
scapes and mists, etc., carved on board to give, together with the decoration
on the
Some
may
fine
be seen in the family shrine {butsu-daii) where the ancestral tablets are
So
also
are the small ornaments for cabinet decoration or for the tokonoma, the recess
in
the guest
room
in
wood
has been produced by the netsuke (ornamental button for suspending a pouch
or medicine case) carvers
talented sculptors in
utilized the
architecture.
in
wood turned
greater demand.
their
heavy beams
The
pillars as well with delicate tracery.
simplest of their chairs and tables are invariably carved in the " key"-pattern,
on the ceiling and the massive
others,
in delicate trelliswork
design or
COURTESY OF
(I,
2,
3,
5,
6)
Chinese temple
1,
2,
4.
Carved
5,
6.
7.
12. Sleeping cat at the Nikko Shrine carved by the left-handed Jingoro
8.
13. Carved
ramma
in
9.
10.
(Yomeimon)
of
the Nikko
ramma
in
the
wave room
of
the Nishi
Hongwanji, Kyoto
CD
rH
c
II
cm
a.
> 3
-I
oc
<
>.
J.
WOOD-CARVING
ornamented with carvings
in
low
relief.
Although rich
or arms carved in
The
used in the
distinctly
is
following are
ventional
in
Sacred
etc.
emblems of one
religion or another,
form subjects
for
wood-carvers
Buddhism
emblem of
among which
lifts
is
mud
out of the
Sacred to
the lotus, an
its
rosy or
white blossoms unsullied, forming a fitting resting place for the Buddha.
Taoists have their symbols of eight immortals and derive
many
floral
em-
blems of longevity from sacred plants, the most prominent among which
the peach, the tree of
filial
sometimes attributed to
is
life
its
who partake
of them.
While
known 24 examples
of
filial
piety, are
it.
On
work
reveals a
much greater
The former covers
pays
is
delights in appreciating,
natural wood.
are coloured,
surmount
with
little
his chisel.
difficulties in
There
is
67
jmmwmmmww.w.wmmmmw.wmmwmmm
CHINESE SCULPTURE
until the
"with
sters
Ch'in Shih
stags'
shape of mon-
in the
Huang Ti
Lu
Chia, an author
who
Wei River
Han
Heng
139)
who
At
the later
Ming gate
at
row."
set
men
up
Nothing
is
(d. a.d.
the end of
in a
bronze
in
for the
when
muddy
known about
statues, but their recorded history proves that they were considered extraor-
The
size.
only sculptures
possibly
Most of
bronze.
vessels,
larger
example
sometimes
ascribed to
68
(now
in
the Ch'in
period
is
statuette
CHINESE SCULPTURE
have been found together with some bronze
It is said to
in
vessels, decorated
its style, it
hardly have been executed before the 6th century a.d. (Northern
nasty).
as a fine
can
Wei dy-
sculpture.
Among
period should be mentioned a large dragon or hydra with crested neck and
in date,
It
is
in
some
at the handles of
evidently
made
in different directions
period which, in the field of art, was simply an introduction to the classic age
The
of the Hans.
by a more
direct
and vivid
gradually modified
is
interest in nature.
B.C.)
The
life
Han
and
rhythm of things,
Dynasty.
destroyed; yet, to judge from those which remain as well as from minor
plastic creations in bronze
period
is
much
only in the
and
that the
human
and these
are,
figures reach an
statuettes
made
it
much
human
shapes.
It
human
With
at this early
importance comparable
was
tomb
representations are
considered the
for expressing
human
figure an artistic
motive
in
The
case
is
quite different
to certain types or
their artistic
formulae
importance
vitality.
69
The
CHINESE ART
among them
best
tures of
are
monumental
The
conventionalization, which
is
more
or less preponderant during the early epochs, does not convey an element of
Work
of the
all
makes the
that
art.
Han.
wild and domestic animals represented in bronze, clay and stone during the
Han
period
we may choose
as
in bronze.
majority of these bears are quite small, intended to serve as feet for
The two
standing sculptures.
Boston.
sacrificial
but there are also some of a larger size which have the character of
vessels,
free
The
yet
it is
in a
in
The modelling
of the limbs
is
sufficient to
Museum
force.
The
artist
lumpy forms
ported by the broadly placed forepaws, the elastic power of the enormous
legs, the softness
of the bulky paws and the long nose which seems to form a
sense of
It
composed them
in
Most of
They have
up groups which
achieved
in
muscular
effort,
and so
full
development of
The same
pillars in
Statuettes of the
Han.
Szechuan (which
will
was most
70
easily
also true of
be mentioned below).
some
unity with monu-
is
Tomb
their
The
all
for the
tombs.
The ma-
Men coming
in carts
tomb
shrine of
Wu
same tomb
festival in a house;
2.
Two
3.
and on horseback to a
id
= 1
E S
Id
E
5
o
i
D
H
S.2
E
a.
-I
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CM
f\
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hi
$
a.
_
|
a
"
.o
o g
M:
B&aiv
E -
^J
..
!f
SI-
CHINESE SCULPTURE
and
ations,
for living
animals, which in earlier times followed their dead masters into their tombs,
it
The majority
as lifelike as possible.
They were
largest
and ducks
in
high, the
moulds but sometimes modelled by hand, and the best among them have
retained a spontaneous freshness and vivacity which
taining.
enter-
from the
ettes
Han
statuettes,
made
They stand
usually in very
quiet postures simply with a slight inclination of the large round head, but
occasionally
we
find
them represented
and
in a
their
arms
in a
rhythmic fashion.
period,
earliest
which can be approximately dated are the animals at the tomb of General
Ho Ch'u
them
in
an
article in the
B.C.,
They
in
1914
latter in 1923.
German magazine
were
He
thinks that the statues, which represent a horse standing over a fallen warrior,
mound, and
that their present quite irregular positions have been caused by the shifting
of the
mud.
mound, a
7i
CHINESE ART
executed in
relief,
if
to
is
This
point of view.
is
The composition
main
is
its
energy which
belly
is
so
This impression
mentioned.
legs, reveal a
is,
very sensitive
if
artistic
treatment, particularly in
is
some
ization which, to
short-
is
with stumpy
The
makes up
extent,
for the
art, a character-
shortcomings
in other
directions.
come
to light,
Other
beginning of the
though
it is
existed, be-
cause this tomb was hardly an isolated case, and broadly speaking sculpture
in stone as well as in clay
of the tombs.
It
was
had
for the
its
may
in the field
Chinese
As proof of
be quoted not only the various classes of clay and stone sculptures
reliefs
the "spirit chambers" of the tombs and the sculptural pillars placed in front
of the mounds.
"shen tao"
(spirit
The
may
interior of the
be observed
in
in a straight line
tomb
more chambers
first
being a
kind of ante-room called the "spirit chamber," where the soul of the deceased
was supposed
72
CHINESE SCULPTURE
vessels
clay, in the
back room.
The
main decoration, be
it in sculpture or painting, was concentrated in the anteroom where the walls often were covered with representations from ancient
history and mythology or with illustrations with a moral import.
Tomb
Pillars.
known from
pillars
central
which formed
They
are
moulded pedestal,
When
feet.
a very
is
Sculpture of the
sui
period
far.
varies
somewhat
in the different
buttresses.
ment of the
relief.
The
cornices
earliest of these
Honan
pillars is
figures in very
low
175.
The
pillars in
their
upper parts,
the cornices and friezes under the projecting roof, are particularly well de-
veloped.
We find
so
CHINESE ART
wooden
characteristic of Chinese
architecture,
These
pillar of
Fung Huan
at Ch'iu Hsien,
Han
sometimes almost
in the round.
is
More important
tomb of
man
On
called Shen.
i.e.,
bronze or clay
stylization,
may
known from this classic epoch. At the corners of the entablahuman figures which seem to carry the projecting beams on
t'ao t'ie
The very
high frieze
is
is
men
kind of
in
here
side, a
One may
relief
observe
human forms
the glazed
as
Han
reference to the
may
its tail.
relief friezes.
the
same
to
is
bows above
and
urns with
life
Here
their
life.
The
have some
this
with a
style reveals
like
nervous tension that characterizes the small bronze ornaments of this period,
and
it
is
more complete
in the large
pillars in
74
MH
CHINESE SCULPTURE
during their exploration in 1914, show the above-mentioned combination of
friezes
with
human
figures
flat reliefs
The motives
on the entablature.
vary,
some being
imbued with
a dramatic expression,
and executed
in a
all
historical
more or
less
beauty.
Much
the
simpler than these are the pillars whcih stood at the entrance to
tomb of the
pit,
still
They were
usually
filled
The
with water.
erected
although the
pillars are
provided with buttresses and a small superior storey on the projecting roof,
and
same kind
may
as
Reliefs of the
reliefs represent-
Han.
il-
Han
period.
in a strictly con-
ventionalized linear style, appears also on the large stone slabs which used
to be arranged along the walls of the
are
now
transferred to a primitive
known
all
These
in the
from the
Wu Liang Tzu
Two
lications.
collections,
said to
reliefs
ante-chamber
little
and reproduced
in
many
though
come from
it
way
into
Western
Wu
reliefs,
Legendary Motives.
Chavannes
the aid of
Nothing
is
to follow, with
these reliefs and thus to learn something about classical Chinese examples
of
filial
Yu
Wang Mu.
stories
about
men on horseback
escorting a
75
CHINESE ART
carriage,
which
may
Hades.
The compositions
The
a neutral background.
and
engraved
in the
reliefs
may
like,
lines; the
in the contours,
very
is
These
slight.
thus hardly be called sculpture in the real sense of the word, but
We have
made
mainly
some contemporary
Wang Yen
reason to sup-
in
the Ling Kuang palace executed about the middle of the 2nd century a.d.
men and
fools,"
This
is
Wu
Liang
re-
faithful
It
mighty scholars,
artistic
models, be
it
further developed a
of the Hellenized
in the art
west-Asiatic countries.
reliefs.
They belong
to the
tigers
which appear
Still
lions
may
Szechuan, and
above-mentioned
76
common
lion
thus be said to
kind of animal
pillars)
Wu
two
indeed, no
this
period.
of the
mud.
Han
one or two
pillars in
in
is
less
buried in the
rather free.
It is,
CHINESE SCULPTURE
at the royal palaces in Susa
whole animal
The form
art.
artistic pedigree
is
supple, the
may
body
is
is
may
in the
At
enormous jaws.
Even
if
single lions
Such
a creation
now and
then were
sent as tributes from western Asiatic nations to the Chinese emperor, these
may
China, we
in the provinces,
representation was
from
living models.
Animal
the
Statues.
Han epoch may also be assigned two-winged tigers at the tomb of K'ao
Ya Chou Fu in Szechuan, which have been published by Segalen and
Yi at
Okura Museum
in
Tokyo.
as a plinth for a
animal statuettes of the same type but they hardly need detain us as they
only verify what has already been said about the artistic style and derivation
Nor do we need
of these sculptures.
in stone
on a large
scale,
to stop at the
human
figures executed
is
much
inferior
Animal
China
and
lost
political
fall
some of
of the Eastern
its
upheaval.
intensity.
During
the centuries
little
about the
artistic activity
stylistic traditions
of the
Han
era.
it
Some tomb
reliefs,
77
CHINESE ART
executed
kind of coarser
in a
may
Han
style,
may
clay.
The general evolution can be followed most closely through the small
tomb statuettes; they reflect the variations in taste and fashion better than
the large stone sculptures.
in various occupations
"kimono"
the simple
Among them
to
the fashion
is
changed from
undergarment and how the head-dress becomes higher and more decorative.
in terracotta originate
Nanking.
in
this
mainly
same period
are
form one of the most important groups within the domain of Chinese sculpture,
The
largest
in length
and
ones, 4 to 6
ft.
among
may
long,
still
less identified
have found
their
way
i.e.,
and the
scales
up
to 10 or 12
ft.
it is
Western
They
collections.
possible to distinguish
all
two main
the chimaeras, which are a kind of cross between dragons and lions,
real lions
but no feathers or
their shoulders
to
have
been considered the nobler, because they were employed as guardians at the
dukes.
very
legs
it is still
body
as well as the
have been covered by ornamental scales or feathers and that the animal
The second
original sites
78
is
earliest in
ears.
still
Wu
Ti
remain at their
(d. 493).
The
_:
rv
mil
DIVINITIES IN CHINESE
2. Soat.rl Borihltattva.
Hindu
dlvlnllltt
end
>sal
statue
SCULPTURE
CHINESE SCULPTURE
dimensions are somewhat smaller but the animal
served.
The
is
more completely
pre-
long body has a more dragonlike character, the legs are com-
well developed.
tail
part
is,
however, the enormous head with the open jaws from which the ornamental
beard hangs
One may
as well as feathers
drawn
in spirals
Sixth-century Chimaeras.
The
body
moving forward
Wu Ti
it
most
receives a
of
ef-
The animal
an ambling fashion; we
in
The movement
(d. 549).
is still
is
feel its
graved.
University
in the
still
Museum
Wu
which would date them shortly after the middle of the 6th century.
possible that they stood at the
tomb of some of
Wen
Ti
(d.
is
Wu Ti
(d. 559)
is
and
It
566).
Ti,
We
at Philadelphia.
all
these
movements
are accentuated
steel springs.
by engraved
Winged
far
Lions.
from Nanking;
their weight
and
lions
still
remain in
colossal dimensions
have made
will
soon disappear.
The
situ,
if
Tan
(d.
Emperor
Wu
Ti, Prince
Hsiao Hsiu
(d. 518),
their
nothing
earliest
is
and most
not
i.e.,
the
Prince Hsiao
(d. 523).
79
CHINESE ART
Besides these, two or three pairs of large lions are in the same neighbourhood,
Yao Hua Men, to the east of Nanking, but they are later and artistically
The anatomical difference between the lions and the chimaeras is,
inferior.
The former as well as the latter are
as already said, not very important.
at
animals with an enormous curving neck and wings, but they are not
feline
provided with scales or feathers, nor do they have any ornamental beard like
the chimaeras, only a large tongue which hangs
They
are
all
down from
The head
Their massiveness
is
lifted
when
full,
is
power
in
enormous limbs.
by
dragons.
tortoises
and a
i.e.,
two large
fluted
"tomb
earliest preserved
alley" in China,
The
lions are
of the same family as those already described, the fact that they have wings
is in itself
It should,
however, be
must be regarded
it is
freely,
in
lion sculptures.
Han
fluence reached
period.
China
northwestern nomads.
To what
extent the
in
harmony with
at this time
These
in-
lion sculptures
do not appear
80
the greatest
all
any case evident that they transformed the foreign models quite
is
as the fore-fathers of
in the
They belong
northern
to the
more
CHINESE SCULPTURE
southern provinces where the old Chinese civilization and the creative spirit
"Han
of the
it
and
in India
were
all
developed into definite forms; the Chinese took them over just as
artistic interpretation
may
It
than any other people of the Far East, and when Buddhist art took root in
China, the country was by no means devoid of sculptural monuments.
There were
(as
we have
in
human
The Bud-
human
much more
wanted
be understood.
The
more limited
The great
to
made
and
The heads
are
localities,
but
it
portraitlike features.
is
rare to
mantles or rich garments according to the role or meaning of the figure; they
figures
their
own but
is
Even
is
The
in
signifi-
symbolic.
earliest
in
China,
known
artistic
importance.
Some
81
of
CHINESE ART
them are provided with
inscriptions
which make
it
possible to
fix their
the earliest being of the years 437 and 444, whereas the earliest dated
in
stone
is
seated
date,
Buddha
The
a leaf-shaped
figures are
nimbus decorated
artistic
The
Kang Cave
Yiin
sculptures in
China
which
Temples.
is
not
is
The
known
in
Gandahara
sculpture.
to be
Ta
the Northern
to
sculptures started about the middle of the 5th century and was continued
Amongst
may
observe different
stylistic currents,
some
origi-
nating from Central Asia and India, others more closely connected with
forms of Chinese
earlier
art.
same type
as
on
distinctly Iranian
reliefs
from Taxila
also
in its
beak.
may
This
is
sits
Tun
Huang.
in
the Buddhist pantheon at Yiin Kang, testify that artistic influence from
central
in
of Buddhism.
Artistic
colossal
least interesting.
figures
fold design
have
in these
motives or the
artistic expression.
may
some other
be found
to Indian
1
and
figures at Yiin
artistic expression
Kang which
and beauty
models and more imbued with the traditional Chinese feeling for
h\ thmic lines
82
in
More
The
and
,^
BY COURTESY OF (1) THE
(2,
3)
Buddhist votive stela, dated A.D. 529. The interlacing dragons at the
top are of the same character as those on the slabs raised at tombs
in the Han period, but their fierceness and energy of movement reveal
some influence from Sibero-Asiatic art
2.
Seated Buddha
3. Standing
Yiin
in a
Kang, Shan-si
^^
aiYtUm
Or r(NNtTlvNI>
rmr.nr!,
(I.
4)
con
t"
'.00.
J.
Standing
Buddha;
-.'
-t
.rtle
Luna Shun.
marble
In
it..'
gilt
bronia.
OtVAlO SIMN
AD
CHINESE SCULPTURE
flat,
full
The
and pleated on the very thin shapes and uniformly arranged on both sides
of the figures in long concave curves, forming a kind of zigzag pattern at
the border; the contours are very tense, with the elasticity of
strings.
mantle
Kang
Yiin
sculptures
may
in
as in the best
During the
10%
Men
drawn bow-
also be observed in
fully
its
capital to
in the
shortly
Loyang
(494).
last
still
remains;
all
the rest
is
either
smashed or
Lung Men
Lao Chun Tung cave which is decorated from
great number of niches of varying sizes in which
The most
provincial type.
with a
ceiling to floor
The majority
remain
still
in a fair condition.
Yet some
characteristic positions
reliefs
may
be
observed, for instance the cross-ankled Bodhisattvas which represent Maitreya, the
straight
technique
these
The
down.
same patterns
is
as in the Yiin
Kang
is
is
is
of
may
in
Lung Men
of
Hsien
in
Men but
Honan.
the material
is
Ku
be observed
is
not quite so
may
be observed
Kung
at Lung
Ssu, near
fine.
to its knees in
planes, with a
in several
83
minor
CHINESE ART
heads from the same place, now dispersed
in
museums.
Buddhist
Stelae.
Besides
with figures
small.
in
high
relief,
Wei
varying in
slabs
quite
On
often found long rows of figures in flat relief representing the donors of the
monuments.
we
Han
dynasty.
kind of winding and interlacing dragons as on the slabs which were raised at
the tombs; their fierceness and energy of
movement seem
to reveal their
of this period.
Transition Period.
The
About
this
It
time a
may
new wave
in
Chou
dynasties (550-581).
The
best cave sculptures from this time existed, at least a few years ago, at T'ien
far
from Taiyuan-fu
in Shansi.
They were
started in the
Northern Ch'i period and continued, with some intermissions, during the Sui
Shan are
to be
found
Lung Shan.
in the
The
caves no.
The system
2, 3,
of decoration in the
first
in
Lung
some
Buddha
striking realism.
The main
figures
are executed in very high relief, giving almost the impression of free-standing
is
84
arranged
in
pleated folds
in
Buddha
CHINESE SCULPTURE
They
removed
from cor-
stylistically
less
are
late as 580
possibly executed
as
all
found
to be
in the 16th
the three walls are decorated with large groups of Buddhas with Bodhisattvas
and other attendants placed on raised platforms, the fronts of which were
The
commanding
and
and hands
made
They
are
are
all
com-
in the
and "charity").
of a very thin material, are draped only over the left shoulder,
be found
Buddhas
central
in later
Buddhas
relief.
may
occasionally
surprises.
Foreign Influence.
anachronism
The
Buddhas seems
in
made
apparent
this
and form.
It
is
The
style.
Chinese artists would have been able to reproduce Mathura models so faithfully as
we
find
never done
it
them
here,
it
may
Lung Shan.
The same
and
Mathura
school,
worked
for
some time
coming from
this
characteristic feature of
and arms,
all
also be
these figures
as well as in the
flat
is
found
in
some
isolated statues
The most
comparatively
at T'ien
sculpture at T'ien
in the legs
have
figures,
85
which
CHINESE ART
even when they have a more developed plastic form are linear rather than
rounded.
Sculptures
from
transition style
may
Chihli Province.
politan province,
tures
Another
The
was abundant.
period.
One may
and heavy.
make
The
garments
fit
level
and
thin
lines.
is
is
rhythm
is
tempo
it is
rising.
is
feet,
In the later
falling
almost straight
feet,
the
where
tempo
noticeable.
The
Chow
works of
may
Most
of them are
well be classified
among
still
examples of
able for the flourishing of religious art, and the formal development had not
it
nature
is
slight,
but
it
its
in itself.
Sui sculpture
marks nevertheless a
86
becomes an end
its
is,
on
interest
1. Seated
2.
V. 584
Colossal
Buddha
in a
3.
4.
Upper part
of a Bodhisattva,
Yun
in
a niche at
Yun Men
r AMI
PMOtOi.l APRS
(t
2)
<
Of
O'.VUO SHIN
at
Tim
ing Sh.t,
Fluddna In it
ttona itatua o(
n,
3.
Standing Bodhitattva,
T'ang pr
Tang
ptrlod (A D.
906)
pwiod.
619-
Statu* of a print
ttona ilatue of the
4.
of
th
T'ang
T'ang
period
CHINESE SCULPTURE
T'ien
Lung
Statues.
style of this
is
in part
above), the
first
is
The Buddhas
all
Indian in
same postures
as
the earlier ones but vested in the Chinese fashion with an upper garment
1?
/;>.
'-"
js
/'---'
i<-\S,
p**':
'
'
L-
-'
/>*'.
jHZj
r*
\\
5
'
rV
* XI
^**~
%
'
'
"
-,
*s\Jind
/"
\*4im*
k
\ '
'
/ft Ik;
'fmJl If
'
r*
^1
^1
^ /
>
rw^Ynaf %
[,'
M 13^"
WMf
WWfp
>
JImxj Ivy*-'
X-fSmM
1
3i\'
zlrcljf
^K<^y ^W^-3
ifiVf
K^J
11
'T'tV
/S^f^*" ^k w'-
>^^?^a
/t
*^
fc
'
SMP-J
ch'i
The
stiff
bodies.
shoulders are not so broad, the waist less curving, the forms are quite
They
are certainly
are executed
by
inferior artists
with
in a provincial sense,
rhythmic
and they
lines
and
decorative beauty.
Most
this cave.
One
pair
is
by which
still
The
The movement
of the arms
jerky, the turning of the heads, which are looking over the shoulder,
violent.
The impetuosity
is,
indeed,
much
is
87
CHINESE ART
the Dvarapala statues at the earlier caves, but whether they have gained
in sculptural quality as
much
as in dramatic force
is less
certain.
Typical expressions of the plastic formula of the Sui period are also
to be
material which
is
The contours
closer
and
is
no longer simply
them
to
all is
feet
Thus
a general formula
the
but ovoid.
pillar-like or cylindrical,
are swelling out over the hips and elbows and gradually
toward the
it is
is
Common
is
draw
created,
may
Shantung Sculptures.
The
richest
The
Shantung.
to be found in
is
harmony and
known to us.
religious
the sculptures
still
Han Shan;
common
revived by various
ability.
The
now
them bears a
same
stylistic
Han
Shan belong
Shan.
style, they
The
are
practically to the
Yii
5th
None
of
must have
i.e.,
about
enlarged on an enormous scale, not without some loss of plastic beauty and
intimacy.
a
The
great
Buddhas which
livelier
is
some overlapping
88
It
in
most sculptures of
by the no
less
CHINESE SCULPTURE
Passing from the cave sculptures at T'o Shan to those at Yiin
which
is
some of these
here
a
is
means moving
Men Shan
and
No
than those in the caves at T'o Shan, though hardly more than
The
caves but in
a quite different
little later
into'
artistic centre.
Men Shan,
and
flat niches,
cave sculptures
may
at the side
effect.
The Yiin Men Shan Buddha. The principal group consists of a seated
Buddha accompanied by a standing Bodhisattva and another figure which
may have
another
still
large tablet,
flatter niche
which
is
Close to this
is
side of
it
two monumental
Bodhisattvas.
The
great
Buddha
of the body
is,
is
any
strain.
The
He
seems to lean
against the wall of the niche, moving the head slightly forward as
knees.
on the
The folds
left
shoulder
is
draped
in quite
bearing
stiffness there is a
is
if
intent on
fastened with a
They have become means of primary importance for creating a sculptural effect.
The head is treated in a new individual manner with broad
effects of light and shade.
The eyes are not closed or half closed, as in most
cut.
of the earlier Buddhas, but wide open, and the eyelids are undercut, which
shadow, as
if
life.
The
phenomenon
Tang
in
Dynasty.
it
remains an
Chinese sculpture.
It
89
CHINESE ART
an absolute break or a deep-rooted difference between the sculpture of the
Sui and that of the T'ang period; quite the opposite. T'ang sculpture is
is
stylistically
When
we,
for convenience sake, use the dynastic names and dates also in the domain
of art,
it
should be clearly understood that they do not signify here the same
China
Artistic evolution in
minor degree
It
may
is
is
time than most of the preceding dynasties (619-960), and the plastic arts
this
The production
whole period.
first
It reflects
Its best
may
products are
found
in the art
of earlier epochs.
full
should
call
An
baroque.
important element
in this evolution
was due
to the
growing
we
particularly
the Sassanian
empire.
Many new
inter-
artistic
impulses were
derived thence and grafted upon the old stock of Chinese art, modifying
it
may
in the direction of
Western
it
Generally speak-
ideals of style.
be said that the current that came from India was of the greatest
importance for the Buddhist sculpture, while the influences from Persian art
are
and
in the
in
bronze
silver.
elements of style
in
it
would be
well to
take into consideration other artistic products besides stone sculptures, such
as objects in bronze, silver, clay
90
but
this
CHINESE SCULPTURE
Buddhist statues
study.
Tang
some
large
tomb
still
period, though
it
representations of lions and horses at the tombs of the great emperors, T'ai
Tsung
(d.
649) and
highly developed technique in order to yield good plastic effects and orna-
mental
many
details,
and
workmanship goes
known
is
draped
is
it
represents a
is
in a
Buddha
is
back-
The
feet,
form of
altogether
thin,
The
seated in
in front of a
over the body, the legs and the upper part of the pedestal.
effect
dated statue of
earliest
cross-legged position
is
The
to us
may
it
is
masterly.
work
conven-
in long curves
The
decorative
in earlier statues
Although made
in stone,
be seen
in the
University
Museum
by
their
an
ornaments but
also
by
their bearing
movement which
is
continued in
The upper
is
jewelled necklaces and the narrow scarf draped over the shoulder; the chest
is
well developed
falls in
is
tied with
and these
9i
CHINESE ART
same fashion
above.
It
Buddha mentioned
diadem on
made up
aspect.
may
be found
among
They
more or
clay statuettes
earlier times.
made
Some
level
far individualized as
in actual life.
for the
monk
Roman
sculptures.
Boston
Sculptures.
may
They
as well as in
indeed be placed on a
When
we
freer
and more
plastic the
been made by a
Roman
artist.
Honan we may
and
in a
schools
adherence
It is also
in the
Honan
many
in closer
life.
less
made
may
stylistic differentiations
it is
to
now
The
provincial
easier to distinguish
The
centre of
statues
made
in
Honan, and
it is
all
Unfortu-
Men
are
moderate
tions.
One
92
of
is
CHINESE SCULPTURE
Lung Men, but now
hands
in private
in Peking.
It
may
be taken as a
show the
all
movement
gliding
feet
result.
The
dominated by the
softly
harmonious
is
if it
and yet so
rises
The
colossal statues
on the open
reflect in the
developed T'ang
fully
dignified figure.
stiff
terrace,
most monumental
This
is
true
Buddha; the
side
art.
inferior.
The hands
are destroyed, the lower part of the figure has suffered a great deal, but I
doubt whether
it
ever
made
time and
human
defilers
many
when
it rises
figures.
The upper part of this giant is well preserved and more dominating now than
ever.
Long ages have softened the mantle folds and roughened the surface
of the grey limestone which
is
cracking
It
all
may
still
be
felt
mental sense.
monu-
is
The
bestial
the figures are amazing and terrible, and even the naked form
is
heads of
by no means
livelier postures,
to
is
The
plastic effect
characteristic of the
is
decidedly of a baroque
mature T'ang
art
whenever
93
CHINESE ART
it
and
B A
<c?c
S*L
nxc
HSICN ssu
KU TANS TUNS
Q>CT^N
PIN
LIEN
TANC TUNG
HUA TUNS
Pun
Plans of the principal caves at yun kang, lung men and t'ien
LUNG SHAN
Later T'ien
Lung Shan
Sculptures.
may
Shan seems
94
to
Another
be observed
in
fairly
some of the
homogeneous
During
all
local
since
Lung
Unfor-
A.D.
3.
4.
'HON; PHUtOCarHI,
(1,
4.
>
CWI
"'""'
of
Tang
period,
now
In
OIV110 IIHH
13TH.
4.
AND
14TH CENTURIES
Virudhaka,
relief
MrtUr>
"turf
S.
lute,
Tang
period
CHINESE SCULPTURE
tunately, none of these sculptures
is
fall
motives which really did not come into vogue until some time after 700,
but this may be due to the fact that they were made under foreign influence.
The
earliest
among
The
commonplace works.
best
specimens of the earlier types are to be seen in caves 6 and 14, while the later
ones are found in caves 17, 19, 20 and 21.
Buddha
seated
by two side figures, which, howaway by time and running water, but there is a
still
The
be enjoyed.
figure
He
seated on a round lotus pedestal with the legs folded but not crossed.
leans toward the right side
which
left
and turns
is
free attitude
still
more
movement
same direction. The
is
hand
if
added support
to give
restful.
The body
The
hold
is
draped
in a
body endow
this figure
It
with
would
place beside the most exquisite French sculptures of the 18th century
its
and yet
is
body
charm which
to the
entirely bare,
is
a sensual
is
it
impresses us just as
much by
is
its
expressed in a
still
ampler form
in a
16.
The
It
is
The
left
elbow
is
The movement
a kind of
is
is
if
leg.
same time
slightly in the
not have quite the charm of the one noticed above, but
ingly free treatment of the mantle, the material being a kind of draperie
mouillee.
95
CHINESE ART
Lung Shan contains statues of a corresponding importance, although there are some which reveal the strong
None
Indian influence both in their general shapes and in the treatment of their
The
garments.
all
heads, which in late years have been knocked off and spread
Lung Men
less expressive
China.
in
Changes in
Style.
Similar
in
tendencies
toward a
freer
plastic
style
Chihli.
the waist but also turn on the hips, making thus quite complicated move-
ments, which tend to bring out the beauty and significance of their corporeal
By
form.
comes more
striking.
toward the
religious
The
difference
a matter
of fact, to
realistic
between the
become
less
religious
and
less
genre figures not only in clay but also executed on a large scale in
much
As
work may be mentioned a statue of a young
lady (in the Academy of Art in Tokyo) who sits on a bank with crossed legs
playing a lute, while a dog and a cat are frolicking at her feet, a statue withstone, very
a
good example of
this class of
out any religious pretext, with the same amount of free and elegant realism
we know from the tomb statuettes in clay and from some T'ang paintings.
Works of this kind indicate that the sculptors no longer remained satisfied
as
with the purely religious inspiration but turned their attention towards nature
and human
plastic arts in
life.
If the evolution
lines, the
and varied
in
in
as expressive
Europe, but the creative power turned more and more from sculpture to
painting.
made
96
at
Ting Chou
in Chihli, a
CHINESE SCULPTURE
was important ever since the Northern Wei period. The best
of these are surprisingly free and illustrate a new interest in movement and
Among them may be menin the full development of the human figure.
we have
seen,
Rockefeller Jr. in
figure
is
composed
in a similar
way
to
some
e.g., St.
is
monk who
perhaps a bare-headed
The most
hands folded before the chest and head thrown back, looking almost straight
upwards
(in
Munthe, Peking).
The movement
expresses an intense religious devotion, not in the usual restrained and well-
human
feeling
away from the Orient towards the most emotional religious art of Europe,
know it from the late Gothic and Baroque periods. The impressionistic treatment of the soft and heavy mantle points in the same direction.
The Post-T'ang Periods. The production of religious sculpture decreases more and more towards the end of the T'ang period. Very few dated
specimens are known from the 9th century, while those from the 8th are
such as we
quite numerous.
the Northern
particularly
the
the lead
among
is
The change
also illustrated
in the relative
by the
impor-
responded more and more to the influence of painting, an influence which be-
came evident not only in the new impressionistic tendencies of style but also
by the fact that other materials than stone and bronze came into vogue,
particularly wood, clay, iron
Many
of the
Kuanyin Bodhisattvas
It
is
this
it
may
97
CHINESE ART
combination of the figures with backgrounds treated
like
rocky landscapes or
some kind of scenery with trees, buildings, animals and small human beings.
This more or less pictorial kind of sculpture spread all over northern
China udring the 12th and 13th centuries, when Buddhist art enjoyed a
short period of reflorescence, and
wooden sculpture
great
number
of
particularly reached a
museums
in Philadelphia,
movement toward
One
in
the
museums
is
said to
Company
in
New
York, carries
flutter-
Museum,
of these represent
by a tablet inserted
British
The majority
ing
in
the
Musee
in Paris, etc.
is
the
posture.
in later
e.g. y
defi-
and elegant
ward
as
if
many
of these
wooden
figures, or
is
The
much more accentuated in these figures than any
qualities.
The form has lost all its abstract serenity and be-
womanly beauty
bodhisattvic
is
series of Arhats,
ticular,
who
are a good
many made
in stone, par-
according to definite types and with more realistic than artistic expression.
Interesting series of such Arhats executed in stone may be seen at the Yen
Shu Tung and Ling Yen Ssu caves near Hangchow, as well as in the museum
at Toronto.
They
98
more
in-
CHINESE SCULPTURE
Yuan Dynasty.
(1280-
1367) the position of the fine arts in China, including sculpture, changed
considerably.
contrary they destroyed more than they built up, except perhaps in the art
of war.
in so far as it could
The
of the
thoroughly Confucian and the Buddhists were pushed into the background.
to
have held
its
place
by the
The cave
Buddhism.
side of
the end of the 13th century, are in this respect very interesting.
Some of the
life
man on
his
deathbed; he
is
in-
repre-
sented lying soundly asleep on the Chinese "kang" clad in a long garment.
The most
and
phoenixes, and the two guardians at the sides of one of the entrances whose
fluttering draperies are arranged in
ornamental curves.
The
motives are used for decoration rather than for the expression of purely
plastic ideas.
The
pictorial
more
is still
superficial kind.
The same
number of other
able in a
it
sculptures of the
same
Yung Kuan
gate at Nank'ou,
near Tsinan-fu in Shantung, executed in 13 18, not to speak of minor detached statues, dated at the beginning of the 14th century.
Ming
Period.
When we
Ming
dramatic power of expression seems to dry up more and more and the general
artistic level is certainly
common
may
Among
99
CHINESE ART
hats in iron (good examples of such series are in the
made
wood and
rise
above the
generally at
its
at
Toronto and
level of ordinary
mass
museums
best
when
The
sculpture of the
Ming
period
takes
it
It
is
so ap-
Summary.
Trying
to
sum up
remember
first
in
a few words,
we have
Kaifeng to
the northern provinces after the Tartar dynasties had got a firm hold on this
developed there
the
Yuan dynasty
called
new
have
religious figures
real spirituality.
Ming
period.
still
some
itself
in a whirling linear
life
and expression of
The
own, though no
It
is
left
whether
in
sculptors have given their best in the field of decorative art such
as columns, balustrades,
new types of
plastic works,
much more
whether
details,
religious or secular.
100
their
be
somewhat
ornamentation.
inspiration
in a
may
The Ming
They sought
their
any
fresh
models than
in
imwMwmmmwwMwmMmwmmwmmwwMww^
SCREEN
B,'ecause
known
screens were
glass or
in
them
mica panellings
for
as of
B.C., at
much
Folding
which period
parent nature affording both enjoyment of an outdoor view and shelter from
the elements.
Then,
in the
carved and inlaid with jade and other precious materials seem to have been
Already
produced.
tised, for it is
good or
tried to
brush away.
silk
Chang
saint, Vimalakirti,
passing, mention
Ku
Shih
it
Hu
into a fly
(3rd century)
made
Mo
be
181-252)
to
which he added a
and a scene
may
(a.d.
long inscription.
illustrating the
artist
with
Women,"
evil effects
The Chinese
in this early
entitled
made of a 14-fold
owned by the
In
Museum, confirming
the
sometimes as
many
as 40.
Lu T'an-wei
painted
CHINESE ART
Moreover,
ture.
if
not
earlier.
It
said that
all
his
The
Tang
Period.
In
demand
to
woven
silver, pearl
and
tortoise shell, or
must
and
princes.
Horses sent from foreign tribes to the imperial stables furnished themes
for screens,
called
mo which
is
Then,
too,
such noted painters as Pien Luan (who treated flowers and birds), Chang
Tsao
(pines
and rocks), and Chou Fang (court beauties), and such accom-
But
setting forth
all
decorated screens.
relics
Among
this
among
pre-
of donations mentions,
still
in 756.
The
list
birds, animals
and
in
whole or
02
in part,
;^.v>a^;v, --_.*".
A CHINESE
1.
(2)
of
Chinese screen
.-it
2.
IN
FRO
sicci^3^r:\r
-THE
AS7ERPIECES SELLCTED
SCREEN
which have disappeared, leaving only the preliminary drawings.
Despite
may
much em-
the sketchy nature of the drawings of the figures, trees and rocks, one
detect the mature brush-strokes, the importance of which
Japanese, yet
its
Chinese patterns.
so
screen
probably
is
There are
also
two
six-fold
One
large characters.
in
The
is
screens in
imperial
this
consisting of
and once
style
silk
dyed
in
in the hsing
The backgrounds
("running") style.
alternating
the
in
six
panels
The
white reserve.
to the
screen
is
it
purpose.
scheme
bearing
is
de-
and rocks,
many
all
gifts sent
it is
are of
no
less
{q.v.)
is
importance as good painting, both being the result of brush-work and both
presenting images of mental conception.
art of
tery of Toji
trees
in
Kyoto.
surrounded by
hermit
who
is
hills
It
treats
and water
in
among
a landscape in polychrome:
is
For, despite
its
nth
Chinese design, in
Kobo
sits
According to an
old tradition, the screen was one of the treasures brought back by
the
Yamato-e
it
(literally
is
charac-
No
103
CHINESE ART
dating from the Fujiwara period are
now
the thousands of screens painted for the use of the Japanese court and for
As
in the
wide openings on the sides of a building which were closed by wooden doors
at night but
That a
large
Regular
number of
may
be gathered
from the record that Yoshichika (nth century) painted 200 screens on Lord
Yoshimichi's order.
story
is
told about
call to
the
as to
The
trees
Kamakura
ing the
period
(1
In Japan, dur-
In
China
abandoned.
On
itself in
the
to
their art;
and
The most
significant
Yuan
(1280-1367) and
attempted to express
Ming (1365-1643)
in their
dynasties.
artists of the
ideals.
natural phenomena.
its
The inherent
CKan (in Japa-
it.
Inspired by
104
by divesting
SCREEN
ity
and
their paintings
For
their themes, the painters of the Idealistic school chose, besides landscapes,
birds, animals
trees
and rocks,
all
monochrome with China ink. Unfortunately there exists no example of the typical art of the Sung as applied on screens, nor are there any
screens dating from the subsequent Yuan and Ming dynasties, in both of
treated in
which
is
it is
now mounted
as single hangings,
It
periods,
Again turning
to Japan,
Motonobu
Chinese
idealists.
screen
who
The
in 1464,
may be
taken as a
Masanobu and
all tell
of the master
This screen
is
as
one of a
one com-
The
Momoyama
we
see a remarkable
etc., fre-
schools.
(1
In the screen by
Tohaku (1539-
new type of screen introduced some time in the 14th century from
Korea contributed much toward revolutionizing the general scheme of comHeretofore, a folding screen had consisted of a group of separate
panels, each with brocaded borders, tied together by means of cords passing
position.
through holes pierced at the vertical edges of the panels. In the Korean
type the leaves were joined by paper hinges which were built into the body
of the screen before the silk or paper for painting was pasted, a brocade border
105
CHINESE ART
Whereas
in
continuance of the design was interfered with by the frame and the brocade
borders of each panel, in the latter style the tightly joined leaves
made one
Momoyama
Eitoku
a massive scale.
is
(i
545-90),
who was
said to
He
the Taiko.
in solid
pigments on
Momoyama
palace of
screens are very effective; for example, one of a pair in which are
shown
T'ang
"Barbarians Presenting Tribute" being symbolic
of
The popular
pictorial motives
spirit
on
"Old Pine
fidelity).
In Japan during the Tokugawa period (1603new movement in decorative painting was developed by S5tatsu
( 576-1 643) who preserved the vigorous and broad brush-work practised by
the masters in monochrome, but in place of ink used pigments on a gold
ground. Even as he adopted the colouring of the old Yamato-e, so he took
1868), a
1
screens.
composition.
Tokugawa
largeness of conception
days, artists in
and
is
brilliant colours
all
schools
exerted
scheme
106
on screens.
well balanced
and
effective; at the
In
the
for screens
apparent
is
the
little
it is still
artist's
changed
He was
and waterscapes on
Ise, the
same time
it
In prinstyles
Momoyama
in
had
periods
dissymmetry, yet
during a ii>rmnny
nl
inghtl
ll
in
f.m.iic
mU,
In
fanlM
tttfi
*SE'
(1736-95 A.D.)
This Chinese imperial screen is composed of a gilt teakwood frame of eight folds set with spinachgreen jade panels, carved on one side with landscape designs and on the other with flowers. The
photograph was taken with a light arranged behind the screen to bring out the translucent
quality of the jade
SCREEN
historical,
many and
also such
The
and
plishments,"
Fans,"
"Phoenixes,"
ft.
in height
in pairs.
and 12
Generally
etc.
in
ft.
Among
Japanese
we may
count "pillow" screens with brightly coloured pictures, which are placed
about beds, and low, two-fold screens with simple decoration, or none at
in connection
all,
{q.v.).
in
China,
last
few centuries.
But
it is in
screens of applied
It has already
The
best
known among
which are made of wooden panels finished with a coat of lacquer, through
which designs
incised
and
known from
landscapes,
filled
the
Ming dynasty.
emblems,
etc.
are
upon their provenance, but indicates that these screens of Chinese origin
were shipped to European countries from the coast of Coromandel. Other
screens in the category of lacquer are those with lacquered panels (sometimes
coated with white
carved lacquer.
oil
porcelain plaques, or panelled with silks, tapestries or embroideries, are occasionally seen.
Furniture.
As an
an ornamental frame,
fire.
made
Screens are
of
all
shapes and
sizes,
and
may
they
may have
leaves.
Fire screens are usually small, with a single leaf indeed in the
107
CHINESE ART
Georgian period of English furniture they often took the form of a
oval, heart-shaped or oblong piece of
circular,
This variety,
At
fire
light
came
implies.
is
The
The
earlier ex-
amples were of stamped or painted Spanish leather or of some rich stuff such
as tapestry; at a later date lacquer
08
handsome and
sitting
stately.
They were
tall
Andersson's discoveries in
two
first
light recently
3000
artistic of his
It consists
B.C.
made by hand
six periods;
J.
G.
The Andersson
and the
earliest and,
finds
oddly
strongly baked buff and red clays, shaped in pleasing, and often quite imposing, forms and decorated with elegant painted designs in red, black,
is
fire
of the kiln.
if superficial, re-
semblances to the painted pottery found at Anau, Susa and other western
Asiatic sites of late neolithic date.
made without
the exterior with markings which suggest that the wet clay had been wrapped
in
a long
life,
The
B.C.).
for it
was
still
textile.
made
in
times.
On
An-yang
in
109
CHINESE ART
doubtless
made
of kaolinic earth, has been carved like the ivory and bone
fret patterns
Complete
a striking appearance,
if
ever formed part of pottery vessels and were not, as has been suggested,
moulds
bronze maker.
(C)
BT
For the
is
funeral ware of a
rough and not very interesting type, and generally following the forms of the
vessels for
which
much
it
of
was doubtless a
it is
substitute.
It
is
pigments.
The
Han Dynasty
knowledge of
it is still
in
Many
ceramic technique.
of the
Han
ves-
such as the wine vases, are of elegant form, and they are ornamented
in
reliefs
Glaze
is
now
is
is
coloured green
slips
of different
when
1
10
sur-
the glaze has not been coloured green by the use of copper.
^^~
imitation of bronze form. 2. Ladle. 3. Hill jar decorated in relief with mythological animals, ring handles, and with usual
mountain cover surrounded by waves. 4. Barnyard with goats, and man
playing piccolo just in front of the little gable. 5. Example of the rare
1.
in
(206 B.C.
TO
A.D. 220)
6.
Hill
censer
8. Pottery
dog
(4i
,i
(l|
imi
PRE-TANG POTTERIES
"'bi fnl.1i.ij In front, spreading betnw to f.rm a hollow
bM| hnli for hands. Grey pottery with dressing of white tlip and remain!
"it: hair painted (.lack. Ht. 28 S".
Si dynasties
A O 220-618).
2. Mythnlnolral animal r-..mbllng prr'
il^pt. p>ilhly lugi
" -jV
III
desert
Fi
.,-p
gf a
lady.
with double peaked cap. holding a lotui. with bird-shaped flower. Hard
grey pottery, waih of white lllp, pigmentation In red and black. HI. 30 75".
Companion figure, with crown-like head-dress. Ht. 31 75". Northern Wei
(AD. 3S6-435)
J.
Roman times;
Han dynasty.
use in late
pire in the
Many
for the
Chinese were
in
Han tombs
it
was
in
archaeological interest, for they include, besides the household and ritual
vessels,
beings, which
had belonged
to the
much
Further
it is
this funeral
way in which
Thus the granary
not
is
Han to Vang (A.D. 220-618). To the interval beHan and T'ang belongs a considerable group of
figures and other beings and animals are in many ways the
tween
most attractive of
them are
all
little later in
Han
Some
of
dynasty; but
502-557).
There
in
Toronto
Museum
are
known
are, besides,
wine
(a.d.
which are
Han and
Han well-jar
From
morfopoulos
The Han
lead
differentiate the
There
are,
Some
of
for their
which would
There
is
in
CHINESE ART
and which
is
of hard grey
body with a
It
W.
is
brown
tint.
Specimens
kind of proto-porcelain.
a kaolinic stoneware
is
Dr.
M. Nakao
holds
fired to a
Korean pottery.
its
It
is
practically certain
wood
ashes forms a
MU,EUM
Proto-porcelain vase
(3rd or 4th century)
Han and
due
T'ang.
It
Indeed
this material at
may
we know
it is
some period
in the interval
between
and that
beginning of the
and most
its
civilized
power
in
the world.
is
112
It
was
way behind
little to tell
in fact largely
the rest.
for all
Oddly enough
But
a comparatively
It
pulchral wares.
is
favourable light, but they enable us to see the great progress which had been
made
in
They make
craftsmen.
China
it
we
artistic capabilities
of T'ang
in
Sassanian and Persian art in the forms and designs of the pottery of this
istic,
period.
Of
human
beings, birds
and
They
baked
to considerable hardness.
Some
is
and
The
blue.
in this case
in the
a form
left
without glaze
Be-
Hellenistic form
lip,
commonly
found
common
bird's
The
mono-
chrome, more often in mottled colours, but they rarely cover the whole exterior of the vessel, stopping as a rule in a
The
The
by moulding in relief,
which have been stamped out separately, by carving the
it
is
chiefly effected
The T'ang
by applying reliefs
surface or by incising
was
is
wavy
it is
its
113
CHINESE ART
now made with
century
much
site
higher temperature.
The important
number
of fragments
From
them we gather that these advanced ceramic products were not only made,
but had actually become articles of overseas trade in the Tang dynasty.
They
with green and mottled glazes, or again with the sea-green glaze which we
distinguish by the
ivory glaze.
name
The beauty
in the front
to
is
his incised
and moulded
artist.
114
Sung dynas-
'
><
c.
col CO
de.
mated
Wrlttl
ntl
Bactrim
rare
the
of which are
still
One
to
after rain."
neighbourhood of K'ai-f6ng Fu
Honan; and apparently no complete specimen of it remained above ground
perial
in
is
even
for a
of porcelain, and
theory and,
it
traditional description of
ware which
ch'ing class of
The
in the
will
must be added,
it
suggests a kind
it
be described presently.
a theory
which
is
cepted.
The
other
is
ern Shao-hsing
Fu
in
It
is
gen-
tan age of Chinese art, and ceramic writers in after years described the Sung
porcelains in reverential terms as the classic wares of China.
treasured
Collectors
given
it
skill.
factories,
Something too
and slender
as
for
is
recorded of the
is
the information
yet assured, classification of the principal types, namely the Ju, Kuan, Ko,
Ting, Lung-ch'uan, Chiin, Chien and Tz'u Chou, with a few subsidiary wares
in addition.
at
made
in
Honan,
we gather
that
it
besides at
tricts of
Ju Chou
itself.
the imperial
115
CHINESE ART
which means misty blue or green (the colour word cKing connoting both blue
and green), is applied by the Chinese to-day to a soft-looking, bubbly porcewhite
lain glaze,
in colour,
tint.
The ying
cKing porcelain
is
granular texture.
a relatively low-fired
It varies
much
in quality,
impure, pearly grey glaze to an exquisite egg-shell porcelain thin and trans-
The
low
that
some
tories
any,
relief,
perial
rest
may have
is
It is
made
carved in
surmised
at the
Im-
fac-
on the same
skill
been
It
lines.
must however
be understood that the identification of this ware with the famous Ju porcelain
is
room
leaves
is still
problematical
But Chinese
ever kind.
Sung dynasty
made
fore
in the
1 1
27,
Tartars.
is
the Kuan.
of ambiguities.
is full
in
itself
Chinese
Kuan means
to be distinctive types.
They
describe
made
it
southern Kuan,
The name
it
its full
extremely uncertain,
The
re-
The Ko ware is
name from the elder
ch'iian district in
Chekiang
Chang who
It
lived in the
in the
(ko).
It is evident,
got
its
Lung-
in fact the
Ko
term for
Like the
places.
the
a dark-
coloured clay (we are told by one writer that this clay was actually brought
Hang Chou
from
and
it
has a
dark brown edge on the unglazed foot-rim and a brown mouth-rim where the
glaze
is
thin
glaze itself
in a close
enough
to allow the
body material
to
show through
HsUAN TE PORCELAIN
DYNASTY
it.
The
fish roe.
The
crackle
STEM-
CUP
One
fishes
is
shown
Ko
in a
it
mi
se
which
The
may
colours of the
be rendered grey
green, ash colour and millet colour or yellowish, and less intelligibly as tan
Well accredited
and
opaque
glaze, lustrous
with crackle stained red or black, and of bluish grey, greenish grey
fat,
or buff grey colours which tally well with the Chinese descriptions.
read of
in later
The
crackle affected
in
the early
all
Ming
periods;
We
and
CHINESE ART
wards was deliberately sought by definite processes and was eventually got
under perfect control, so that large or small crackle could be produced at
It
is
will.
unlikely that the earlier processes were very reliable, such as the plung-
still
warm
with the glaze disturbed the relationship of body and glaze sufficiently to
ensure crackle, and they learnt to prepare a crackle glaze which was applied
in single,
Ko
The Lung-ch'iian
district in
name
of celadon.
It
is
is
a porcelain or semi-porcelain
of greyish white body with a thick translucent glaze varying from greyish
to sea-green
and grass-green.
The most
precious of the
Lung-ch'iian celadons has a delicate bluish grey or greenish grey glaze over a
finely potted porcelain
name
body which
made by
is
almost white.
the younger
Chang
famous vase
than this
soft,
in
it
by the Japanese
is
is
more
difficult to
not
known how
far
may
well
On
there.
site
of Samarra, in Meso-
the other
hand we are
told
that the kilns were transferred to the neighbouring Ch'u-chou at the begin-
Ming period and that they flourished there till the end
The output must have been large, and it formed from the
ning of the
of that
dynasty.
earliest
found
know from
sites of
in
and
India
This justly
celebrated ware, the export celadon, was a stoutly built greyish porcelain
118
COi-
..I.
,|,
OIIO rululHim
..is
IHI
rmmoku"
3.
tvpe
'Oul painted
(
dengnt
%,, Plate XL
In
brown on cream
ilip
and glaie
Pure, perfect vaie (orm covered with cream coloured ttlp and glaje
relief
In
6.
11.
7.
8.
12.
>.0
COLllCIlON,
(II, II)
(960-1280)
In
"Temmoku"
g'ajc
"
ih( ii.i
l.uir,(u..
it.
T'ANG VASE
" ,- with coloured glum. Tang dynaity (AD. 618-906). Height 10 15".
The blue glaie It exceedingly rirt in this period, though ome exceptional ipecimeni art
i
enough
moulded or
incised designs to
show through
clearly.
Besides the carved and incised designs which are of great beauty,
in this case
Sometimes these
effectively used.
were
left
reliefs
reliefs
floral
is
to be seen in
all
unprotected by the glaze, such as the base-rims and the large unglazed ring
which
is
Ming
was thought
at one time
but
very doubt-
origin,
it is
Much
It
study of the other Sung wares, especially the Ting porcelain with
and engraved
floral
its
carved
In the hands of the Sung artists these designs had a freshness and
dons.
spontaneity which
type of celadon
This
finish.
is
known
is
is
dulled
Other Celadons.
would be allowed
many
in
Chekiang
is
said to
have died
it
to disappear.
It
was
in fact
made
At Ching-te Chen
it
was used over the white porcelain body for which that place is noted, and
the Ching-te Chen celadons have the ordinary white glaze, and sometimes
a reign-mark in blue, on their bases. A celadon glaze was used on the
books we get
there are
little
many
It
is
we have adopted
119
CHINESE ART
for
It
incense burners, etc., with a dry buff grey stoneware body and an olive-green
The
celadon glaze.
much
decoration
is
ying cWing^ or Ju
type of porcelain, a fact which suggests a Honan origin for the ware. This
and
skill
taste;
and
it
is
not accepted by
probably right
is
in
authorities.
it is
he
all
it
in spite of
introduced into southern Korea from Chekiang, the most accessible Chinese
And
ceramic centre.
it
A stoneware of celadon
Sawankhalok
at
in
Siam
is
remarkably
close.
and
in
made
more recent
And
of Japan.
in several parts
made with
what they
made
are.
Ting Ware.
celain
may
it
in Persia
at
Another of the
Ting Chou
in
classic
Sung types
southern Chihli.
It
is
is
a singularly pure
cream or ivory
tint,
is
band of
silver
and a glaze of
usual conditions.
and
it
shares
effect.
Besides the fine ivory-white Ting ware there are several varieties.
is
known
as /' (earthy)
looking body.
Ting because
20
a soft,
it
One
is
usually
the
Honan temmoku
There
is
also
The two
glazes.
first
The beauty
some of which
to
its
simplicity
by Chinese writers
are admitted
There was,
for in-
waxen white
Much
been
slip
made
and a beautiful
fu Ting wares.
submerged town of
additionally attractive
many
by pinkish grey
burial.
Sung
factories themselves,
though
their
Chou
name by his
many followers who kept up
he had
Tan-ch'iian,
vessels;
mentioned
About
is
after
this
made
in
time
himself
work
at Ching-te
dynasty.
it
is
naturally result from the firing of a kaolinic body and feldspathic glaze
coloured by copper in the oxidizing flame of the typical round kiln of north121
CHINESE ART
The
ern China.
finer
body and
a grey porcellanous
thick opalescent glaze full of bubbles and minute pin-holes (caused by the
due
in part to the
which
is
Chun Chou
kilns
from blue to blood red, and the Chun glazes display endless combinations of
Thus we have
in the
extremes
an even lavender grey and an almost uniform purplish red, and between
these a variety of splashed, streaked and mottled effects of blue, grey,
Again the
V-shaped
lines
known
as
Chun
glaze
is
is
apt
The Chun
ware
is
strong and heavy, and the finer specimens consist mainly of flower-
pots and shallow bowls which could serve as stands for the flower-pots or
alternatively as bulb-bowls.
in the kiln.
It
No.
An
Chun ware
is
to ten
"outsize"
stilts
is
known
that the
Chun
Sung
we are not
much difficulty
In fact,
Consequently there
is
in distinguishing the
the finer
much
is
of the ware
must be
as late as
Ming.
Sung and
There
is
and,
if
fineness
class,
is
122
is,
Sung
Chun
period.
Chun
They have
the
Chun
glaze.
2.
Water
pot.
Chun ware.
Chun ware
74
of
hirjh
Kuan
type. 3
Kuan
type,
6"
3 2" high
(A.D. 960-1?79^
1.
2.
3.
or
Yuan
period
(12S0-136S).
Diameter 5 3 j."
Diameter ll'/V
Height 7J 2
'
is
it is
plum purple and this purple sometimes dominates the whole surface. The
more or less evenly down to the edge of the base-rims and it
usually reappears on a small patch on the base.
Sometimes the purple
glaze flows
splashes on this ware are symmetrically disposed and even deliberately de-
signed to suggest the forms of fishes, birds, animals or fruits, showing clearly
that these patches, though doubtless at
first
under control.
type.
many
is
evident that
kilns
mark.
is little
also be detected
by variations
Kwangtung (q.v.), in Ming and later times; and the Yi-hsing Chiins
which were made at Yi-hsing near the Great Lake in Kiangsu, the home of
the red stoneware tea-pots. The Yi-hsing imitations have a buff or red
shan, in
artificial
from the
real
Chun
ma
chiln
by Chinese
This
is
traders), an attractive
the "soft
ware with
a beautiful, opaque
and suffused here and there with purple or crimson splashes.
in
some
light buff
Where
it
was
are
cases the
northern type.
Chun"
body and
While
Chun
is still
made
123
at
CHINESE ART
Yii
the
Another
of
was
this
large
is
commonly
called, for
They
earlier.
are
made
brown
Their glaze
stops in a thick irregular welt short of the base outside and forms in a deep
monly preferred
ture
made
The
ceremonies.
up the
least
The Chien
glaze owes
its
In-
deed the brown and black seem to be always struggling for the mastery
sometimes
it
in
The
tories.
was, and
still
is,
by no means confined
is
made
in
many
to the
Fukien
in
fac-
the
north; and one of the northern wares which has this black and brown glaze
is
known
to collectors as
Honan temmoku.
and sometimes they are boldly flecked with lustrous brown and even painted
with sketchy designs of flowers and birds in the same brown.
is
strewn more or
less regularly
On
rare speci-
Kiangsi.
thin blackish
golden brown
body
is
a buff
to the base
and
is
is
a rather
further feature
is
painted ornament
in
The
last
which
plain
name from
in the south-
The
usually coated with white slip and covered with creamy glaze.
is
cream white Tz'u Chou stoneware has been mentioned among the
The painted
designs.
brush
is
its
in
black or brown
is
The
on with a bold
Painting in enamels
or incised
incised, or graffiato,
in
varieties.
Simple incised designs are comparatively scarce, the more usual practice
being to coat the vessel with white or brown slip which was then scraped
away
buff-grey body.
brown against a
cream white design on a mouse grey ground, if the slip was white. Where
brown was used the slip usually contained the glazing material and the deBoth
sign appeared in brown or black glaze against an unglazed ground.
of these graffiato types have great decorative value. The black and brown
painted Tz'u
Chou
is
the
its
potteries
6th century to the present day, and there will always be room for debate as
to the age of particular specimens.
Chou
types
were made at other potteries scattered over northern China, and doubtless
much
that
on similar
we
of the Tz'u
grey,
is
call
Tz'u Chou
This
lines.
Chou
type, and
which worked
body material of wares
why
the vases with black painted and graffiato designs under transparent green
glaze or with black painted designs under a lovely peacock blue.
ters
who made
The
pot-
CHINESE ART
their craft, but,
differ
name
several other
Sung
potteries in various
we know, however,
Practically
to us
the
all
and we know
The forms,
except where they were moulded after those of old bronzes, are simple and
elegant, such as come naturally from the hands of a gifted "thrower" on the
The character of the classic Sung wares may be summed up
potter's wheel.
in
nothing to bring into the stock in trade of the Chinese potter except a taste
for certain
transcontinental empire.
in
more
pecially the
unsympathetic
common
with
many
others, es-
ground under
their
rule.
In
1368 the
Yuan
till
1644; and,
when
new
lease of
changed conditions.
celadons,
rtoM tbi gioiioi EuuoarorOULOI COLLECTION
incised
tion and
GLAZE
turquoise
The
and
it;
its
all
the
first
development.
At any
onwards the
demand and
the im-
with
fine
wares, the
decora-
doubtless helped
Chun
life,
little else.
126
1.
2.
Height
in firing.
Height 13.7"
Height 10.75'
E.
COX COLLECTION
CHOW
TZ'U
The remarkable painting
of the lotus
(960-1280)
iiimwp,
llghl
giaii
Qtlllpel
'
open
with
Hi
with illvtry
II
P"<
tern of h 'd
9. Ja' nil
glaj
'
Jar with thiol o "" riinnino Mark. <lafk hluo and br.iwn
' handle con.
lOl plait Iravino lOWOI (>a
;i
10. Prt >hAi
luttrotn Moot ji>
a drrp l.lup npr haio n.l IpUlltOd
willruit
11 Tpa howl with Ihi.k harp'i f,,f" u
1
cm
'
ad- o
; r
ill
of Ching-te
It
it
was ordered
to
name
received
its
present
of the
of manganese to
make
glazes.
ware lent
Sung
taste for
They
monochromes.
fall
into three chief groups, namely blue and white, enamelled wares and threecolour glazed wares, all of which are essentially pictorial in their decoration.
is
colours which will stand the high temperature required to melt the porcelain
glaze,
glaze.
Thus
the blue
colour, painted on the body of the ware and covered with a transparent sheet
of glaze, gives a perfectly protected picture which will last as long as the
itself.
The idea of painting porcelain in this fashion was not new
Ming dynasty. It was known to the Sung potters, but it was only in
the Ming dynasty that blue and white became fashionable. Nor is the idea
necessarily of Chinese origin, for blue painting was certainly known to the
Near-Eastern potters as early as the 9th century, and we have as yet no
In the Ming dynasty,
indication of its use in China at so early a date.
however, the Ching-te Chen potters made it specially their own, and their
porcelain
in the
blue and white was not only supplied in large quantities to the imperial
court but was exported
all
and
by a superior blue imported from the Near East and known as Mohammedan
blue.
This imported material was scarce and costly and was at first reserved
for the imperial factory, and even so it was usually diluted with the common
native cobalt.
Later on supplies of
private manufacturers.
it
it
varied
much
127
in
CHINESE ART
known
Ming
to us
is
the
Mohammedan
is
blue
is
and
intensity.
In
The
Ming
porcelain,
to
this
in
in
Europe.
for
home
But
or foreign consumption,
of design which
BT
make
cnimur
the
all
is
the
Ming
monochrome and
in
Advantage
in
it
is
a red de-
a desirable possession.
was
made
It
commonest specimen
Ming
to paint
on-glaze painting
lies in
as well as
under
it.
fashionable,
The
chief
over-glaze colours,
commonly
made
of
They
The
make
it
is
and turquoise
green derived from copper, a brownish yellow derived from iron, and aubergine purple derived from manganese, besides which a dry black pigment was
obtained from manganese and a thin tomato red (half-way between a pig-
it
iron.
The Ming
red
is
and the
a composite black.
with underglaze blue and this colour scheme, though known in the 15th
blue and the predominance of red and green, and again there are effective
combinations of two colours such as red and yellow, blue and yellow, blue
and green, red and green, red and gold and more rarely green and gold.
Besides being painted on the glaze the enamel colours were sometimes
painted on the biscuit,
i.e.,
"Three-colour"
Chinese or
Ming
three-colour
this
To
open work.
in
by
incised lines or
full
CHINESE ART
melt them, and consequently the ware has to be "biscuited" (subjected to
a preliminary firing)
They
fired
again
are, in fact,
call
The
subjects, lotus
up
left
it
unglazed.
The
The
etc.
used.
The
it
and inclined
to be opaque.
floral
figures
Much
to porcelain.
in-
Excellent
sleeker,
three-colour decoration
human
become
is
specimens of
being
bold;
Wang Chih
is
Indeed
Where
this
group of
fine
pottery was
made is not known; but it is found in widely separated parts of China and
may have been made in several factories.
Other Ming Wares. Though monochrome porcelains no longer held the
premier position, they were still made in considerable quantity and some of
them received special notice from Chinese writers. The sacrificial red {chi
hung) of the Hsiian Te and Ch'eng Hua periods, a brilliant underglaze red
mottled texture
is
Te
came
There were,
all
the demi-
in certain
forms of ritual and also by the court during periods of mourning); and
special
of
mention
Yung Lo
Ching periods.
130
is
made
to these
Te and Chia
white wares
it
was
CENTRE VASE
WARREN
E.
(1368-1644)
left: Black rectangular vase bearing Wan Li mark (15731619) decorated with enamels. Upper right:
three-colour vase and bowl with aubergine ground; 16th-17th century. Centre: Large deep peach-bloom glazed
vase decorated with enamels and bearing Hsuan Te mark (1426-35). Lower left: Three-colour jar and cover with
Lower
right
known
of ornament
spicuous form of
as
slip
is
in a
manner resembling
kung or
all
devil's
work.
the
Ming
The
period.
known
best
are the
made
work and
tile
architectural pottery which are often finely modelled: they are usually
On
Nanking pagoda,
of the famous
Many
which existed
is
earlier
and
common
of
Ming
vases and
tile
works
where there
known type
parts
is
Ming from
it
that of the
some
In the early years of the 16th century direct contact was established be-
From
silk
this
and
tea,
time on-
wards we note the influence of European taste affecting the Chinese porcelain to a steadily increasing extent.
Ming
was not
till
replaced the
in 1644;
but
it
its
rule
was
ideal
conditions for the development of the arts, which indeed enjoyed at this
directors.
The
series of exceptionally
in 1682,
remained
capable
in charge
till
Nien Hsi-yao was appointed by the EmYung Cheng and in 1728 he was given as an assistant the celebrated
T'ang Ying, who succeeded him in 1736 and held the post with great disthe end of the K'ang Hsi period.
peror
tinction
till
1749.
T'ang Ying
left
CHINESE ART
and
in addition to
we have
these
the letters of
Chen
The
its
as the
most
fertile in
do not, however,
little to
must be regarded
The
by
life
3,000 furnaces.
fine finish
in
differ basically
and mechanical.
trifle stale
Still
by
suffer
The
in the
They
who had
they have
Ming
we have only
None
is
the less
a household phrase in
it is
misnomer,
Old Nanking
there.
Chen and
is
in
made
chiefly that
in
for
Europe
for while
was actually
it
much
made
was justly
fa-
never was more care expended on the preparation of the ware and
The
best
is
As
ac-
made
porcelain.
Old Nanking
recently
Ming
blue; and
it
is
it its
some of them
suggesting cracked
a
ice.
this
motive
falling
is
is
on the breaking
ice is
oration of the jars in which gifts of fragrant tea and sweetmeats were sent
at the
than
in
at the
new year
festival
our calendar.
which
The vogue
falls in
China three
to
made
in
down
general
of two types.
One
Ming
is
made
in the
Yung Cheng
prepared with "soapy rock" {hua shih), a kind of pegmatite, and exquisitely
painted with the finest brushwork and the purest blue under a soft-looking
crackled glaze.
belief that the
and
to this porcelain
is
Famille Verte.
This
is
the
Ming
literati
name
"steatitic," in the
It
is
steatite.
in the
The
as
iron red
is
Ming
green
is
The enamels
are either
painted over the glaze or washed over black-outlined designs painted direct
Ming
called
Ming, belong
period, but
biscuit.
The
latter process
on the
biscuit,
Some
Not
is
Ming
and transparent.
This
is
the
laid
on
in
patches making a
glaze.
known
Citing Monochromes. The Ch'ing monochromes comprise the Ming
Among
types, close imitations of the old Sung glazes and many novelties.
the best known is the langyao red which follows the Ming chi hung but has a
in the trade as
is
character of
its
own, varying from bright cherry red and deep ox-blood {sang
subsequent reigns,
it
was
"peach bloom"
name
This red
is
and
CHINESE ART
Other K'ang Hsi glazes are the mirror-
clair de lune;
and Chinese
specialities
of the period.
We
many
other monochromes
and so
whites, celadons,
They
is
are formed by
monochrome, but
this
came
ceeded
in
at first
Coral
Lung
period, as also
do the splashed
Tang Ying
suc-
Famille Rose.
new
palette of colours
was introduced,
opaque enamels among which rose pinks (derived from gold) are most conspicuous.
The Chinese
called these
The jamille
famille rose.
it
new
colours juan
we have adopted
for
ts
The
ai (soft colours) or
and
it
brought with
The more
artistically
were destined
less satis-
European
trade.
At Canton, too, were decorated large
Chen porcelain with coats of arms and other European
ordered by the foreign merchants.
for the
quantities of Ching-tc
designs directly
verte
entirely suppressed;
and decorator
mens
of
in a
who worked
in
Ku Yueh-hsuan,
the Ch'ien
'
Lung period
by
maker
effectively used
Other
Good
speci-
specialities
BY COURTESY OF (3)
(1,
2,
6.
THE GEORGE
7)
E U
<4, S)
2.
Northern
Celadon
lait
with
3
XVIII.
and
5.
Tu
6.
Ting
ware
with
lightly
design
E.
COX COLLECTION
(A.D. 960-1280)
4.
characteristic
THE WARREN
incised
I uuui
>
HOFOUlOt COllfCTION
CHINESE PORCELAINS
1.
Yung Cheng
2.
I a
#ggthi>ll
.h,
I
P"'
Kung
Hl prlod
3.
K ng
4.
Powderblue bowl
Hi
-urod
glliei
5.
Chla Ching
6.
7.
jar.
K"ng Hii
im,
blue nd while
CHINESE VASE
LnQ Y>
", K jm
-
HU
period
(1662-1722). Height
17'.. inches
in
which
the designs are actually cut out of the side of the vessel though allowed to
fill
up with
glaze.
A third
The monochromes
type,
known
opaque
is
of the
Ch'ien
Lung
periods include
been mentioned.
rust
eggs, grained
But these
eye.
etc.,
symptoms of an
Exceptions
The devastation
in
of Ching-te
being
little interest,
T'ai-p'ing rebellion
and Pottery. The bulk of the Ch'ing dynasty porwhich have reached Europe is of Ching-te Chen make; but there were
Provincial Porcelains
celains
many
provincial factories which supplied local needs and which also catered
These provincial
Indies.
made
This
is
is
the white
the blanc de
Chine of the old French catalogues, which was freely exported from
in the 17th
early
and 18th centuries, and which served as a model for most of the
It is a beautiful, translucent ware with a soft-
it
was
decorated,
is
signs, rarely
if
at
all,
with
mens
will
always be
Immense
and groups,
and
Amoy
European porcelains.
It
its
may
art
shells, birds'
The Te-hua
moulded or
factories are
are
little,
still
incised de-
known
to
have
active to-day;
difficult.
quantities of earthenware
CHINESE ART
still
made
in
but there are two centres which must be mentioned. Yi-hsing, on the west
side of the Great Lake in Kiangsu, has been noted since the 16th century
for a fine stoneware, chiefly red
but also
local clays.
came
at
to
buff,
The
it
It
was classed
was copied
by
closely
in
England.
and
The second
in
some
centre
The
reliefs,
moulded and
in-
lies
in
The
potteries being at
Shekwan ware
is
has a thick flocculent glaze of brown mottled with blue and grey and sometimes with vivid red.
Chun
already mentioned, besides flambe red were also used; and some of the
Ming
it
The
is reminded that true Chinese decoration is never meaningmeaning may be directly expressed in semi-religious emblems such
the Eight Buddhist Symbols, the attributes of the Eight Immortals, the
less.
as
to the
reader
Its
etc.; or indirectly
pomegranate
(fertility).
life),
etc.,
ing of their decorative designs involves a deep study of their religion, history
and
folk-lore.
Numerous marks and seals are used on Chinese pottery and porcelain;
but for these again the reader must consult special books. The most important and the most frequent of the marks are the reign-names {nien hao)
ol the emperors; but there are also potters' names, phrases of good omen,
symbols and the names of
halls
it
would be
futile to
wammumumummmimumJMXKUJKjnM^
JEWELLERY
N.ature and
use.
Not only
is
more
which
Some
sidered.
in
of these
many
become obvious
at once
when
a comparison of the
tempted.
have
Even
is
at-
is
Living in a
relevant.
know
their
lery.
The
beliefs
its
climate,
and
and limiting
its
to this or that
use to persons of a
Personal ornaments
may
serve as in-
nature
is
influence of religion
and
ritual
observance
is
The
ing.
ellery
is
young
bride's
dowry may
consist
137
CHINESE ART
means of holding
them
to
have
it
continually with
occasion requires.
is
Silver
by
is
far the most usually employed of the precious metals, though ornaments are
is
it
from tarnishing.
stones are used
Silver jewellery
not cut
in facets,
drilled
Gems
fine
wire.
of other ways.
jewellery.
Personal jewellery in China often takes the form, or bears the images,
of the animals, real or fabulous, and the numerous ritual and symbolical
dragon or phoenix
or used separately.
naments"
It
is
fillet,
first
Emblems
nipotence.
or eight Buddhist
may form
om-
Gold and
silver
The
in relief,
and
It
often enamelled
silver in
They
gold generally
is
used
for the
ornaments.
in light
and mi-
dark blue from a cobaltiferous ore; both colours are also used
to-
gether.
The gold
v..
worn by
138
filigree bracelet is in
Manchu
It
The
head-dress
JEWELLERY
with
silk
(for happiness)
and peaches
(for longevity).
It
is
Summer
Palace, Peking,
is
form of bats
pearls.
The
The ornament
and butterflies. The bride's
head-dress
phoenixes.
is
The
chatelaine has a
row of silver-gilt
toilet articles.
There are
various forms of hairpins, hair-ornaments, cap-ornaments, earrings and buttons in silver and silver-gilt, with jewels, enamels and kingfisher plumes.
The Indian
plaques of jade was copied in China, where jade and jadeite rank
stones.
among
and
the
stones, encrusted
139
/ttAWAV:WA>.Vg/:VS^^
ENAMEL
'namels do not appear to have reached China until long after they were
"
Roman
name having
The
7th century.
versy and
is
uncertain; but
by
all
all
travelling craftsmen
by Arab
Roman Empire
was
also
certainly as early as
of the Northern
minerals.
last so
hoi, a
of
in
ENAMEL
This
Fo-lang."
country.
for this
is
ware
in
Ta
and
was
It
appears there-
also so well
known
work of
was
well es-
similar char-
nese enamels) presents occasionally, in fact, striking resemblances with certain enamels of the Byzantine School: the mixture of different enamels inside
ment of the
From
gories
same
figures
the
cell,
and hands,
in the treat-
etc."
fall
detail of the
gold
soldered edgewise
way
silver or
as to cover the
whole
surface to be decorated, with shallow cells sometimes called c/oisons, but this
term
is
more
correctly
employed
to designate the
These
bands themselves.
ground
to a fine
"The
cells.
powder,
piece," says
Dr.
ess
surface
is
it is
When
the whole
ground down
to
an
even texture with pumice stone and polished with charcoal; the metal surfaces of the cloisons,
now
of the object which have not been adorned with enamel; for instance, the
neck, rims and foot of a vase as well as any decoration in relief which projects
The
earliest
surface.
associated with the Far East are mirrors in the Shoso in ("lonely building"),
141
CHINESE ART
at
Nara
in
Japan.
The backs
There
in character.
is
somewhat crude
in the collec-
by Komyo-K6g5, widow
Emperor Shomo-Tenno (724-749), with other treasures collected dur-
of the
ing his
We
life.
as
at least to the
in the collection,
is
certainly the
be of Chinese workmanship.
So
is
far
is
The
1367).
Yuan
last
is
Ming
is
He
enamels."-
in
points out the significance of the fact that this reign covers
the time of the last siege and capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453)
when some of the craftsmen then dispersed may have even penetrated to
China. However this may be, the Ming enamels, bold in design, with fine
depth and purity of colour, were never surpassed in later epochs. The two
shades of blue, a dark lapis-lazuli tone and a pale sky-blue with a very slight
tinge of green, are particularly excellent.
come
red
is
and Dr. Bushell states that rouges (Tor (reds made of gold) do not
cessful; the
same
The
scheme
at
all.
is
At
the
some want of
These technical
artistic
defects,
value of the
Ming
To
142
the metropolitan
NEW YORK
(1622-1722)
(1736-95)
PERIODS
painted with enamels, the two at the left being called Famille Jaune, and
Famille Noire because of their back-ground colouration. Bottom Row:
Powder blue Temple Jar with reserved medallions in enamel decoration.
Famille Noire Temple Jar. Famille Rose Temple Jar of later period
ii
MP COMPANY.
13.
4.
I,
tl
Imprri.il teapot of
2.
Round
3.
Incense,
95)
dMign.
ivklng
enamel
LH
decorated
with
Ttolli
MOM
walking.
ENAMELS OF THE
XVIII.
AND
HOOIHIN MUSEUM
XIX.
CENTURIES
6. Cloisonne snuff bottle of turquoise blue and while enamel ground, with
coral stopper; height, 2-3 7 inches. Ch'ien Lung period
NCH
Seated
ENAMEL
imperial factories for this purpose, of which that devoted to the manufacture
enamel
official list.
for presentation
to
sets of incense
numerous Buddhist
the
The enamels
lightened reign.
in technical quality as
marked by an improvement
many
In
cases the forms of ancient bronze vessels were revived for these
The
many
much
The
earlier periods.
finished.
Lung (1736
Modern enamels,
style of this
is
far
below
Champleve.
be
filled
is
It
is
tools.
Other-
much
are
the
class.
same
The
as that of cloisonne.
Examples
in
rect influence
copied.
also, in
some
cases, to
have been
Yang
CHINESE ART
used being the same as with enamelled porcelain though
enamels
it
is
termed Yang
ts'ai
is
superimposed and
Owing
in
fired.
laid
it,
(foreign colours).
in
the case of
ground of opaque
this the colours are
producing a
which, as ad-
which they
may
The
well be compared.
earliest
Lung
in
1795.
by Bushell)
remarks,
"They
at
all for
are only
fit
for use as
ornaments of
ladies'
apartments
not
Enamels
of this kind were also made, with characteristic decoration, for the Siamese
market.
Translucent (as opposed to opaque) enamels were occasionally
Chinese artisans.
rare,
but sometimes of
made by
fine quality,
in conjunction
This method
in
Japanese Enamels.
at Nara, Japan,
to;
and
it
may now
be repeated
No
examples of
authentic enamels of Japanese origin that can be dated earlier than the end
of the
The western
influence which
promoted
the art in China does not appear to have penetrated to Japan; the
in the
first
Kyoto under the patronage of the Tokugawa Shogun, Iyeyasu about the
year 161
1.
They made
plcvc methods.
use,
on a small
dull green
scale,
first
colours obtained.
The
'44
ENAMEL
when Kaji Tsunikichi (born
a.d. 1802) of
Nagoya
an important and successful manufacture of cloisonne which obtained a considerable vogue especially
among
foreigners.
Modern Japanese
artists
On
this
interest, in
interest.
Namikawa
KySto
J.
Ando
of
artist of the
of
which the
re-
effects
skill
it
can-
not be said that in decorative value they compare with the older Chinese
tradition.
of the latter; which, for a time, gave rise to quite a false appreciation of their
place in the history of the art.
145
MJAUyiUI^Jfr^^
JADE
.here are three minerals that are called jade:
earliest times; (2) Jadeite, described in
The
tint.
Jadeite
is
(i)
Nephrite,
known
it is
Analyses of these
have been carried on concerning the origin and uses of Jade from the
times,
it
was not
since
Damour found
earliest
The
structure of jadeite
It
may
is
On
it
often
stands out quite sharply, owing to the fact that the light strikes the surface
The
matic
in
mm.
in exceptional cases.
The
structure of nephrite
is
characteristically fibrous,
and of such a
fine
grain that the individual fibres are but rarely visible except under the mi-
croscope.
146
The
fibres in this
ornament,
scrolls
and
palmettes;
MUSEUM
XV.-XVIII.
height,
21
'
CENTURIES
inches.
K'ang-hsi
period
22
inches.
K'ang-hsi period
(, )
curved,
twisted,
on
in tufted or
due
is
most
fan-shaped groups; or
The
intricate fashion.
and
is
dependent
is
ex-
It
fan-shaped
Composition.
Nephrite
Chloromelanite
Jadeite
....
/o
58.00
58.24
56.12
1.30
24.47
14.96
1. 01
3-34
Silica (SiO)
0.19
3)
0.47
....
....
.
6.54
2.07
I3- 2 4
0.69
5-i7
24.18
0.45
2.79
1.28
14.70
10.99
trace
i-55
IOI.II
100.07
Colour.
by
Absolutely
100.57
in the composition.
is
due
to
chromium
never transparent as
is
fail
is
its
it
of an occasional
particular specimen.
The
lustre of
147
CHINESE ART
This oily appearance
oily lustre.
is
highly characteristic of
many
of the
green nephrites.
Sonority.
The
known
to
the
Chinese since ancient times, and when united with the proper translucency
and colour, was regarded as a sure sign of the genuineness of the material.
"Sounding-stones" and stones for polishing them are mentioned in the
full
in considerable
where
it is
known
to
occur in place.
localities identified
others where jade has been found, having been transported there from
And
many
is
indication as to
its
The
is
27
in the
lat.
and 95
in the
it
was not
in
rivers, at
about 25
to
E. longitude.
to 97
pure conjec-
is
is
point of origin.
its
Mogaung
Burma.
Jade occurs
in
Rewa.
is all
nephrite.
is
is
lacking,
One
in the
of
K'un
Tt
was from
jadeite, the
much
The occurrence
19th century, but
148
it
was not
until
known
obtained.
in place in the
Sajan
on the
rivers
north and south, and the Onot and Urick rivers on the east and west.
Europe
many
for
by Traube
years,
was not
it
This material
is
at Jordansmiihl,
now
in the
No
Europe.
in
mined extensively
in
1899 by
in
City.
in place
was discovered
nephrite.
4,812
it
in
is
known
New York
in
in glacial de-
known
in place are
in
Europe but
it is
Mogaung, Burma.
W.
longitude.
mouth
of the
Kowak
River, at 67
5'
N.
and 158
lat.
in place in either
of these localities,
all
While maindications
lead to the conclusion that the boulders had originated in the immediate
locality.
New
Zealand
in tools,
The
though other
in
localities of lesser
Nephrite
is
al-
found
place on the west coast of the island of Uen, off the southeastern point of
New
Caledonia.
Although a fondness
for
jade
is
in
China,
sible that
Of
some Siberian or
the
New
many thousand
with the possible exception of the small buttons, there are scarcely two pieces
alike.
The
CHINESE ART
made
best be
of
it
fit
The
the piece.
result
work unique.
is
They
in the vicinity of
distributed
in
in
which either jadeite or nephrite objects, or both, have been found, without
many
years.
The
first
was concerned
in
Europe, or
whether the material used by the prehistoric peoples of central Europe was
all
This
question was definitely settled by the discoveries of Traube and Kunz, described above.
in
No
that
its
presence
and use there was an indication of ancient contacts between these peoples
and the Orient.
many
While
this
side.
Uses.
It is
earliest times,
whether
New
Zealand,
for axes
acumen
and other
to determine
utilitarian pur-
ties
ISO
manv thousands
of pieces of
many
As an example of the
is
many
Museum
Museum
all
And
of Natural History.
to a
fruits,
The
greatest rulers of the East have treated this stone with a reverence
The poems
lbs.,
has the
poem
in this
fish
bowl
of an emperor on
stone
is
its
well deserved,
Bishop collection,
inner base.
and
if
There spect
all
the articles that were originally in China, they would form a collection not
rivalled
known
as
Metropolitan
Museum
memory of Dr. George Byron Gordon. Other specimens are in the Boston
Museum of Fine Arts, the British Museum, the Louvre and in Berlin, and
many other places throughout the world.
in
employed
in the
in
China
tablet,
and
for the
earth an octagonal yellow tablet; the east was worshipped with a green
pivoted tablet, the west with a white "tiger tablet," the north with a black
semi-circular tablet,
girdles
in the
temple of
heaven, lapis lazuli was used; for the altar of earth, yellow jade; for a sacrifice
I5i
CHINESE ART
at the altar of the sun, red coral;
and
for
many
Jade amulets of
as were
in general,
jade was
much more
jade has been used extensively for axes, adzes, knives and
is
its
seems
to
While
have precluded
its
was held
in
make
China
almost entirely absent in the Chinese uses; here the ornamental features
greatly predominate,
utilitarian features
may
be combined with
and
for axes
celts
The jade
It
utility.
is
some
do come
in, it is
which
is
now
is
in religious ceremonies,
The outstanding
also found.
in
made by Dr.
E. H.
Thompson
of the
Much
in the
of the
This valuable
New
high esteem
among
who had
in
which they held under the arm) perforated at the upper end and ornamented
Hei
with jade.
tikis
crudely
carved small
human
figures
were made of
the right,
left.
These were worn as amulets and frequently
handed down from one generation to another, as the material is almost in-
destructible.
Commercial Value.
necklaces
sell
'52
Jade of medium
as low as $50,
An emerald
green
j'cits ui
commands
necklace, 30
in.
correspondlong, of 125
in. in
-J-
in. in
diameter,
commanded
a price of
Exceptional
have been made into brooches at prices from $1,000 to $5,000. Ring
stones cut cabochon on top sell at from $100 to $2,000 each. The thumb
rings worn by the Chinese nobility frequently commanded over 1,000, and,
pieces
it is
An
bow with
thumb
Wu
worn on a
larger hand,
and had a
Ting Fang;
ity to
jade
when
this ring
Jade.
to consider: those
in colour,
is
the
had been
fit it
Under
this
which through a
may
originally
to the finger of
heading we
close similar-
order to enhance this similarity; and those that are purely and entirely artificial
imitations.
The
i.e.,
complex
The determination
group.
men
is
silicates,
fall
but
into this
and a
very few
is
It
is
ation difficult.
saussurite
it
Next
in point of
resemblance
is
is
Like
it is
readily identi-
The Alaskan
differenti-
fibrolite, or sillimanite.
fied chemically,
much
softer.
can be detected by
varieties
makes the
its
softness as
153
CHINESE ART
gravity than jade, and most of them are lower in hardness.
among
Chief
Jadeite
and
is
and
eclogite.
it,
in the
same family of
particularly omphacite
Diopsite
has the hardness of nephrite and the gravity of jadeite, but can be distin-
Nephrite
is
in this
it,
but differing
in the
and
beryl,
though
it
is
it
may
possible for an
One
is
its
to be
mistaken
known
a variety of serpentine
nephrite.
still
is
lower than
It
it
in imitation.
especially in
as bowenite.
was lacking,
for jade,
in its composition.
the East,
opaque emerald
be readily differentiated by
is
Although the
Wil-
A material
and hardness.
Numerous forms
It
is
is
really
All these
matolite.
its
diffi-
its
colour
is
good, but
it
lacks lustre,
and
is
more
by
minerals most
The
it
may
in
be distinguished
able iron in
its
composition.
'54
lias
more vitreous
it
is
more
named
brittle,
by
californite
Agalmatolite
It
by
readily
is
its
structure that
in China,
by
lower gravity.
makes
It
its
is
under misrepresentation
less
but
it
fracture.
the author.
its
It
colour
is
such that
stained in
is
many
it is
other
colours.
(a
but identification
simple in
is
all
cases
may
be mistaken
for jade,
composition.
all
number
This
is
of
due
if
identification,
and partly
for,
is
the so-called
truly pink,
of
may
This
is
made from
a heavy
lead glass, carefully tinted and most ingeniously polished to give the characteristic jade-like lustre
this to the desired
in imitation of the
found
shop.
by
One form
of this
in bracelets, ear-rings
Another type
another,
first
is all
known under
green or bluish-grey
the
tint.
and other
name
made
may be
is
of pate de
riz, is
Burmese
jadeite,
and
has also been used on varieties of green quartz to simulate the lustre of jade.
Descriptive Literature.
teresting
Of
all
is
CHINESE ART
nearly 700 figures.
It
was published
One
ft.
in height
The
and breadth.
lists
dynasty.
and
in 1176,
its left
and an alms-bowl on
in clouds.
descriptive
work on jade
This
is
its right,
is
the catalogue
Museum
of Art.
the most remarkable collection of jade in existence, and the two great
fully
match
Mr. Bishop's
relatives.
to a
The author
of this article
devoted 12 years of his leisure to the mineralogical studies and the guidance
many
experts
whom
in
work.
the other hard stones that have been cut, engraved and polished
along lines similar to jade are the various forms of quartz (rock crystal,
agate, carnelian, chalcedony
and
lapis lazuli.
All of
these materials lend themselves well to this type of treatment, and in fact,
as has already been mentioned,
many
of them have in
some form
or other
Of
the hard stones, probably rock crystal and agate have been most
all
The outstanding
made from Burmese
example of the
crystal,
and finished
Jasper
try.
It
geneity.
latter
{q.v.)
form
in
found
is
a ball 30
in. in
diameter,
Japan.
in
Russia
is
Of
work
in existence.
Aventurine, a quartz
member
(q.v.) is
belongs;
is
same family
it is
Rhodonite
in height.
ft.
is
to
which jadeite
sometimes a light
brown.
its
suggests
types of
was con-
II.
6,
and a
lustre,
One
and
some kind
is
is
polish.
It
It
is
hardness between
and
is
It
good
fairly
in
It has a
silicate.
but takes a
of
manganese deposits
in
in
it,
enough
this material
it.
known and
ap-
preciated throughout the ages, one a royal blue and the other a royal green
lapis lazuli
pieces can be
and malachite.
I to \ in. in thickness,
Lapis lazuli
(q.v.) is
ctoes
from
to a suit-
used for 6,000 years, and the supply has been continuous.
During
this en-
tire
period the chief sources of supply have been Persia and Afghanistan.
It
is
to 5 lbs.
One mass
to
Oxus River
district of Afghanistan.
monopoly
for
Obsidian
in
Valley of Mexico.
or volcanic glass,
Some
was found
lbs.
One
of 160 lbs.
German
firm of a
lapis lazuli.
is
found
One
Museum
in
is
Washington
a knife
*S7
CHINESE ART
Another
19 in. in length.
Ornaments
face.
fine
example
and
is
thick were
in.
made
American Museum
Emeralds
may
Mirrors
be seen in the
(q.v.)
in great quantities
by the Spanish
at sea.
The more
human
lost
in Paris.
rest
were shipped to India, Persia and Turkey, where the natives engraved them
Indian emeralds.
It
them
for rubies
Louis XIV.
ones
were
is
Some
said also to
in
Europe.
very large
of these
are
now
in
Museum
the Indian
at
London.
engraved emerald
ear.
are, as
still
is
is
worn
in
the placing of
many
it is
in the other
is
responsible for
Among
made
his
some of the
jewels of the Ourejene, Kremlin, and the treasury of the bishops are
fine
is
who
Several
There
many
emeralds, one of which the writer saw which was more than an inch
S8
i.
m,
IRON IN ART
I ron began
about 500
B.C.
By
weapons had been almost completely supplanted, while iron had been genkinds, tools, chariot-fittings
commonly
in style
The
Age
2nd
These were
were typical
B.C.,
common
bronze in
Iron
in
Japan
Han
period.
is
and
in the
2nd century
though the chief early remains are weapons from the dolmens of the
The Japanese
and acquired a
social position
attained by the bronze caster, or by the iron workers in China where the
From
stronger.
China as a material
dynasty.
much
The few
work done on a
larger scale
is
and
usually
in coarser
more
nth
naturalistic.
30 or more metres
in height,
common
These
more
159
CHINESE ART
and a large number of the
in use,
and
found
bells
men
medium
of wrought
When
in lan-
When
in the latter
The
to a painting.
Embellishment of Armour.
skill
It
little artistic
is
is
medium, worked
in
invention.
original
but with
silk
craft flourished in
China
seal of the
form a paper or
sword.
W ith
7
artistic
establishment of the samurai class after the wars of the 12th century, the
At
first
but from the 15th century the sword became the centre of attention.
blade
is
we
remarkably
soft
was employed.
was worked by
innumerable surface
effects
casting,
hammering and
were obtained by
The
mountings, especially
in the
chiselling;
and
is
but the
skill
160
may
still
be noted
in
numerous
g^^ikasjaiaMftiRiiUftaiB^^
IVORY CARVING
I vory
carvers,
though
their
names are
rarely
known.
medium
their
to us,
work than the carvers of Japan. An abundant supply and close intimacy
with this material have doubtless helped to foster this appreciation among
Chinese carvers, whereas the paucity of the supply and something in the
Japanese character which was happier when carving wood, together with
differences in certain phases of their culture,
The former
in
is
authenti-
dence.
lead to
its
number
of other references showing that ivory was taken as tax and brought as
came next to
jade and was used as a mark of luxury for various purposes. Even articles
such as pins for scratching the head, and the tips of bows, were made of eletribute to
phant ivory
State,
Mong
in early
Chinese antiquity.
in early times.
3rd century
parts of
B.C.
Minister of
B.C.)
It
chopsticks were
made
of
it
as early as the
and
it
chariots.
was used
Later
it
became fashionable
161
as a
CHINESE ART
decoration on the palanquins of important
hu of ivory,
tablets or
Narrow memorandum
officials,
later a
dress,
officials.
were
floral designs,
dating back to
In time the
had
quantities of tusks
to be
Burma and
India, which
were described as long and large, and from Annan, which were small and
was pronounced
As
to be of excellent quality.
from a
slain elephant
came
From
the elephant's death were least esteemed because the ivory was dull and
made
The
in
articles
In 1263 a
official
in charge,
some
chairs,
various implements, and ornaments for girdles inlaid with ivory and horn
pan
one for ivory carving, within the palace at Peking, and prac-
craftsmen from
tical
duce
fine
large
numbers of
work.
of the age.
all
They were
excellent
in existence for
may
many which
reasonably be credited to
it
exist in
museums and
by reason of
artistic fervour
carving atelier
private collections
their superior
may
skill
workmanship
and harmonious
beauty.
(Jrcat ingenuity
is
may
be
made
workmanship of such
overlaid with carved flowers and birds, held by firmer pieces, likewise of
162
"5
II
^g
1
1
2 d
IVORY CARVING
carved ivory, having exquisitely carved and incised designs, which form the
rim and the handle.
made
known
as "devil's
produced there.
work
toil
Canton
in
by tiny
screens, peopled
which are
balls,"
and surrounded by
technical
rather
as early as
still
being
centric balls, carved one within the other, each having the
achievement
in their technical
most
delicate
and
intricate
roofs
trees
and
walls, all of
for
is
minutely and elaborately carved works, though for more than a century
among carved
Excellent
religious
and
her graceful form and flowing robes, and of the Arhats, with their beatific
expressions.
Fine
artistic
work
is
found
also to be
in
holders (pi tung), which are often covered with a landscape in relief enlivened
by
figures;
and
in snuff bottles
now
mon
known
technique
it
are to be seen
in
among
among
Works
of no com-
Other
articles for
and
birds,
for
wood
opium smoking,
toilet articles
The
such as
Chinese, in the
course of their history, have utilized the ivory of the elephant, the
first.
last three
Amoy
mam-
or
implements
and
is still
an important
^W.^WWWW.W.V&W.^.^^^
LACQUER
JL/acquer
is
which substance
among Western
nically,
is
The term
is
Tech-
nations, lacquering
is
polished metals or metallic surfaces, such as brass, pewter and tin, with pre-
will give
lustre as
desired.
tised, articles of
prac-
The
is
wood
is
known
also
as Japanning.
lacquer of the Far East, China, Japan and Korea must not be con-
Burma, which
is
the
gummy
gums
is
TECHNIQUE
Lacqi'er, properly so-called and as used
in
is
a natural
product, the sap of a tree, Rhus Vernicijcra; subject to the removal of impurities
frequently adulterated.
it
can be used
The
tree,
in its
which
Japan at
is
it
was
century a.d.,
made
in
is
the bark
and the running sap collected during the months of June to September.
164
LACQUER
Branches of a diameter of one inch or more are also tapped, the bark having
first
been removed.
off,
These processes
wood, when of
sufficient size,
some use
of
is
From
for carpentry.
kill
the roots
lacquer after about six years, and the operation can be thus continued for
a considerable length of time before the growth
is
exhausted.
The Chinese
in this respect,
seem
Japan.
The
when
sap,
On
then black.
It is strained
to
extracted,
is
China
in
as in
exposure to the
air it turns
yellow-brown and
pounded and
uniform liquidity.
It is
stirred in shallow
wooden
tubs, to give
fire
it
or in hot sun-
shine and stirred again to evaporate excess moisture, and stored in air-tight
vessels.
The
been stated as Ci 4
18
2.
name
is
termed by chemists
Japanese lacquer
is
said
by
its
formula has
Prof. K.
Mijama
to
Lacquer
is
some
series of
implements used
in the preparation
of lacquer with an illustration of the system employed in the actual gathering of the sap
is
exhibited in
Museum No.
Kew, England.
Lacquer-ware.
is
it
alloys.
The wood
was
in
Japan and
The
exposure to
air,
China,
in
processes that
itself,
brittle hardness,
and
which, on
is
capable
CHINESE ART
Moreover,
maximum
its
it
The Japanese,
damp box or chamber
The
"cave"
to use a
(in
in
till
is
rice
obtained.
It
possibly as
may
and
may,
all
It
many
as 20 or
On
be taken as typical.
is
laid
whetstone.
On
2 hours.
which
clay,
this
is
is
finer composition, in
fixed a coat of
hempen
least to dry.
The
laid
occupying
now
in the
cloth
is
is
in
smoothed with a
which
fine surface.
much
On
this
this
preliminary work,
large
was
first
generally
lead or colour.
through a
tion.
still
at his command, especially in Japan, but the demade on paper with their lacquer and transferred
wet, or drawn on
In carrying
quill or
bamboo
it
out he
it
made
166
In one
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
'
>
<0 Hit!
16TH. 17TH
InUld with
r,
17th century
in
hell,
flat
LACQUER
typical instance the writer has counted approximately 500 squares of thin
gold
foil
Re-
make
it
work
easily.
etc.,
Japan.
The carved
lacquer of China
in that
(tias ctii)
country
(as the
the perfection of the Japanese gold lacquer- ware), needs particular notice.
this,
In
up in the method above described, but to a conwhen several colours were used, in successive layers
of each colour, arranged in the order in which they were to predominate and
When
of uniform thickness.
ous,
it
by the
The
design.
The
no
correction of faults
was
and allowed
so well
for
known and
justly appreciated,
to
phuret of mercury).
had
The
(red sul-
and aubergine.
Fundame,
the lacquer.
powder worked
face.
silver placed
on the surface.
them.
low
relief.
relief.
Hiramakiye, decoration
in
Kiri-
kane, square dice of sheet gold or silver, inserted separately on the surface.
Raden, inlaid
record, shell
shell
and metal.
was used
in the
From
adornment of lacquer
in
we have
China as well as
in
CHINESE ART
like kirikane
For
and dust.
this
purpose various
shells
blue and green, was employed in combination with gold and silver and
delicately engraved, as early as the
in
Ming
Chinese lacquer was also inlaid with hard stones such as jade,
Japan.
and other
decorative substances.
HISTORY OF LACQUER
The
late
for
and subsequently
carriages, harness,
etc.,
lt:
official
took place and pot-covers of paper, covered with lacquer, were found in
1910 by
Ryuzo
Of
period.
still
we have more
reliable infor-
many
in the
objects to which
Shomu
Imperial
must be given
and
silver, inserted
till
to view.
is
168
made
for the
particularly recorded.
branches of lacquer
in the utensils
LACQUER
back at least as the Sung dynasty and that the chief seat of manufacture at
the
of the early
Sung
lacquer box
and
silver wire,
(c.
a.d. 1220)
it is
and
London and is
far discovered. Towards
in
places.
Chinese writers record the existence of carved red lacquer during the time
of the
inlaid with
Hsui shih
/u y of
in the
Kokka
(No. 113), dates from a.d. 1621-28 and from these a good account of the
progress of the art can be realized.
From
these records
we
were, in the early years of the dynasty, special factories of carved red
lacquer at Ta-li
Fu
in
for
Inlay of mother-of-pearl
lacquer
made during
(a.d. 1426-35)
is
is
also mentioned.
the reigns of
also recorded;
silver,
Yung Lo
and
Fu
in
Kiangnan.
The
(a.d.
gold.
Examples of
carved lacquer are extant which can reasonably be attributed to this period.
They
are bold in design and free from the superabundance of small detail
which characterized
and
Museum,
The
is
generally deeper
Towards the
The
first
accompanying the
fall
of the
Manchu
fell
into
Ming emperor.
(a.d. 1 662-1 723), revived it in a.d. 1680, when he established, in the precincts
of the palace at Peking, a series of 27 workshops for artistic handicrafts.
169
CHINESE ART
Carved lacquer was, however,
also
made
at
father, Louis le
in
China
in
1687, gives a good account of the flourishing state of the industry at that
In this connection
time.
is
it is
first
William and
etc.,
so extended a vogue,
is
made
curiosity of the
in counterfeit of
Chinese art
eagle,
is
Carved
lacquer of this period hardly attains to the rich colour of that of the
period, nor to the breadth
to
have developed
is
Ming
in the
ployed
it
products.
is
found
devoted admirer of
The
branch of industrial
his auspices
is
art,
made under
Lung
who em-
lacquer-ware of Ch'ien
in the
this
ship of objects
Ming
though
latter
The workman-
and ranks
with the finest products of a nation whose mere craftsmanship has been
most unrivalled.
hardly
China
call
The downward
a falling-off,
left
command
its
admiration, redeems
artistic
made
it
will
due
quer was
al-
in
1869,
What was
to
lac-
have
importance.
Lacquer
artists
in
China, curiously
LACQUER
enough, never developed the use of gold lacquer to anything
fine quality.
Canton and
at
other ports in touch with foreign trade and largely exported by European
On
the other
hand, the Chinese used to advantage a wider range of colour than was gen-
employed
erally
in
Japan; and
brilliant
purple and other tints are found on objects dating from the later years of
the
Ming
effectively,
period onwards.
lain.
The most
niture
is
first
form of
effective
this typically
Far Eastern
in
article of fur-
cut out in intaglio and then completed with varied colour or gold.
screens,
width and
8 ft. in height,
as
size
much
were largely
is
Such
as 20
ft.
in
imported into
western Europe at the end of the 17th and early years of the 18th century,
either
name
which form
up
to
make
Java
the
latter
These imported
in
day.
Lac Burgantee.
is
shell,
The
effects of colour
This work
is
gen-
on a small
scale,
and has hardly yet received the attention that its qualities merit.
Chinese ornament as applied to lacquer-ware
Subjects of Decoration.
171
CHINESE ART
(as to other of the industrial arts)
is
and
The more usual of the former are the "Eight Buddhist Emblems of Happy Augury," the "Eight Musical Instruments," and
the "Eight Precious Things" (Taoist). The "Hundred Antiques" appear
Confucian personages.
Among
figure subjects
may
much
Among
and
formal gardens.
press.
The
fish are
if
with
five claws,
frequently seen,
happiness, etc.
The peach,
all
pine,
bamboo, peony,
life,
lotus,
good fortune,
chrysanthemum
and prunus are the chief motives selected from the vegetable kingdom.
abstract pattern the
The forms
172
Of
chief.
mJUMIUKUUIMIMIMIMI^^
WORK
.he bronze products of China have been from the earliest times of so
arts.
So early
as
may
truly
records the Chinese appear to have been enthusiastic amateurs and col-
and up
lectors of bronzes,
to the present
day
it is
this
among Chinese
antiquarians
when the question of the dating of old bronzes is concerned. Many volumes have been written in Chinese and European languages, but the authoritative work has not as yet appeared. There are so many factors besides artistic merit
facts
have been collected and various theories advanced without arriving at any
definite knowledge.
The
may
have
in
many
first
(2) those
excavated.
which
Those
Bronzes, as
scientific
excavation
is
Even though
and
it is difficult
may
are that he
is
is
CHINESE ART
So
Remarkably
approximation of certainty.
history of
some of the
hundred years,
the
later
(a.d.
in
in
Both of
Nieh Tsung-yi.
it
was written
Ch'ing
Ku
Chien.
to us together with
6th century by
They
include: a
Yu
Li,
and
have
relied too
in the
for several
down
in the
much on imagina-
early catalogue
its title is
12th century by
often reprinted.
known
volumes.
is
many
Tu
these, however,
Sung dynasty
of
fine
may
we know
far,
is
Pu;
one
it
has been
42 volumes,
in
printed in 1751.
in
Ho Po Ku
Hsiian
Wang
catalogues
is
It illustrates
is
called Hsi
to
255 B.C.) and from one of these we get our first information about their
manufacture. Indeed, so great is the respect for ancient bronzes in China
The
permanent
nature of the metal alloy, and the fact that the earliest important bronzes
are
all
A
earlier
Chinese collector
will
full
bronzes were
many Chinese
made
in
the
dynast\
Thus we
'74
BY COURTESY OF (1, Z, 4)
(6)
THE GEORGE
EU
(5)
BARON SUMITOMO, (8) THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK; FROM
COLLECTION ARCHIVES PH OTOG R APH IQ U ES
(7,
9)
Ceremonial
B.C.
jar
From
(Hu)
of
4.
206
Ceremonial tripod
Chicago
From
5.
the
From
the Art
jar
(Yu),
Chou dynasty
From
the David
7.
Double
8.
9.
lock,
or
later.
Wey
Collection,
Paris
Collection,
Institute
wine
Collection
Sumitomo
6. Ceremonial
of
From
Chou dynasty.
the David
Wey
From
the
Collection
made,
to
it
may
is
who
will
venture to
Shang dynasty.
definitely of the
Within
at present
B.C.).
b.c.-a.d. 220)
we
are on a
tions of Kozlov, in
somewhat
That
From Han
is,
however,
times (206
Han
Han
civi-
much
later dating.
Dated
bronzes of the Six dynasties (a.d. 265-589) and the T'ang dynasty (618
907) exist, but during the
Sung dynasty
(a.d.
re-
producing old bronzes arose, and the manufacture was carried on side by
side with
modern
copies of the
period.
It
is
able in the type and use of decorative motives rather than in the appearance
We know
compare them with Ming porcelains, which were often based upon bronze forms; some of them were undoubtedly copied from early bronzes, but anachronisms are bound to creep
in.
Except for deliberate forgeries, of which quantities exist, there is little
danger of confusing a modern bronze with an ancient one, for little of the
This is due
exquisite technique of the early bronze founders has survived.
rather to cheapness of production and careless slipshod methods, than to
any loss of knowledge of the processes.
Bronze Composition and Manufacture. Bronze was used at a very early
date for both ceremonial and utilitarian purposes and doubtless the ceremonial use was the later development. It must first have been cast in single
stone moulds, then in piece moulds, and finally by the lost wax process, to
which complicated method we owe the earliest bronzes now known to us.
The simple piece moulds were used for coins, spear-heads, halberds, swords,
and such objects, where the forms were simple and flat. Large basins were
to
also cast
tell
by
this
believes that
many
it is
often possible to
pieces
had previously
175
CHINESE ART
been cast in the same mould. The ceremonial vessels varied greatly in form,
some being very complicated, with elaborately modelled handles and surface
decoration in several different planes. While the earliest of these are cast
by the
lost
wax
process,
find
it is
interesting to note
it is
old,
in several parts
and
welded together could hardly antedate the Christian Era, and would probably
be of
much
later date.
series of
M.
of the
Chikashige, a Japanese,
One
It
who analysed
chemically
Kung
proportions of copper and tin were definitely established for the making of
It
is
and
iron
Some
silver.
all
pure, so
under the patina, and there are dealers who have not hesitated to state that
this
was due
cal analyses
The
show no
Chemi-
gold.
to the
K'ao Kung
parts copper,
part tin for bells, gongs, kettles, ceremonial vessels and measures of capacity.
"
4
3
2
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
i parts "
"
"
"
mirrors.
plements.
3
1
P- lrr
"
176
part
through lighter reds and golden yellow to the nearly pure silver colour of
The
the mirrors.
posits
some
due
mercury.
to
This
mercury
burial.
said
is
de-
by
in the alloy,
It
is
more
probable, however, that the mercury was used deliberately to coat the sur-
manipulation,
of early ages
who
now
searches of
no
Uses.
The uses of the bronze ceremonial vessels are largely
Our information is gained from works based upon the rethe archaeologists of the Sung dynasty, who undoubtedly had
Forms and
conjectural.
material not available to us, but whose deductions and theories would hardly
be called
It
scientific.
is
idealizations of vessels in
common
cereals
use; that
some held
it,
sometimes to
be made
It
is
All
not
it
may
A man
whom
known whether
Chou dynasty.
Chou bronzes can be characterized as dignified and massive in proWhether they be large or small there is always an appearance of
The few
wine
portion.
in
his ancestors, to
to himself.
problematic
still
to
liquids such as
as
is
as yet
exceptions are in the profiles of some of the simpler tsun, and these
felt in
any works of
art that
So
the tsun was perfectly expressed in the quality of the profile, regardless of
bulk.
There
is
177
CHINESE ART
motives, but
it
among
period,
awkwardness of execution.
its
is
the ting.
is
It
was formerly
Buckingham
at present in the
is
patina
Romanesque
it is
fine
Tuan Fang
in the
example of an
collection.
The
for generations.
The
is
hsien
is
made
in
known
is
lid; it
its
It
may
is
always clumsy in
be another indication
In
elliptical in section,
some
lid.
The
The
tsun which, in
yu was
function of the
wine for
simplest form,
is
name.
Some
Theyi
is
variants are
at the top
is
four.
its
solemn occasions.
in
at the
bottom.
is
hung from
this loop,
lost.
origi-
all in
some handsome
it
.78
all
origin
is
it
The handles
bell
down
some
closely
to contain liquids.
has a
room
known with
Although the
fits
It
so arranged that
sufficient
less
for
is
early origin.
The yu
nally
an archaic version of
really
Chinese kitchens.
in
hung
there.
Bells
it
seems hardly
WARREN
E.
COX COLLECTION
The casting
of this piece
is
paper-thin
The
held a heavy yi
hanging beneath.
bell
still
not that
it
who
it
ogy.
all
v/',
ventionalized into containers for sacrificial wine, and generally of a deliberately ugly or
as
members
A
is
The animals
menacing aspect.
of any
known
species,
It has
was used
as a container for
amples are
Buckingham
in the
flat tiger
wine or water.
same
dynasty.
It
cylindrical foot.
Three of the
One
collection.
"Number
Han
and a
Another of
size
dragon-headed interlacing
scroll patterns.
Both these
bronze with a heavy gold plating, but the decorated jar has the pattern
lieved in silver colour evidently obtained
mercury.
chiselled,
ably copper.
is
little
inlaid with a
A pattern
re-
doubt that
metal now
an imperial piece.
The
prob-
it is
The form
of the jar
is
to a high degree of
it is
saved
early periods
ticularly
special mention.
Fine bronze
inscriptions,
and an inscribed
bell
collectors, par-
all
more
may
bells of the
The forms
be generally considered
179
CHINESE ART
as representing one class, although there
Most
is
times called nipples, arranged in regular pattern on the surface, and these
have given
to
rise
is
musical pitches.
and pianos.
It
is
bells
like
pointed
ellipses,
and
this
The bells
are
all flat in
section,
plates.
in
in
earlier
Han
The
dynasty.
reflecting surface
is
Ritualistic mirrors
the bands.
decorated with
is
sometimes had
With one
in raised
boss in the exact centre, pierced from side to side, allowed the
passage of a cord which was twisted into a tassel and used as a handle for
Some
the mirror.
The
backs are covered in high relief with intertwining patterns of vines, leaves,
birds
work done
in
taste as well as
Cara-
vans were passing continually between China and the West, and, from the
Han
time of the
development of
Much
less
all
has been said about the style of the Ch'in dynasty, a period of
confusion.
came
There
is little
Ch'in style.
180
The
it
is
doubtful
if
among
the people
during the
its
uses multiply.
There are
and
Han
in fantastic groupings.
to T'ang.
it
from the inscriptions engraved on the bases at the time of such dedications
that
and
From
in place
to simplify bronze
tions in relief.
in archaeological
all
have much
to
recommend them
as
works of
art.
They
lavish decoration
Inscriptions.
In the
upon
great stress
inscriptions.
There
is still
some doubt
as to the
meaning
of certain of the ancient characters, but most of the inscriptions can be read.
They vary
in length
accounts of historical events and the names of personages, but without dates,
sufficient detail to
my
father Ting,"
single marks,
more
birds or men.
or less pictographic,
The meaning
of others
As bronzes with
it
their
type of inscription.
artistically,
is
not at
all clear.
Many
times meaningless.
many
it is
some-
cast in the
181
CHINESE ART
inscription
eye alone,
some very
bronzes of the
fine
scriptions in
hundred years
them
to
several
later.
Decoration.
The
religion of the
relief,
relief,
These
ground.
in thickness
original model,
is
in
in the bronze.
known
relief often
as the
much
its
is
single lines in
They
are ex-
call
vessels.
is
the favourite.
Often
it is
is
jaw
is
Chou dynasty
In late
the
represented only by
Sometimes the
never shown, so
nevertheless there
effect
line
and are
The Chinese
pears, even in
mould,
These
fret design
vessels.
a pair of eyes
to the
Later bronzes
Of
and unvarying
shallower.
Very delicate
"thunder" pattern.
them "bowstrings."
the
filling
by means of stamps
or
Al-
all
tion,
ani-
mistic,
most
in-
it
ap-
It is abstract,
but
it
Chou
many and
t'ieh represents,
[82
ingenious theories
is
it
is still
Ting
HSIEN
TSUN
FROM ALBERT
J.
KOOP's "EARLY CHINESI BROKIEs"; (LEFT TO RICHT, TOP ROW) PLATES XX,
ROW) PLATES XI, Lin; (LOWER ROW) PLATES IV, X-A.
II;
(MIDDLE
183
CHINESE ART
Animal heads are often used
band of decoration, and as handle ends on the swinging bales of the yu.
Some
They
mouselike ears.
some
Some have
are not.
They
spreading
them seem
upon animals
it
We can
like forms,
see bird-like,
we
and animal-
which lends
itself
is
later in date or
even
archaistic.
As
will
It
is
One
sees
left in
In the
Han
lines of the
dynasty, and
from outside sources was pouring over China at that time, and
all
sorts of
animals and warlocks chase each other through mountains and clouds.
There was then a breaking away from the heavy and sombre traditions of
the
by Rostovtzeff
animals or
in his
spirits,
or copied
to light
Many
known
from
heard
The
foreign
animal
of these
Han dynasty
peachtree on which grew the peaches of longevity was popular, and the
changed
its
common
was
in pottery
re-
Dragons were not very common as bronze decorations before the Han
It has been proved that they were a comparatively late importa-
dynasty.
from the west, but from T'ang times onwards they are the commonest
tion
of
all
decorative motives.
times, such as
is
is
the
gone forever.
vessels
dignity on an enormous
and the palace grounds, but few of them were successful and most were
ex-
The
walls of early bronze vessels, except for the basin-like ones, are
generally thick, and the walls of later bronzes are always comparatively thin.
The
The
Ming and Ching bronze jars are frequently monstrosities, violatdesign canons. The decoration on early bronzes seems always pro-
function and the needs of the design that they appear inevitable.
handles on
ing
all
in
mind, but
in the later
bronzes
it is
simply
Patina.
Inasmuch
may be
useful here.
no
artistic
True patination
is
is
buried, hastened
more or
less
in the soil in
which
present.
185
CHINESE ART
Some
to
effect,
cans prefer a green patina, and the Chinese consider that a velvety black
Good
the best.
larly if they
so
lutely
for generations,
it is
cavated
its
less thick,
surface
is
its
thick and
is
absoex-
is
more or
underneath which
If the patina
is
is
colour good
may
it
it.
down
be carefully ground
and polished away until the resultant bronze is actually the handiwork of a
more recent craftsman who has carved out of the heavy patinated surface
The
favourite Chinese
oils
method
is
to polish
famous bronzes
are
charm of
their
Many European
face.
all
dirt
is
wax and
collectors
colour.
as they
not followed
in
wash
simplest
off in water,
colours, so these
which
work
is
there are
is
way
to
many ways
this
artificial
is
done
in
a variety
will
easily detected.
Sodium
silicate,
Waxes
of finding out
There
patinas to
Watercolour paints
them.
fortunately, no
patina
to paint
is
is
is
method
an
polish
The
is
America.
many
when they
is
is,
un-
genuine, but
true
with paint and varnish solvents will easily remove the more recent traces
of antiquity.
I nlicate,
that
it
The
come
off so easily,
is
exposed, the
is
generally roughened so
artificial
roughening can be
The
and cannot
most cases be
far the entire
easily
bronze
removed.
shell is
Where
sometimes changed
in
examined
it
in composition,
will
and
if
genu-
penetrates deep below the surface, sometimes leaving only a slight core of
the original bronze which, too, has changed in composition,
brittle.
have been
little affected.
On
the other
if
not in colour,
hand under
different con-
Some very
careful forgeries
applying fragments of true malachite to the surface of the bronze with lacquer.
Some
may
be
187
!mmi$/m>Aii
w ^<
^/w^^^^^^^^^m^w^^^^^^^^'j/wwwwM>
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
E. Dillon, Porcelain (1904); R. L. Binyon, Painting in the Far East (1908. 3rd
1923); E. F. Fenollosa, Epochs of Chinese and Japanese Art (191 2); M. Anesaki,
2nd
Field
S.
For China,
see E. J. Eitel,
W.
new
(1870.
ed., 1921);
Study of Chinese Sculpture (1924); B. Laufer, Chinese Grave-Sculptures of the Han Period
(Leipzig 191 1); O. Siren, Chinese Sculpture from the Jth to the 14th Century (1925); A. J.
the
Koop, Early Chinese Bronzes (1924, see also Bushell, Loc. Cit.); T. J. Arne, Painted Stone
Age Pottery from the Province of Honan, China, Geol. Survey of China (Peking 1925);
W. G. Gulland, Chinese Porcelain (1898); W. C. Monkhouse, A History and Description of
Chinese Porcelain (1901); S. W. Bushell, Description of Chinese Pottery and Porcelain (1910);
R. L. Hobson and A. L. Hetherington, The Art of the Chinese Potter from the Han Dynasty
to the End of the Ming (1923), and The Later Ceramic Wares of China (1925).
E. F. Strange,
Chinese Lacquer (1926); The Burlington Magazine Monographs (1925); Ars Asiatica (ed. v.
Golonbew, 1914); Artibus Asiae (Dresden, 1925); The Chinese Journal (Shanghai, 1923).
See also Chinese Architecture; Chinese Painting; Chinese Sculpture; Bronzb and
Brass Ornamental Work: Chinese. See further Japanese Painting and Prints;
Korea: Aesthetic Development; Potteries and Porcelains; Near and Far East.
ARCHITECTURE
The only original Chinese work on architecture is the Ying Tsao Fa Shi (1103;
2nd ed., 1145; reissued by the Shanghai Commercial Press). Good accounts of the
work were given by P. Demieville in Bulletin de VEcole Francaise d''Extreme-Orient,
tome xxv. (1925), and Percival W. Yetts in the Burlington Magazine (March, 1927), the
latter containing a discussion of earlier European books dealing with Chinese architecture.
189
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
Of
on
their
own
by various Japanese
authorities
early buildings since these are closely connected with those of China.
J.
See
Peking, in the Bulletin of the School of Engineering of the Tokyo Imper. University (1905),
a kind of text for the portfolio publications; Photographs of Palace Buildings of Peking and
Decoration of the Palace Buildings of Peking (1906). See also Boerschmann, Baukunst und
religiose Kultur der Chinesen (1911-14) and Chinesche Architektur (1925); Osvald Siren, The
Walls and Gates of Peking (1924), and The Imperial Palaces of Peking (Paris, 1926); Tokiwa
and Sekino, Buddhist Monuments in China (Tokyo, 1926-27), of which only one part has
PAINTING
S.
Omura, Chinese
H. A.
of Chinese Pictorial Art; A. Waley, Introduction to the Study of Chinese Painting and Index of
Chinese Artists; L. Binyon, Painting in the Far East; R. Petrucci, Encyclopedic de la Peinture
WOOD-CARVING
Temples and their Treasures, Dept. of Interior, Japan; F. T. Piggott, The Decorative
S. W. Bushell, Chinese Art (1904-1909).
SCULPTURE
albums of
albums of
plates, 1 vol. text in Japanese (191 5); T. Sekino, Sepulchral Remains of the Han Dynasty
in Shantung, 1 album of plates, text separate in Japanese (1920); S. Taketaro and
Nakagawa, Rock Carvings from Yun Kang Caves, 1 album of plates without text (1921);
S. Tanaka, T'ien Lung Shan, 1 album of plates without text (1923); L. Ashton, Introduction
to the Study of Chinese Sculpture (1924); V. Segalen, "Premier expose des resultats archeologiques dans la Chine occidentale par la mission G. de Voisins, J. Lartigue, V. S6galen,"
Journal Asiatique, tome v 3 vi2, vii 3 ; O. Siren, Chinese Sculpture from the 5th to the 14th
Century, 3 vol. plates, 1 vol. text (1925), and Studien zur Chinesischen Plastik der PostT'ang Zeit (1927); V. Segalen, G. de Voisins and J. Lartigue, Mission ArchSologique en
Chine, 2 albums of plates without text (1926); O. Siren, A History of Early Chinese Art
E. Chavannes, Mission
archSologique dans
Omura, History
la
Chine
septentrionale,
(1929).
and
Literature
S.
W.
(1904); W. Burton
Bushell, Chinese Art
(2 vols., 1906), Description of Chinese Pottery and Porcelain (1910), being a translation
of the T'ao shuo, Oriental Ceramic Art (1899); E. Hannover, Pottery and Porcelain, vol. II.,
190
Catalogue
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
of the Eumorfopoulos Collection (6 vols., 1925-28), Guide
to the
Pottery
and Porcelain
of the
translation of the greater part of the Ching te chen t'ao lu, with notes
and additions;
Zimmermann,
E.
Sinica (1925), Series D, vol. I., No. 2; C. Hentze, Les Figurines de la Ceramique Funeraire
(Hellerau, 1927); A. L. Hetherington, Early Ceramic Wares of China (abridged ed., 1924);
B. Laufer, Chinese Pottery of the Han Dynasty (Leyden, 1909), The Beginnings of Porcelain
in China (Chicago, 1917); O. Rucker Embden, Chinesische Fruhkeran ik (Leipzig, 1922).
Later Periods: R. L. Hobson, The Wares of the Ming Dynasty (1923), The Later Ceramic
of China (1925); A. E. Hippisley, Catalogue of the Hippisley Collection, Smithsonian
Wares
Institution,
Washington (1900).
ENAMEL
F. Brinkley, Japan and China, vol. vii. (1904); Brooklyn Museum of the Institute of
Arts and Sciences, The Avery Collection of Ancient Chinese Cloisonnes (1912); S. W. Bushell,
Chinese Art, vol. ii. (1919) ; R. L. Hobson, Chinese Cloisonne Enamels, in Burlington Magazine,
vol. xxi., pp. 137, 202, Ibid.
JADE
J.
Anderson, Report on
1871); S. Blondel,
appelee yu par
the
les
Chinois (Paris,
1875),
trans
by Dr. E. Foreman
W.
in the
Annual
Clarke and G. P.
Merrill, "On Nephrite and Jadeite," in Proceedings, U. S. National Museum, vol. xi. (1888);
G. M. Dawson, "On the Occurrence of Jade in British Columbia and its Employment by
the Natives," Canadian Record of Science, vol. ii. No. 6 (April, 1887); Sir J. Evans, The
Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons and Ornaments of Great Britain (London, 1 872; 2nd ed.,
1897); H. Fischer and A. A. Damour, "Notice sur la distribution des haches et autres
objets prehistoriques en jade, nephrite et en jadeite," Revue Archeologique (Paris, 1878);
B. J. Harrington, "Notes on Specimens of Nephrite from British Columbia," Transactions
of the Royal Society of Canada, Sect. iii. (1890); J. Hilton, "Remarks on Jade," reprinted
from the Archaeological Journal, vol. xlv., p. 187 (Exeter, 1888); C. W. King, Antique Gems
and Rings (London, 1 872) G. F. Kunz, Gems and Precious Stones of North America (New
York, 1890), The Precious Stones of Mexico (1907); A. B. Meyer, Jadeit und Nephrit Objecte,
Konig. Ethnographisches Museum zu Dresden (Leipzig, 1882); R. Pumpelly, "Geological
Researches in China, Mongolia and Japan during the years 1862 to 1865," Smithsonian
Contribution to Knowledge (Washington, 1866); F. W. Rudler, "On Jade and Kindred
Stones," Popular Science Review (London, Oct. 1879); E. G. Squier, "Observations on a
Collection of Chalchihuitls from Mexico and Central America," Annals of the Lyceum of
Natural History of New York (1869); H. M. Westropp, "On Jade Implements found in
;
Marco
x.
(1880);
ed., 1875).
191
BIBLIOGRAPHIES
IRON
B. Laufer, Chinese Clay Figures, Part
i,
Armor
(Chicago,
1914);
LACQUER
Lacquer:
Chinese
P.
le
Bonnani,
Traite
"Memoire
de
la
composition
sur le Vernis de
des
Chine"
in
Vernis
(1723,
the Memoires
of the Academie Royale des Sciences (Paris, 1760); S. W. Bushell, Chinese Art, vol. i.
(1904-06; new ed., 1921); O. Muensterberg, Chinesische Kunstgeschichte, 2 vol. (Esslingen
N., 1910-12); W. P. Yetts, Symbolism in Chinese Art, publ. by the China Soc. (1912);
A. A. Breuer, "Chinese Inlaid Lacquer" and "Chinese Incised Lacquer" in the Burlington
Magazine, vol. xxv. (1914); E. F. Strange, Catalogue of Chinese Lacquer in the Victoria and
a.
Albert
Museum
(1925),
Chinese and Japanese lacquer: F. Brinkley, Japan and China, 12 vol. (1901-02; 2nd
ed., 1903-04); Toyei Shuko, Illustrated Catalogue of the Ancient Imperial Treasury, called
Shosoin (1909); Omura Seigai, Record of the Imperial Treasury, Shosoin (1910); A. A.
Breuer, "Influence of China on Lacquer in Japan," Japan Soc. Transactions, vol. xii.
(1913-14).
See also Kokka, a monthly journal on Fine Arts, Archaeology, etc. (Tokyo,
1890, etc.).
Burlington Magazine (Sept. 191 1); A. J. Koop, Early Chinese Bronzes (1924); Hamada
Kosaku, Explanatory Notes on Sen-oku sei-sho (The Collection of Old Bronzes of Baron
Sumitomo) Part L, "Bronze Vases," etc. (1921); R. Petrucci, "L'Epigraphie des Bronzes
rituels
de la Chine ancienne"
in
M.
M.
Rostovtzeff, Iranians
Han
and
Dynasty in the
Collection of C. T. Loo (Brussels, 1927); E. A. Voretzsch, Altchinesischc Bronzen (Berlin,
1924); W. P. Yetts, "Bronzes," Burlington Magazine Monograph (1925); Otto Kummel,
Chinesische Bronzen aus der Abteilung fur Ostasiatische Kunst an den Staatlichen Museen,
Berlin (1928).
192