Susan Hill Gross Marjorie Wall Bingham Teacher’s Guide and Unit Test ( lenhurst Publications, Inc.WOMEN IN WORLD AREA STUDIES ESEA Title IVC WWAS St. Louis Park and Robbinsdale Schools Project Co Directors: Marjorie Wall Bingham and Susan Hill Gross WOMEN IN MEDIEVAL/RENAISSANCE EUROPE VOL. II © 1983 by Glenhurst Publications Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or stored by any means without prior permission from the copyright owner. Printed in the United States. se ( lenhurst Publications, Inc. Central Community Center 6300 Walker St. St. Louis Park, MN 55416 (612) 925-3632 Publishers of Women’s History CurriculumTEACHER'S GUIDE WOMEN IN MEDIEVAL/RENAISSANCE EUROPE Women in Medieval/Renaissance Europe deals with a variety of topics con- cerning women in a historical context. The book is organized around the six cultural universals instead of strictly chronologically. Recent historians such as Ruth Kelso have questioned whether there really was a Renaissance for women. In other words, there seem to have been few advances in the status of opportunities for women during the Renaissance period, if you contrast it with medieval times. Women lost ground in some areas, particularily when witch- craft trials reached their height in the early Renaissance. Therefore, to use the male-oriented periodization of medieval times vs. the Renaissance seems generally inappropriate for women’s history. We have purposely titled the book Women in Medieval/Renaissance Europe to imply a continuation rather than a break in historical periods. To achieve some continuity, we have organized the book with a topical approach using the cultural universals. The Cultural Universals Model The activities of all human societies can be divided into six cultural univer- sals. The cultures of all human societies include these areas of activities: Cultural Universals Each chapter of this book deals with a series of topics concerning women that roughly fit a particular cultural universal but may span the time period of roughly 1,200 years from the 5th to the mid-17th century. This long time period saw many critical changes in European societies. For women’s history it was a time of great fluctuation in status and roles. This great diversity means that a statement of valid generalizations about women’s lives—even at a particular time period—is very difficult. Factors determining women's status might include historical time, place, class, individual abilities, type of family background (of special importance if a woman had an educated father and no brothers), occupation (e.g., nun, skilled worker, midwife or pea- sant farmer) and simple luck. A major objective of this book is to dispel the idea that women’s status has been low and fixed until recently and that with a few exceptions women have been powerless in public affairs. A misconception that little of their history remains or is worth telling needs dispelling 1Women in Medieval/Renaissance Europe is not a complete unit on the ‘ history and culture of medieval/Renaissance Europe . Student familiarity with several concepts or terms is assumed. The following are a few of these con- cepts which teachers might deal with as part of their regular curriculum: The Fall of Rome and the absorption of Roman, Germanic and Christian values into a new values system in early medieval times. The Roman Catholic Church as a unifying force in Europe and the single Christian faith of any universality until the Reformation. Teachers might review the Church hierarchy, terms like nun, abbess, priest, monk, monastery and convent (see glossary). Courtly Love and the Cult of the Virgin Mary of These concepts deeply affected women but were also critical to the development of medieval society in general. Feudalism The class and economic systems of feudalism in medieval times should be familiar to students. The fact of inherited ranks, for example, was crucial to the status of women and gave selected women added power. Monarchies and the Rise of Nation States As feudalism changed and authority and power became more centralized, women’s political importance tended to decline. It is important for students to be familiar with these changes in power structures in the early Renaissance. The Guild System The medieval guild system allowed limited numbers of women to participate but eventually was used to close off women entirely from several professions and crafts. Students should have some knowledge of the guild system. Judaism, Christianity, Islam Students should be familiar with the three prevalent religions (which sometimes competed) in the Middle East and Europe during the early Middle Ages. The position of Jews within medieval society is an important one. A selection is devoted to women in Judaism during this time period. The Protestant Reformation Students should know something of the causes and results of the Reformation and the major leaders such as Calvin and Luther. * * * Introduction Objective: Students will focus on a quick overview of the period, with special regard to women’s concerns, through the use of the cultural universals model. Explanation and Suggested Methods Teachers may want to put the cultural universals on the board or overhead and review the model with students. A teacher lecture might be used. Suggested Answers to Points to Consider (p. 5) Question 1—The ideal Christian woman of medieval times was to be virtuous, submissive and pious (class discussion of this ideal might follow). Question 2—By Renaissance times, women should also be literate but the older values continued. Chapter 1: Political Women in Medieval/Renaissance Europe (p.7-34) A. The Early Middle Ages—Barbarian Women as Admirable Women Objectives: Students will learn that among some Barbarian groups, roles for women were more powerful and open than those for civilized Roman women. This sort of label might be questioned by students—as it has been by historians in recent years. Explanation and Suggested Methods Teachers may want to review the long period of the decline of Rome and in- troduce students to the ancient historian Tacitus. Concepts such as chronicles, point of view, and historical interpretation can be discussed with these ex- amples. This short piece might be assigned as homework, done in groups in class or given as a teacher or student lecture. Points to Consider (p. 13) Question 1—Tacitus feels that the gifts mean that both sexes will share as “partner in toil and danger. . . peace and war.” Students may have other answers and question what these gifts say about gender work roles—perhaps they were not as shared as Tacitus supposes? Tacitus approves because he sees an implied partnership. Question 2—Marriage ages are similar-—this contrasts to Roman custom where women married very early, often to older men. Tacitus seems to feel it is healthier—particularily for the offspring—to have the mother be older.Question 3—They rally the armies (a common military role for women), perhaps by going to the battlefield and urging the men on. Also, they gave ad- vice and could even foretell the future. Question 4—In the early chronicles, women were described in a variety of power positions—abbesses of double monasteries, rulers and warriors—all related casually as if there were nothing odd about them being in the early chronicles. Question 5—Later, powerful women are seen as unwomanly curiosities—this may indicate a shift in attitudes about women. Perhaps the new historians were Church oriented or misogynists? B. The Queen’s Power Behind the Throne and Power on the Throne. Objectives: Students will learn that there were a variety of roles for queens in European history. Queens ruled—in various ways—for as much as one third of the history of European monarchy. Explanation and Suggested Methods The teacher should go over the chapter introduction and define terms such as queens, consort, regina, regent and dowager. This selection is subdivided and each group assigned half the chapter. After reading, student groups could review the sections and report to the class. Teachers could assign part of the chapter, and lecture on a part or use the essay for an advanced stu- dent research report or a class report. Suggested Answers to Points to Consider (p. 27) Question 1—The four types of queens and their differing power were: Queen Consort—title of the wife of a king who ruled—her power depended on her influence with the king and her popularity. Queen Regina—ruled directly, some as absolute monarchs by divine right. Queen Regent—ruled for absent king or for minor son. She could have a great deal of power—occasionally absolute. Queen Dowager—indicated a woman who had been a consort but whose hus- band, the king, died. Might lose most power after his death, but some queen dowagers ruled dower lands. Question 2—Margaret of Denmark ended up being elected or chosen to the thrones of Denmark and Sweden because of her great ability. Question 3—The consort queen should help alliances with her natal country, have children—especially healthy boys. She should be able to act as ruler in case of need, help advertise and glorify the monarchy, help educate her children and give prestige to the royal house Question 4—She could feature her sons instead of the king, side with his enemies or bring her natal country against him. She could also support him with help from her home country if he were threatened. Question 5—Royal marriages were annulled particularly when there were no heirs—often on the grounds of being too closely related (consanguinity). Sometimes these couples simply separated and frequently kings had mistresses. Question 6—Royal pomp had serious purposes of making royalty seem im- portant, powerful and separate from ordinary people. Question 7—She needed to have children, no matter what other qualities she had. This was paramount, her major duty was to assure that the dynasty would continue. Question 8—Because a throne was based on land (possession and control), the Salic law might have been extended to disallow inheritance of a throne for women. Still, as was pointed out, probably the major reason for women not in- heriting was that it fit the prevailing view of women as inactive. Question 9—Contrasts: Elizabeth * wanted to prevent eruption of religious problems © defended the Anglican Church * single woman * flexible style—pragmatic Isabella * defender of Catholicism * wanted united Catholic faith * beloved wife/mother * single goal—single minded Comparisons: ¢ Both had the task of ruling large areas. * Both believed in classical educations. © Both had physical courage. * Both were interested in exploration. * Both achieved their major goals. Question 10—Various Margarets as queens—revived the Catholic Church in Scotland, were known for organizational ability and built large empires, led troops, gained allies, ruled various areas well, encouraged the arts, Church reform and scholarship. Question 11—Margaret of Navarre’s accomplishments broke through the bar- riers of time. She was a supporter of the arts, encouraged new ideas, influenc- ed kings and wrote books.Question 12—Great Britain has had many female role models for rulers Students answers may vary. Question 13—She lost power when the king died. She was usually shuffled off and would really only have power over dower lands or through her own per- sonal influence. C. Women as Military Leaders Objectives: Students will learn the extensive military roles of women in medieval/Renaissance times and the fact that physical courage and strategic ability is not confined to the male gender. Explanation and Suggested Methods A goal of this series is to dispel the idea that war and military concerns have been a masculine monopoly. Recent historians strongly question this view. Whether as recipients of blame or credit for military involvement, males have not had the entire burden of military concerns. This lesson would make a suitable assignment for the entire class as it seems of general interest, is fairly short with only three questions to follow. Suggested Answers to Points to Consider (p. 34) Question 1—Feudalism is based on an exchange of land for military services so men were frequently fighting. Women defended the castle/manor houses. The crusades required that men were gone for long periods and women fre- quently needed to protect family property from greedy monarchs and neighbors. Question 2—All kinds but much was defensive, they led troops, fought, acted as medics, quartermaster corps (went along to forage for the men’s food) and did washing and cooking for the armies. Question 3—Joan of Arc was part of an old military tradition for women. she was not fighting for family lands as a member of the nobility but more impor- tantly, Joan felt that she was inspired by God as Savior of France. Chapter 2: Religious Women in Medieval/Renaissance Europe (p. 35-70) A. Women in the Roman Catholic Church—The Active Nuns Objectives: Students will learn the diverse and powerful roles that women played in the early Christian Church and in the medieval Roman Catholic Church. Students will see that the definition of a nun covered a wide variety of roles and provid- ed some women with a welcome alternative to marriage. Explanation and Suggested Methods As nuns have a critical place in medieval history, all students should probably be assigned this lesson or it could be used as the basis of a teacher lecture or student report. Suggested Answers to Points to Consider (p. 44) Question 1—Women frequently had active businesses, ruled estates, directed peasants and other lay workers. They were often a self-contained unit, not always easily directed by bishops or even by orders of the Pope. Question 2—In some eras an abbess directed both men and women in double monasteries and, it seems, came close to performing priestly duties. In all, she ran the abbey, had some legal responsibilities, supervised nuns, scholarship and all activities including convent schools. Question 3—All kinds because some were forced to join. Widows might join because they had few options and chose not to remarry. Scholarly women might join to have a place of quiet for study. Those that chose not to marry joined. They were limited as they were often ruled strictly, could not marry nor be priests. B. Mystics as Activists—Four Female Saints Objectives: Students will learn about the wide variety of female saints and their importance to medieval history. Explanation and Suggested Methods As saints were an important part of medieval life, female saints made a power- ful and respected role for women that might generally raise women’s status. There are four major saints reviewed in the lesson. The class could be divid- ed into four sections with each reading one saint's life. Then the Points to Con- sider could be done as a class exercise with the individual groups reporting on their saint’s life for the class. Then groups could be formed to do the Special Group Exercise. Suggested Answers to Points to Consider (p. 59) Question 1—A review Question 2—Lioba—8th century England. She was from a noble family, an only child and ‘‘a miracle baby,”’ exceptional. She indicated early signs of holiness. She died at about 79 years.She had many disciples and was able to get into a monastery where women were forbidden. She influenced St. Boniface: Question 3—St. Catherine of Siena—14th century She grew up in the Italian city of Siena. She was the last of a large family (her twin and the last-born child died). She was her mother’s favorite and showed early signs of holiness. She was thirty-three when she died (note the similarity with Jesus). She was a mystic with many followers, influenced popes, and for all her mysticism—was politically active and very influential. Question 4—St. Joan of Arc—was a 15th century saint (but not canonized until the 20th century). She grew up in a small town, Domremy, in Lorraine, France. She was nineteen when she was executed at the stake. She heard voices that told her to rid France of the British. She led a series of successful military campaigns against the British in this last phase of the Hundred Years’ War. She was captured and condemned to die for witchcraft. She is a powerful historical figure as a symbol of French nationalism. Question 5—St. Teresa She lived in the 16th century, during the Reformation and is considered an im- portant figure in the Counter Reformation. She died at 67. She came from a wealthy family, was somewhat indulged and protected in her youth. Her father sent her to convent school for protection and a good upbringing upon her mother’s death. She founded a convent of very strict, Carmelite rule, then left it to form other convents. She was politically important. As a mystic. She was both suspected by the Inquisition but used as a force against Lutheran Protestantism. She founded many convents and was a writer of note. Group Discussion (p. 60-61) Student answers will vary. Lioba might be described as powerful, older, authoritative; St. Joan as anything from brave to sad; all but Teresa showed early signs of saintliness. Many were as powerful politically as they were spiritually. Why were they seen as saints? Group discussion will include the fact that they were born in many places, often led ascetic lives, had early religious experiences, were politically influential and frequently died young. C. Women and the Protestant Reformation—Reformers and Followers Objectives: F Students will learn that the Reformation is seen as a long series of revolutions, involved women as activists, both within the Roman Catholic Church as well as in new Protestant groups. Explanation and Suggested Methods The essay could serve as part of an overview lecture on the Reformation or as a student assignment to be done before the short group exercise that follows. Suggested Answers to Points to Consider (p. 68) Question 1—All were faithful wives and mothers, good managers of their home economies and devoted to their new religious groups. Some, like Katherine Zell, were outstanding as recruiters and preachers as well. Maybe their main contribution was as members of a wife/husband team rather than as theological thinkers. Question 2—She was a leader in her own right, broke with her husband over religion and was a devout Calvinist. She put no one to death and was a strong advocate of religious toleration. Other answers are possible. Question 3—She was a Anabaptist and tortured because of her refusal to give away the names of other Anabaptists or to renounce her faith. She did not re- cant or give away her friends. Question 4—Margaret Fell was the wife of George Fox, founder of the Quakers. She was part of a group that achieved equity in religion with personal conscience and faith as being the guide for behavior, which might be viewed as one logical conclusion to the Protestant Reformation. Question 5—Students may not know that Fox felt women had been disciples, preachers, prophets and church elders at the time of Jesus and the early Church. He felt they should continue to be so. He is one of many male feminists; others are mentioned in the selection of the witchcraft trials. Question 6—Some, like St. Teresa, advocated stricter rule and more enclosed convents. Earlier, St. Catherine had fought corruption within the Church and advocated reforms of the papacy. Women like Angela Merici, Mary Ward and Louise de Marillac founded groups of nuns that worked in the outside world. Question 7—Diversity meant that those who were dissatisfied could move on. It might be pointed out that each group frequently thought they were right (as with the Puritans in early United States history). The fact that there are rather numerous ideas of the right way makes for choices and, perhaps, allows for the questioning of orthodox ideas. Was There a Reformation for Women? A Group Exercise Objective Have students weigh the Protestant Reformation’s gains and losses for women’s status and role opportunities.Explanation and Suggested Method This is a short group assignment to be followed by a whole class assignment. Suggested Answers to the Group Exercise (p. 69-70) Student answers and judgments will vary, but numbers 1, 4, 6 and 9 might be seen as positive. Perhaps 2, 3 and 8 represent little change or no improve- ment and 5 and 7 as being negative changes. Comparisons made in class discussion might be lively and vary greatly. Student answers may lead to a discussion of religious values and what seems to be our society's ideas of roles for women. Chapter Ill: Economics and Women in Medieval/Renaissance Europe (p. 71-96) A. Women’s Property Rights—An Overview Objectives Students will focus on the diversity of property rights for women, depending on their time, place and marital status. Students learn that marital status was particularly important in determining women’s property rights and that there were a surprising number of women who did control property. Explanation and Suggested Methods The essay points up the importance of marital status as it pertains to women’s rights in order for women to control their own property. The principle of single women having more property rights is one that continues into modern times in Europe and the United States. The essay could be used for a teacher lecture, followed by a group assign- ment of part 3, ‘‘Four Anglo-Saxon Wills,” as the two selections complement one another. Suggested Answers (p. 77) Question 1—A femmes soles controlled their own property and could buy and sell it as they desired. A femmes convertes (married women) had little say even over their own property. Marriage contracts could be written, however, to give married women more control. Question 2—Dower rights were properties and goods that the bride brought to a marriage. A widow's dower rights usually included one third of all of the couple’s property with the land for her use during her lifetime. Generally the law of inheritance allowed that the property went to the oldest male heir or to a female heir if there was no male. Question 3—Women might be married several times—and so inherit several dower rights. 10 Question 4—Inheritance laws in the United States provide for a widow (where there are children) to receive one third of the estate (or split the estate, if there is one child) unless the will gives her more of the property. This part of the law has changed very little. Women do have more control over their own property, although states vary. Question 5—Yes, they did own considerable property, although much less than men. They might have controlled more land through minor heirs and dower rights during their lifetime. The land women owned outright came from their own families when there was no male heir. B. Women’s Property Rights—Four Anglo-Saxon Wills Objectives Have students investigate actual wills as historical evidence. They will learn that the external evidence of the will itself indicates some control of property by women, as does the internal evidence of what is in the will itself. Explanation and Suggested Methods (see Part A) Suggested Answers to Points to Consider (p. 79) Question 1—The wills indicate that these women had considerable real estate and other properties to dispose of under their control. Question 2—Both daughters and sons inherited land and goods. Question 3—They free indentured servants, act as patrons to the Church and generally seem very much in charge. Question 4—All kinds of things are passed along—gold, money, jewelry, land and probably some goods would still be willed. Most modern wills would not be so detailed as to things like bedding and smaller items. Question 5—Most women seem pious and include many gifts to the Church in their wills. C. Women’s Work—A Variety of Skills and Labors Objective Students will learn of the wide variety of work roles women performed in medieval/Renaissance times. Explanation and Suggested Method Short selections might be suitable as a homework assignment or a student report for the class. Suggested Answers to Points to Consider (p. 87)Question 1—Sewing, spinning, weaving were usually women’s crafts but also beer making, laundry, teaching, etc., as listed. Question 2—Women might be very poorly paid (or work for board and room) such as domestic workers. Some were guild members who could command the same wages as men. Question 3—They try to eliminate competition and restrict their own members to certain times and also provide some protection for apprentices and to keep certain standards of excellence. Question 4—Probably much the same as now—for money, pride in using a skill and socializing in the outside world. D. Women as Healers—Doctors, Nurses and Midwives Objectives 1a et Students will learn about women as early healers and midwives and how these became male-dominated professions beginning in Renaissance times. Explanation and Suggested Methods This selection could be used by teachers to discuss other areas of job discrimination and how fields can be pre-empted by a particular group. The essay makes the general point that as university degrees were made a necessity for practicing medicine, women were slowly pushed out of the medical profession. The other point to be made here is that the empirical medicine may frequently have been better than the academic medicine taught at universities. At least empirical medicine was based on experience while much of the theoretical academic medicine was unscientific, even foolish at times. Whole class assignment and discussion is recommended as the issues for women were critical ones and relate to other economic and occupational issues. Suggested Answers to Points to Consider (p. 95) Question 1—The academic medicine was not based on experience but on classical philosophers and thinkers like Aristotle, whose anatomical and medical notions were unscientific and in error. At least empirical medicine was rooted in practical experience. Question 2—Costanza Colend, Antonia of Florence and, especially, Trotula— these women were university trained, lectured and Trotula was an author. Therefore, they are part of the historical record. Others, like Louise Bourgeois and Justina Siegemundin, were midwives to royalty and wrote books or articles on midwifery. Question 3—Student answers will vary but some may be uncomfortable with her statement that women are weaker by nature than men or even disagree with it. Question 4—Because they had had more practical experience and perhaps more sympathy or understanding. Women were afraid of the man-midwives because, as they alone could use forceps, they were called in wien women were having difficult deliveries or were dying. Women knew this, so the ap- pearance of the man meant either that they were in danger of dying or in serious trouble with their birth. Question 5—Sometimes they baptized babies who seemed weak or near ea to avoid limbo—that part of the afterworld reserved for unbaptized infants. Question 6—She was not to cause or perform abortions, do secret deliveries or use the distress of women to get more money from them. Midwives really had a lot of power and were often privy to intimate information—such as the names of fathers of illegitimate children—so were open to misuse of their power. Question 7—The emphasis upon university training and the surgeons’ guild seem to be two critical reasons. Also, many midwives had reputations for being drunken and dirty and this may have been emphasized to discredit them. Dur- ing the witchcraft mania, they were the frequent targets of accusations with many executed. Question 8—They were singled out because they did have a lot of power and inner knowledge. Many may have used folk magic, charms and potions as well as empirical knowledge. Chapter IV: The Social Setting of Women in Medieval/Renaissance Europe (p. 97-136) A. Family Characteristic Affecting Women Objective Students will earn something about family arrangements and how they af- fected women’s lives, but also something about these issues as historiographical problems. Explanation and Suggested Method This is a fairly difficult lesson and probably should be gone over with students by the teacher. The new and old theories might be put on an overhead projector or on the board. Such questions as to how new evidence is acquired and what makes historians question their views of what the past was actually like might be discussed. Suggested Answers to Points to Consider (p. 105) Question 1—Mother/child relationships may not have been particularly close. Children were often sent off to wet nurses and later to live at courts or other manors. Female infanticide was quite coramon. Few extended famlies of several generations lived together. 13,Question 2—The ruler who wished to control the land of a man who died with minor children would take them as wards—so a widow might lose her children as well as her husband. Question 3—The fact of primogeniture (all the land went to the eldest male in a family) meant that younger sons had to find other ways to make a living— and might delay their marriages—‘‘no land, no marriage””—and land was own- ed by only one family member. B. Jewish Women in a Christian World Objective nine Students will focus on this significant European minority group and par- ticularly what it meant to be a Jewish woman. Explanation and Suggested Methods Teachers may be surprised at how naive students are about Judaism and the persecution of European Jews in medieval/Renaissance times. A review of Judaism and terms like heresy, infidels, Muslims, Islam, Papal Bulls might be a useful introduction to this part. The lesson could be divided for two groups, with the introduction discussed by the teacher. Suggested Answers to Points to Consider (p. 116) Question 1—Jews were discriminated against in many ways depending on time and place. They often could not own land, serve in the military, practice certain professions nor live outside ghettos. Women within Judaism, by medieval times, had restricted ritual roles, were not allowed to study Torah, were segregated in synagogues and did not count toward the Minyan (the number required to carry on morning prayer service). Christianity also treated women differently from men; women could not be a part of the ruling Church hierarchy. Question 2—Women frequently were family breadwinners and, because of their poverty, women also worked at many unusual occupations and used their creativity to help their families. Men were expected to study so the women might earn the family income. Question 3—There was the tradition of scholarship and, although Torah study was reserved for men, intelligence was admired and fostered in both sexes. These exceptional women may have had no brothers and so their fathers might focus their ambitions on a promising daughter. Students may suggest other reasons. Question 4—There might be many possible reasons, but women might be more comfortable borrowing from other women. Women might have many reasons for borrowing money—one author calls these ‘‘disaster’’ loans, for example. Question 5—She seems to have been a devoted wife and mother, a good business woman and a faithful Jew—a remarkable woman. Students may have many more ideas about Gluckel. Question 6—Her first husband's death and her second marriage as well as problems with her children. Many similar problems are still faced by women as wives and mothers—one reason this is such a fine autobiography. C. European Women Tried as Witches—Victims of a Mania or Deep Social Injustice? Objectives Students will learn of the complex situations and debates that surround the reasons for and extent of the European witchcraft trials of medieval/Renaissance times. They will focus on these specific trials as they relate to the status of women. Explanation and Suggested Methods The witchcraft trials as a subject of women’s history are one of the most critical issues in European history. No other world area has carried on a pur- poseful campaign of female genocide over such a long time period. Teachers should be aware that some historians have exaggerated the numbers of vic- tims, but even without exaggeration these trials represent a truly low point for women in Western history and they raise many puzzling issues about Western views of women. Students will find the subject of these essays of interest. As the issues rais- ed are critical ones, it is suggested that all students be assigned these essays for study, followed by a class discussion of the Points to Consider. The in- troduction could be discussed in class before students are assigned the two sections on the trials. Suggested Answers to Points to Consider (p. 127) Question 1—They seemed to bring life and, when it was still unclear as to how children were conceived, it seemed to be through their power alone. Many ear- ly religions were fertility ones. They learned the property of plants—could in- duce dreams with hallucinogenic (magic) plants. Question 2—Heresy was considered to be a very serious crime. More women were heretics than men and so could be reasonably accused of this crime. Although the cult of the Virgin did give women an exalted place—it also created its opposite—the pedestal vs. the stake. Generally, anti-woman feel- ings increased. There were unmarried women and many older widows who were alone in villages when there were population shifts after the Black Death plagues. Question 3—Student answers will vary but misogynism and the Eve-Mary dualism must have been major reasons why women were singled out for abuse.Question 4—Students answers will vary but this is probably a prominent part of our culture even today. Sometimes acts of violence against women—even to gang rape—are condoned because the women are seen as bad, or Eve types. There is not this same double standard for men. ] Question 5—Medieval saints often heard voices, saw visions and had mystical } experiences, as well as falling into trances that might seem like the spells of witches. Teresa’s autobiography was confiscated by the Inquisition, Catherine was considered odd—even dangerous—she was spat upon and kicked while in trances, while Joan was put to death as a witch. Records of the Witchcraft Era: Publicity Trials and Critics Objectives Students will study some of the documents from the witchcraft era. The prominence of male feminists and the bravery of women who would not give in finally ended these trials. Students will focus on the role of the printing press in advertising trials and the pornographic nature of witchcraft broadsides. Explanation and Suggested Methods Several themes are dealt with in this section: the roles of male feminists, the way these trials were publicized and spread, the use of torture (both physical and psychological) and the complexity of the witchcraft historiography. There are three sections in this last part, so the class might be divided into three groups, each reporting on one part. The group exercise that follows should be completed in student groups and answers then compared with other class members. Suggested Answers to Points to Consider (p. 134-135) Question 1—Witches’ children gave evidence against their mothers. It is hard to explain but they may have been hysterical, angry or enjoying the attention. Question 2—These trials became entertainments for people, and the advertis- ing gave others the idea of accusing witches. Students will have additional answers. Question 3—At first, Antonia only admits to practicing mild forms of folk magic. Later she confesses to more and more serious crimes of witchcraft. ] Finally, she sadly says that if she were ‘‘released from torture she would tell the truth” (confess to anything?). Suzanne Gantry bravely tried to resist and even took back her first confession, but again confessed under extreme tor- ture. Gantry was escorted to the prison by a soldier who was paid. It is difficult to tell if people were present at the execution, although it seems to have been ) in a public place. There were some at the torture sessions but how many is also unclear. \ 16 Question 4—Stereotypes of witches might be that they are old, ugly, long- nosed, warty, bent over and may mumble to themselves. Scot's description might fit this, that they were poor, ‘‘foul,” ‘full of wrinkles” and “superstitious.” Student answers will vary as to why these stereotyped figures were the ones to be accused but these old women were easy targets. They might have been living alone and did perhaps act strange. Scot says that they have such “drowsy minds” that they can be persuaded that “mischief” was done by them. He feels they may get a sense of power from being able to scare their neighbors. So they might really believe they are witches. They might also be brainwashed by being kept awake for long periods and threaten- ed, as well as having it suggested to them that they were witches. Question 5—Student answers will vary but certainly Asian-Americans, blacks, Jews and handicapped people have had this happen. Students will think of other groups. Question 6—Student answers will vary but almost anyone might be accused at the height of one of these crazes. Group Exercise: Historiography of the Witch Trials (p. 136) Question 7—Wise women and midwives probably did practice a bit of magic by using charms and love potions, as the line between magic and medicine was a fine one. Antonia, for example, appears to admit this. As torture increased, the confessions became more extreme and included worship of the devil and witchcraft. Both Antonia and Suzanne Gandry con- fessed to the crime of witchcraft after much torture. The numbers of women in midwifery decreased. The speed of the trials and the fact that so many women were old might be evidence that it was a way to get rid of these older women. Student answers will vary to both questions as to which makes the most sense and why it was mostly women. Investigators and historians still puzzle over the fact that it was women who were chiefly involved. Another possibility for a group exercise would be to conduct a witchcraft trial, complete with witches, accusatory neighbors, their children, a trial judge, a jury of peers, an audience crying for the worst, lawyers for the defense and a public prosecutor. Chapter V: Education of Women in Medieval/Renaissance Europe (p. 137-148) A. The Debate on Whether Women Could/Should Learn Objectives Students will focus on two central debates about education for women: that they were either incapable of learning or that they could learn limited curriculum. 7Explanation and Suggested Methods These two arguments have continued to the present and are critical ones for the history of women. First, that women’s capacity for learning is different or, second, that certain subjects are unnecessary or unsuitable for woman students. One method might be to have selected students research these two views (as well as the view that women should learn all subjects) and conduct a role playing in which all these positions are defended. An open class discus- sion could follow. Suggested Answers to Points to Consider (p. 142) Question 1—That learning would simply increase women’s capacity for evil. From Aristotle came the notion that women were a sub-species with higher temperatures, more teeth and a womb that interfered with reasoning powers. It was dangerous for women to learn (or unnecessary) because they just needed to know about domestic concerns. Question 2—That Christianity was meant for both women and men and one needed to be learned to study Christian doctrine. St. Augustine and other churchmen claimed women could learn and Renaissance people extended this to non-religious subjects. Question 3—They seemed to provide easy proof that women could learn, and certainly should, if they were to rule well. Question 4—Class discussion of whether education is now equal could be lively. It could follow the role playing exercise, if attempted. B. Women Who Did Learn Objectives Students will learn the obstacles that women had to overcome to become educated and what they were able to accomplish when educated. Explanation and Suggested Methods The lesson suggests some of the barriers to women’s learning and the motivations for them doing so, in spite of it all. This brief lesson would be suitable for a homework or classroom assignment. Suggested Answers to Points to Consider (p. 148) Question 1—Pious or religious literature, such as that of Margaret of Navarre, is pertinent, although there were women troubadours and writers such as Catherine de Pisan. Sappho’s poetry was considered too erotic and pagan and was thus improper for a woman. Question 2—Women married and left their home and took their area’s or country’s literature with them to their new homes. Question 3—Anna Maria von Schurman was known for her ability to read in many languages. Question 4—They wrote about their intellectual needs in letters and studied even when it was difficult. They complained bitterly about not being allowed to study. Chapter VI: Women and the Arts in Medieval/Renaissance Europe (p. 149-176) A. Women as Patrons, Poets and Painters Objectives Students will learn that women did write, paint and become patrons of art, though less frequently than men. Explanation and Suggested Methods Teachers may wish to speculate with students the reasons why fewer women than men have been artists, at least until recently. This essay could be the basis of a research paper and there are several readily available books on women artists and writers. The essay could also be a teacher lecture or homework assignment. Suggested Answers to Points to Consider (p. 157) Question 1—Student answers will vary, but women were less free to move about and were expected to be pious and unassertive about themselves and their accomplishments. Question 2—Salons were social gatherings usually organized by a woman in her home, where poetry, literature and philosophy was read and discussed. Question 3—Themes of the women troubadours’ songs were sexual love, lost love, longing for a loved one and even longing for a man not her husband—a kind of role reversal on the courtly love tradition. Question 4—During medieval times, most seem to have learned as convent nuns, especially in the case of manuscript illumination. Women artists of the Renaissance were trained mostly by their fathers and carried on their painting within family traditions. Question 5—Many themes were Biblical with a feminist twist. Gentileschi and others did portraits of Judith and emphasized other strong women as subjects. Question 6—Student answers will vary, but this comparison could be a class discussion or a group exercise followed by class discussion. 19B. Hroswitha of Gandersheim—Nun as Literary Genius Objective Students will learn something of the first important playwright after the fall of Rome. They will also focus on how historians may make false interpretations depending on personal bias. Explanation and Suggested Methods The teacher could give the introduction, followed by students acting out the play. The class could discuss together the Points to Consider. Suggested Answers to Points to Consider (p. 164) Question 1—Aschbach seems unable to believe that a woman would be capable of writing Hroswitha’s plays. It might indicate a decline in the status of women—and in male attitudes about them—from the earlier period when Celtes discovered her work in the 16th century. Question 2—The setting is pagan—Diocletian—Rome vs. Christian women. Soldiers indicate that Dulcitius will have little luck getting the Christian women to give in to him. The strong faith of the Christians vs. that of the pagans; the pagans’ cruelty vs. the women’s hymn singing and even martyrdom—heaven vs. hell. Also, Sisinnius speaks of blasphemers—while in reality he is the pagan. Rome prob- ably picked as less difficult politically. If she wrote her play about her own area of Saxony, she might offend recent converts, but by using Roman pagans she can still make the contrast between evil pagans and good Christians. Question 3—Governor Dulcitius was pictured as oversexed, cruel, stupid and unfaithful. The three women are seen as good, clever, faithful, pious and brave. The wife of Dulcitius is more interested in appearance than in the health of her husband. Count Sisinnius is seen as very cruel and a pagan who is furious at being tricked. Question 4—The Christian women (Irena, Chionia and Agape) are strong, brave and pious—but they also have a sense of humor. Hroswitha does not show the wife in a good light, so this is not a men vs. women play. Question 5—She seems to admire their piety but mostly their bravery and will- ingness to become martyrs. Student answers will vary, but nuns were frequent- ly strong characters (such as St. Lioba, talked of earlier), so this might have been a general view. Question 6—The wife is not particularly upset by her husband's behavior but more interested in appearance. Question 7—She has them die but with “no sign of hurt;” with their virginity intact they go straight to heaven. 20 C. Mary as Mother of the Infant Jesus—An Art Exercise Objectives Students will closely observe works of art as social commentaries to see how they may reflect changing views of Mary—and, perhaps, of women in general. Explanation and Suggested Methods Students will get a variety of ideas from these paintings but they may see that the earlier Marys are more powerful (sometimes depicted as queens of heaven), while later ones are sweet, ordinary, pretty women. Also, the point of view changes—the later mothers focus on the child rather than presenting The Child to an audience. This would be best done as a group exercise, followed by class discussion. Able students might do it as individuals. Suggested Answers to Group Exercise (p. 166) Question 1—Student groups’ answers will vary. Comment: Students may find the earlier works strange or, sometimes, crude and the Renaissance works more finished and beautiful, but they may be able to get beyond technique to content after making their lists. Question 2—1, 2, 3, 5—Mary looks most directly at the viewer. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12—Mary looks at the baby. 4, 11—Mary looks at neither the baby or viewer. Question 3—She wears a crown in 3 and 7, and Mary is seen by these artists as ruler of heaven. Question 4—Mary perhaps seems most ordinary in 4, 5, 11 and 12? Answers may vary according to student ideas. Question 5—She is glorified and richly dressed in these works of art. Question 6—Renaissance works, though lovely, show Mary as a young, pretty, but human woman—not as queen of heaven. In the Raphael portrait painting (11), she could be a peasant woman. Question 7—Students may comment that babies in the earlier paintings are shrunken adults. Some historians feel childhood was ‘‘discovered”’ in the Renaissance and babies were not seen as really different from adults until then. The baby Jesus becomes a fat, sweet and a realistic baby later—but a rather ordinary human being—not a Lord of Heaven. Question 8—Students may focus on the change from the age of faith to the humanism of the Renaissance. Although the subjects of art are still Christian ones, the content is far less so. Question 9—Student answers may vary, but there might be a willingness to see women as people but also a loss of status, as women are not exalted as the incarnations of Mary. A dualistic view of ideal vs. evil women does con- tinue, however, with less emphasis on the spiritual. 21