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A. 11. Mapxyuresas
KOMnnEKCHbIE QWCnA
11 KOH<J>OPMHbIE
OTOliPA)KEHWJI
M3,llaTeJIbCTBO
Hayxa
MOCKBa
A.I. Markushevich
COMPLEX
NUMBERS
AND
CONFORMAL
MAPPINGS
Translated from the Russian
by
Irene Aleksanova
MIR PUBLISHERS
MOSCOW
Ha
aHZAUUCKOM
.R3""Ce
FOREWORD
,
8
o
Fig. 1.
8,
~
c,
c2
Fig. 2.
I I
1- I
I I
I c I.
For
B,
0
c,-1.5
o
0
Fig. 3.
y
Fig. 4.
more general character than real numbers. The latter will tum
out to be a special case of complex numbers, in the same way
as integers are a special case of rational numbers and rational
numbers, in their turn, are a special case of real numbers.
We begin with drawing two mutually perpendicular straight
lines, two number axes Ax and Ay with a common origin A,
in a plane, and take a line segment AB as a unit length (Fig. 4).
Then any vector lying on the axis Ax or parallel to it can be
considered, as before, to be a geometric image (representation)
of a real number. Thus, vectors AB and A'B', the length of each
of which is equal to unity, and the direction coincides with
the positive direction of Ax, represent the number 1, while
the vector CD of length 2 and of the opposite direction represents
the number - 2. Vectors not lying on Ax and not parallel to that
axis, such as AE and FG, do not represent any real numbers.
As regards such vectors, we shall say that they represent imaginary
numbers. And it should be noted that vectors equal in length,
parallel to each other and of the same sense represent the same
number, while vectors differing either in length or in direction
represent different imaginary numbers. Here we forestall the events
a little, since not yet knowing what imaginary numbers are we
speak of their images; but in real life as well it sometimes
happens that the acquaintance with the portrait forestalls meeting
the original.
Somewhat earlier we have shown that operations on real
numbers can be replaced by operations on vectors representing
these numbers. In the same fashion we shall replace operations
on imaginary numbers by operations on vectors representing them.
We shall not think or any new rules but shall retain in
a geometric form those found for addition and multiplication
of real numbers, the only difference being that the latter were
represented by vectors on the straight line Ax (or by vectors
parallel to that line) while imaginary numbers are represented by
vectors in a plane which do not lie on Ax and are not parallel
to Ax.
7. Before going on with our discussion we must note that
complex numbers (the word "complex" means -"compound" here)
may be both real (already known to us) and imaginary (as yet
known only by their "portraits"). For comparison we shall recall
that both rational and irrational numbers considered together are
also called by a single name, real numbers~
Let us proceed to addition of complex numbers. We have
agreed to retain the rule formulated for the addition of real
2-739
----<~--------~x
Fig. 5.
The only novelty here is that now we apply this rule to addition
of complex numbers (represented by any vectors in a plane) while
previously we used this rule only when we dealt with real
numbers (represented by vectors on a straight line).
If we want to follow the same rule to construct the sum
C2 + Cl (the summands have changed places), we have to mark
ofT, from the end of the vector AB 2 representing C2, a vector
of equal length and of the same direction as the vector AB 1
(representing Cl). We shall evidently arrive at the same point C
(in Fig. 5 AB 1 CB 2 is a parallelogram) and, hence, the sum C2 + Cl
is represented by the same vector AC as the sum Cl + C2.
In other words, the rule of addition implies the validity of the
commutative law:
C2
+ Cl
= Cl
+ C2
+ C2) + C3 =
C1
+ (C 2 + C3)
that adding (Cl + C2) (AC). with C3 (CD) we obtain the same
vector AD as we received while adding Cl (AB t) with (C2 + C3) (BtD).
8. Before turning to the discussion of multiplication, let us
apply the concepts of absolute value and argument to complex
numbers.
Suppose vector AB represents a complex number c. The absoy
Fig. 6.
lute value of c is the length of the vector AB, and its argument
c is the angle between the positive direction of the Ax axis and
the vector AB. This angle can be reckoned counterclockwise,
then it is positive, or clockwise, and in that case it is negative;
besides, we can arbitrarily add to it any integer which is
a multiple of 360.
The designations of the absolute value and the argument
of the number c are the same as those of real numbers: I c I
and Arg c. The only difference as compared to the case of real
numbers is that the argument of an imaginary number is
different from 0 and from 180 whereas the argument of a real
number (different from zero) may be either 0 (when the number
is positive) or 180 (when it "is negative).
Figure 7 shows vectors AB, AB t , AB 2 and AB 3 representing
complex numbers c. Ct- ('2 and ('3' It is easy for the reader
to verify the validity of the following assertions:
0
I c I = leI I = 1, I c 2 I =
Arg c = 0, Arg
2*
Cl
= 90(', Arg
('2
0,
= 45, Arg
-I c 3 I = 2;
C3
11
s,
c,
A
Fig. 7.
0'
c" c21 8,
------u-----L--+----~x
Fig. 8.
y
--O'~~--.L.....-----_+_~~x
Fig. 9.
Cl (C2 C3)
+ C2) C3
CI C3
+ C2 C3
8 ,.
,,-
,. ,,-
"L,
,,-
I
/
I
/
I
__- --dr,
8,
A
-x
Fig. 10.
+ C2 C3
(Cl
+ C2) C3,
s,
A
Fig. 11.
y
s
Argr
8,
---<F------L.----I.--,------~x
Fig. 12.
Cl - C2 is ~btained if point B 2 (the end of the vector representing
the subtrahend) is connected with point B 1 (the end of the vector
representing the minuend) and then the former point is taken as
the beginning of the vector and the latter as its end.
Analogously we call the complex number r the quotient of
the numbers
Cl
and
C2
(C2
Cl : C2
or r = ~
C2
if
Cl
= C2', i. e. if
Cl
is the product of
C2
by r (Fig. 12).
15
It follows that
\
~:
I"
+ C2)(C1
C2)
C1
+ -C3 =
C2
C4
cI -
c~,
C1 C4
(C1
C2 C3
C2 C4
'# 0 and
C4
v=t,
Fig. 13.
v=t
3-739
17
v=t
}l
x
1:
0'
Fig. 14.
A'
A
Fig. 15.
19
v=t
20
--~~--_..a.---~x
Fig. 16.
y
i}E4C1
+ L)
: 1
, (-1)
I
I
--.~-.~,
I
I
EJ(-L)
oEs(t-t)
Fig. 17.
Z'
Fig. 18.
z
Z'=Z+'
Yl
-2L
A
x
Z"=z-2L
Fig. 19.
22
E,
Argz
Fig. 20.
E'
--~-...--~---~x
Fig. 21.
=-
=2
V:'
therefore c =
112 - i 2112
v: - V:.
i
~,
Thus, multiplying z by
point z into point z', Let us now consider not one but an
infinite set of points z forming a geometric figure P (a triangle,
for example, see Fig. 22). If the formula z' = z + a is applied
to each point z, then every previous point gives a new point z'
translated by the vector a. All these translated points form a new
figure P'. It can evidently be obtained if the whole figure P
y
---o-=:-~--------~X
Fig. 22.
25
IZ'I
jZj=c
Fig. 23.
we can transform not only one point, but also a whole figure P.
This is a homothetic transformation with centre in A and the ratio
equal to c. In the case when P is a polygon, the transformed
figure P' is also a polygon similar to P.
19. Let us now consider the case when the number c in the
formula z' = cz is not' positive. First assume that I c I = 1. In this
y
c'
D'-~----
B'
Fig. 24.
27
z' =
~ z (here I ~ I= ~
and Arg
= 90)-
Fig. 25.
z-a
z-
V;,
28
the vector a and the function z" = cz runs through the points
of figure P" obtained from P by means of a homothetic
transformation with the ratio I c I and a rotation about the point A
through the angle Arg c. Consequently, we can say that the
function z' = z + a itself performs a translation and the function
z" = cz performs a homothetic transformation and a rotation
(if c is a positive real number, then only a homothetic transformation is performed and if I c I = 1 but c # 1, then the only
action is a rotation). Now what can be said about transformations
performed by other functions of a complex variable, rational
functions in particular? That is the question we shall try to answer
in what follows. To assure the reader that this is not an idle
pas-time, we inform him already at this stage that transformations
performed by rational functions of a complex variable, while being
remarkably versatile and possessing a wealth of geometric
properties, also have some properties in common. This common
property boils down to the following: while the size and the
appearance of the figure are altered in the general case, the angles
between any lines belonging to the figure under consideration are
preserved. *
In special cases of functions z' = z + a or z' = cz the preservation of angles in the figures beine transformed directly follows
from the fact that here we mean translation, homothetic transformation or rotation. It is remarkable that the same thing is
observed in transformations by means of any rational functions
of a complex variable as well as by many other more general
and more complex functions of a complex variable called analytic
functions. But the scope of the book does not allow us to consider
the latter.
22. A geometric transformation under which the angles between
any two lines of the figure being transformed are preserved is
called a conformal transformation, or, more often a conformal
mapping.
A translation, homothetic transformation and rotation considered above may serve as examples of conformal mapping.
Other examples will follow. For the time being, we shall clarify
the requirement, contained in the definition of a conformal
29
mapping, that the angles between any two lines belonging to the
figure under consideration be preserved. Let us consider the square
ABeD constructed on the axes Ax and Ay (Fig. 26). We shall
transform it into some other figure in such a way that the
abscissa x of each point remains unchanged and the ordinate y
doubles its length. Then the point K, for instance, passes into K'
y
0'
K'
Do---~---o
-.......<J----........---o---~-x
Fig. 26.
and L into L, When all the points of the square are transformed
in such a way then, evidently, the square ABeD is transformed
into a rectangle ABC'D' with the same base and with the altitude
twice as large. Under this transformation the side AB passes
into itself (all the points remain as they are since their ordinates
equal zero and will remain so after doubling), AD is transformed
into AD', DC into D'C' and BC into BC'. Naturally, the angles
between the sides will remain right as before, they do not change.
Now let us take the angle BAC between the side AB and
the diagonal A C of the square considered (Fig. 26); the angle is
equal to 45. As a result of transformation, the side AB will not
change its place but the line AC will pass into AC' (why?).
Consequently, the angle BAC is transformed into another (larger)
angle BAC', that is it does not remain the same. If we take
the angle PQC, instead of the angle BAC, with the vertex
in some other point Q of the square ABCD (Fig. 27), then it
30
is easy to show that this angle, too, will change under the transformation being. performed.
Proceeding (rom our reasoning, we come to the conclusion
that although the angles of the rectangle ABCD do not alter
under the transformation considered (they remain right as before),
the transformation is not conformal since for any point belonging
y
0'
- - - - - - - 7?C'
// I
/
Q'~:'--~PI
I
I,
oo--""""-----'!IIOC
I
I
Q~_...-.-_op
I
I
I
I
I
Fig. 27.
QTt and QT2 The rays QTt and QT2 adjoin our curves near
the point Q more closely than any other rays passing through
that point. They are known as tangents to the curves QP and QR
and the angle T 1 QT2 between them is taken as a measure
of the angle at the point Q between the curves QP and QR.
Thus, the angle between two curves intersecting at some point is
the angle between the tangents to the curves drawn at that point.
Fig. 28.
32
a
Fig. 29.
33
Fig. 30.
. ~-
.....A~~~
~'J~
,
I
60 0
I
Fig. 31.
35
(a)
Fig. 32.
= Z2; (3)
z-
other). Let us show that by means of this function each arc PLQ
of the circle connecting the points a and b is transformed into
a certain straight ray P'I.: emanating from the origin, the angle
between the positive direction of the real axis and this ray being
equal to the angle between the direction baN and the tangent
to the arc of the circle at point a (Fig. 33).
Suppose point z lies on the arc PLQ- (Fig. 33, left); we shall
37
z-b
to it) should lie on the ray P'l; (Fig. 33, right). To construct
vector z', we must know the length of this vector (I z' I) and
the angle of inclination to the positive part of the real axis
(Arg z'). But z' is the quotient of the complex numbers z - a and
T
N
a
p' \
\
\
\
:M
----o---~- ~x'
-_..-",,-"'"
//
Fig. 33.
Iz - al
= I z _ b I and Arg z' is equal to the angle
z' 1 =
r-:
r-.
/'...
. /'...
z-
this means that all these points lie on one and the same ray P'I.:
inclined to the positive part of the real axis through the angle <po
This conclusion is also valid in the case when P LQ is not
the arc of a circle but a rectilinear segment PQ. Then we should
assume the angle <p = 1800 and the ray P'L' to coincide with
the negative part of the real axis (Fig. 34). Indeed, if z lies
on the segment PQ, then the vectors representing z - a and z - b
are of opposite directions. Hence it follows that the quotient
r-:
39
z'
o
L' R'
x'
Fig. 34.
Fig. 35.
of the arc PLQ, not a single one? We shall now show that
the images fill the whole ray.
Let us begin with the point P' (the origin); it is the image
of the point P since z' = z - a vanishes when z = a. We shall
z- b
take an arbitrary point z' on the ray P'E (Fig. 35) differing
from the point P' (i. e. z' =F 0). It is evident that z' cannot be
a positive real number since the ray P'L: does not coincide with
the positive real axis.
Considering z to be unknown, we solve the equation z' =
z- a
z'b - a
= - - b for z and find zz' - z'b = z - a whence z =
,
1.
z-
z -
Thus, for every point z' lying on P'E there exists one and only
40
z-a
z-
one value of z such that z' = --b' i. e. such that z' is the
image of z.
But where is that point z? Can it be possible that it does not
lie on PLQ? Let us prove that it is impossible. First of all point
z cannot lie on a straight line which is an extension of the
segment PQ (outside of this segment), otherwise the numbers
z-a
z - a and z - b would have the same arguments and z' = - -
z-b
a
z - b at that point
z-
. Ie point
. z ( z = z'b
- a) h
.
I .
.
an Image
0 f t he sing
Z' _ 1 ,t e point z ying
on PLQ. Hence it follows that if the point z' runs along the ray
P'1:, then the corresponding point z determined by the equation
z-a
z' = --b runs along the arc PLQ.
zLet us finally show that when z describes the arc PLQ while
moving in the same direction from point P to point Q all the
time, then point z' traces out the ray P'1: also in one and
the same direction, receding from point P' indefmitely. To prove
this it is sufficient to show that the distance P'R ' = I z' f =
sin ~ (
F 33)
_. h
.
= IIz - ab It = PR
QR = -.see 19.
increases, w en point z
Z -
SIn ex
".
+ <p) =
P
'R'
I'
I
z =
sm ex
N
U
L'
M'
~S'
(a)
x'
(b)
Fig. 36.
In this case t~e tangent. t.o the circle P'LM' at point P' forms
an angle <p ~Ith the positive direction of the real axis.
So we wish to prove that for every point z on PLM there
exists a corresponding point z'
which the points 0 and c'
= ::=~
= ~ =- ~
.e. o,
z'
we have PRE = Arg -,--,.
1.
z'
z' - c"
z - c
c-a
substituting
z-a
z-b
r:">
z'
z-a (z-a
c-a)
z' - c' = z - b: z - b - c - b =
z - a (z - c) (a - b)
z- a b- a
z"
= z-b: (z-b)(c-b)= z-c: b-c =V
We assume here zz_c=z
- a
" an d bb-c=
- a b".
It is evident that z" is also a linear-fractional function of z.
The only difference between this function z" = z - a and the
z-c
Because the points of the plane from which the given segment
is seen at a right angle lie on the circle constructed on that segment
as the diameter.
43
= ~ + cp
z-a
z-c
z-a
b-a
z"
Argz" =
p + <p,
Argb"
z"
if
=
Z
= (P + cp) -
90;
z"
point z' = z - a . This means that point z' is located on the circle
z- b
P'L'M' for which the segment P'E serves as the diameter.
The next thing we have to show is that a tangent to that circle
at point P' forms an angle cp with the positive direction
zIt
----6------...----r---+----~x'
Fig. 37.
=- ~.
P + <P -
-<:
180
z'
= Arg z' - c'
we
shall obtain the value (13 + <p - 180) - (P + <P - 90) = - 90. This
corresponds to the location of point z' on the semi-circle E' M' P'.
45
z+
Fig. 38.
form z - a
z- b
with
arc
PLQ
z+
ray
46
z+
z - 11' into
z+
circle
P'R'E'S'
z+
not yet been completely solved: for the time being we have found
what becomes with the contour of the figure and now we have to
trace the transformation of the points of the figure located
in the area between the circles PRES and PLQM.
To elucidate this part of the problem, we shall note that
we could have filled the entire hatched figure with circles
which touch PLQM at point P and are enclosed between
PRES and PLQM. They would intersect the arc PEQ at
points lying between E and Q. In Fig. 38 dashed lines show
three out of an infinite number of such circles; these three
circles intersect the arc PEQ at points E b E 2 and E 3 If we
consider the transfotmation of these circles by means of the function
-1
1 an d see Into
.
z, = -z what 1ines they pass, we sha11 have an
z+
idea of the shape of the figure filled with all these lines.
That will be precisely the transformed figure.
But taking into account the statements made in Sec. 29, we
conclude that the circle PR 1E 1 S 1 is transformed into the circle
P'R'lE'lS~ and the circle PR 2E2S2 into the circle P'R 2E2S2 etc.
47
z' = z - 11 maps the figure bounded by two circles (see Fig. 38,
z+
48
I z' I = I z 11 z I = I Z 12,
Fig. 39.
move along A'M', starting from point A' and receding from
it indefmitely; in this case the distance from z' to A' will always
be equal to the square of the distance from z to A (I z' I = I Z 12 ) .
It follows that the function z' = Z2 transforms the ray AM
into the ray A'M' inclined to the axis A'x' at an angle twice
as large as the initial angle.
It is easy to see that the function z' = Z2 transforms the
ray AP forming with Ax an angle cp + 180 (AM and AP lie
on the same line) into the same ray A'M'. Indeed, if we
double the angle <p + 180, we shall obtain 2<p + 360; the ray
inclined to A'x' at this angle coincides with A'M'.
Let us see how the hatched figure on the left-hand side
of Fig. 39 will be transformed by means of the function
z' = Z2; the figure is called a half-plane. This half-plane can be
regarded as being filled with an infinite number of rays issuing
from A' and inclined to Ax at angles larger than <p but
smaller than <p + 180. The rays AM and AP constitute the boundary
of the half-plane (one straight line); we shall not consider these
rays to be a part of the half-plane. The function z' = Z2
49
computation of Arg
50
z' I
z' - z'
I
Z'
0 ,
Zl - Zo
0
Zl - Zo
The quotient
z' - z'
I
Zl - Zo
can be trans-
formed by replacing
and Zo = z~.
We obtain
Z'1 -
Z'1
Zo
ZI - z~
Z1 - Zo
- - - = Z 1 + Z0
and
Arg
Z~ -
Zo
Z1 - Zo
= Arg(z1
+ zo).
L'
L
Fig. 40.
zt
51
=:
=. ~
~ (z +
+).
But in
this case we obtain some other expressions for the angle of rotation of
the tangent. Thus, we shall have for a linear-fractional function
that the tangents to the curves passing through the point Zo
a-b
rotate through an angle equal to Arg (zo _ b)2 , and in the case
of
the
Arg (1 -
Zhukovsky
z~).
function,
through
an
angle
equal
to
1-
~
vanishes and, hence, Arg(1
Zo
~)
becomes senseless). We
Zo
Fig. 41.
B 2AB 3 ,
53
Fig. 41 that AB 7
= AB l = AB4 sin 22
1;
= Dsin22
1;
(D is the
112
sin 245
= 0.5000... ,
= 2 - 1.4142...
0.1464... ,
1
1
1
sin? 67- = cos" 22- = 1 - sin? 22- =
2 2 2
= A'B2 =
r-:
= Z2,
known to us,
Fig. 42.
z'
~(z + +).
, 1(z+z1)
z =2
7+1"
Substituting in it, for z', the expression
~(z+~)
2
z'
we shall find
1
'_ 1
Z
__
z'
2
_
(z + z1) - 1
Z2
~ (z + ~) + 1
+1
Z2
+ 1 - 2z = ( : ~ ~
+ 1 + 2z
r.
=~(z+~)
2
z'
it follows that
~ ~ ~ =(: ~ ~r
The converse is also true: the second leads to the first. Indeed,
we obtain, from the second, the expression
Z, -
)2 + (Z--1 )2 ,
1 =z'(z -1
z+1
z+J
whence
Z'[1-(~)2J
= 1 +( ~)2,
z+1
,z+1
and further:
(l+:~~r
z'=----1_(_Z-1)2:
(z + 1)2 + (z - 1)2
(z + 1)2 - (z -
1)2
1 -
z+1
2z 2
+2
4z
56
1(
= 2"
z+
1)
z' - 1
~ and 7+1
z- 1
= ( Z+T
)2
z' ~(z + ~)
=
z' - 1 (z - 1)2
7+1= Z+T .
The result must be the same. But now we can see that the
transition from z to z' can be performed in three stages: first,
perform the transition from z to an auxiliary variable z 1 by the
formula
z-1
Zl
Zl
to
Z2
Z2
to
(1)
Z+T'
Z'
zf,
by the formula
z' - 1
7+1= Z2
(2)
(3)
~~~
= (: ~ ~y.
57
= Z+1
(i. e. the function (1)) into the figure shown in Fig. 38, right.
The latter figure is bounded by a straight line passing through
the point 0 and forming an angle <p with the positive direction
of the real axis and a circle contacting this line at the
point o. This figure can be characterized as a half-plane with the
circle deleted.
Let us transform this figure by means of the function
Z2 = zi. It is sufficient to have a look at Fig. 41 to realize
that this problem was already solved in Sec. 33. At the end of
Sec. 33 we made a note to the point that we must obtain here
a figure depicted on the right-hand side of Fig. 41; it is bounded
by a ray and a cardioid.
Consequently, it remains to apply to the latter figure the
.
z' - 1
transformation -,-1-= Z2 It follows from what was said in
z +
Sec. 28 (with the only difference that here z 2 is regarded as an
independent variable and z' as a function) that when Z2
describes the ray A'M' issuing from the origin and inclined
+'
-1
Fig. 43.
58
= Z2
we could have traced how its points are transformed, for instance,
the points B'h B2, ... , B'-,. We will not, however, perform cumbersome calculations, but will limit ourselves to depicting the transformed curve in. its final form in Fig. 44.
The figure bounded by it has the shape of an aircraft wing
section. Sections of this kind were first considered by Russian
'- ...... ......
.......
......
......
-1~t
Fig. 44.
Fig. 45.
(Vi2+ i2
Vi )4
(b) 58; (c) 1 - 0 + i (1 + 0); (d)
(e)
Answers: (a) - i;
-1; (e) -1.
3. Prove that any complex number c = a + bi #= 0 whose modulus is
equal to r and argument to ex can be represented in the form
c = r (cos ex + i sin ex)
(trigonometric form of a complex number).
Instruction. Express a and b in terms of r and ex with the aid of a
drawing on which c = a + bi is represented in vector form.
4. Prove that if
Ct
and
C2
= r2 (cos a2 +
i sin a2),
then
Ct C2
rt r2
[coste, +
(X2)
+ i sin (ex 1 +
(X2)].
(Moivre's formula).
60
(a)
(0 +i 0)100.
2
Instruction.
02 +i 02
(b)
'
(02 +~)217
2
02 +~2 = cos 30 +
+ i sin 30.
Answers:
i
-2-+"2.
(~
+i
~) z'l
~
z
+1
TO THE READER
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CALCULUS OF RATIONAL
FUNCTIONS
The booklet "Calculus of Rational Functions" discusses graphs of functions and
the differential and integral calculi as
applied to the simplest class of functions,
viz. the rational functions of one variable.
It is intended for pupils of the senior forms
and first-year students of colleges and universities.