The Transfer Function Method for

Detection of Winding Displacements on

Power Transformers after Transport,
Short Circuit or 30 Years of Service

Reprint

K. Feser
J. Christian
T. Leibfried
A. Kachler
C. Neumann
U. Sundermann
M. Loppacher

Cigre 2000

E 1-97

HIGH VOLTAGE TEST

THE TRANSFER FUNCTION METHOD FOR DETECTION OF

WINDING DISPLACEMENTS ON POWER TRANSFORMERS AFTER
TRANSPORT, SHORT CIRCUIT OR 30 YEARS OF SERVICE

K. FESER*, J. CHRISTIAN
UNIVERSITY OF STUTTGART

C. NEUMANN, U. SUNDERMANN
RWE ENERGIE AG, ESSEN

GERMANY

GERMANY

T. LEIBFRIED, A. KACHLER
SIEMENS AG, NRNBERG

M. LOPPACHER
HAEFELY TEST AG, BASEL

GERMANY

SWITZERLAND

Summary:
In spite of the excellent service experience with power
transformers and their good long term performance
diagnostic measurements on power transformers are
discussed. The insulation performance is influenced by
thermal, dielectric and mechanical aspects.
In todays practice the transfer function method is used
to detect defects occuring during lightning impulse tests
of transformers in the laboratory. Winding faults during
the application of the 50 % and 100 % impulse tests can
be detected comparing transfer functions. To get
reliable results special requirements for performance
data of transient recorders, including software and total
measuring circuit have to be fulfilled. Results of
measurements during testing of power transformers
demonstrate the abiltity and sensitivity of the transfer
function.
The evaluation of the transfer function can, in addition,
be used on-site to detect defects, in particular
displacements of windings. This kind of defects can
occur during transportation of transformers or during a
short circuit near the transformer in the power system.
Those defects can also occur after a long service life of
transformers in power systems, where several short
circuits and overvoltages during this time may happen.
The excitation for the transfer function in the field could
be a high voltage switching event or an applied low
voltage impulse. The measurement of the transfer
function with low voltage impulses seems to be of
special interest, because fingerprints of the transfer
function before and after transportation or before and
after a short circuit can be taken and compared.
The sensitivity of the method applied to on-site
diagnoses is discussed. The sensitivity to detect
displacements of windings is shown by principal
experiments on an old power transformer (200 MVA,

220/110 kV). Practical limits and first results are

discussed with the evaluation of transfer functions on a
new 125 MVA, 220 kV power transformer before and
after transportation as well as before and after a shortcircuit test. A special investigation is presented in the
comparison of transfer functions of 24 old power
transformers (200 MVA, 220 kV/110 kV) with identical
design and rating. Resulting transfer functions of
different phases are compared in addition to the
comparison of different transformers of the same type.
The results demonstrate the sensitivity and applicability
of the transfer function as an off-line tool for diagnostic
purposes to detect typical defects e.g. winding
displacements.
Keywords:
Power transformer - diagnoses - transfer function frequency response analysis

1 Introduction
Power transformers are the most expensive single
elements of HV transmission systems. Therefore, it is an
aim of utilities to decrease the transformer life cycle
costs and to increase the usable service life. One
possibility is to extend the monitoring and diagnoses of
power transformers to all possible types of faults.
Special monitoring devices for the detection of different
types of faults are in use.
The ability to withstand short circuits is a basic
requirement for a save operation of power transformers.
This ability can be affected by thermal and transient
mechanical stresses which occur during operation.
Especially, power transformers having a winding

* Prof. Dr.-Ing. K. Feser, Institute of Power Transmission and High Voltage Technology, University of Stuttgart, Pfaffenwaldring
47, D-70569 Stuttgart, Germany

displacement caused by a mechanical stress due to a

short circuit current should be classified as critical, fig.
1. Generally such pre-damaged power transformers
show a serious fault when a next short circuit event
occurs. To ensure a sufficient ability to withstand short
circuits life management should identify such predamaged power transformers.

the interturn capacitances and inductances. In order to

detect pre-damaged power transformers it is necessary
to develop new diagnostic methods having a better
sensitivity towards changes in the winding geometry.
One basic idea is the wide-band examination of the
impulse response of a power transformer by frequency
response analysis (FRA), because changes in the
winding geometry have an effect on the characteristic
frequencies. In the following chapters a special FRA
method in the time domain is described. Todays
experiences with the transfer function method applied in
the laboratory or on-site and future applications of the
method are discussed.

2 Basic principle of the transfer function

(TF) method
2.1 Theoretical background
The TF method is based on the two-port network theory.
Transformers represent for dielectric and dynamic
testing a linear, complex, time-resistant and passive
network as long as there are no non-linear MO-arrestors
built-in. The theory allows to define one input force and
several output gates, fig. 2.
IE

IA1

Transformer
UE

IA2 . .

IAn

Fig. 1: Typical winding displacement found in a

scrapped 200 MVA generator transformer
The requirements for power transformers regarding the
ability to withstand short circuits and testing procedures
are documented in IEC 60076-5. In the standard the
reactance measurement is described as a diagnostic
method to demonstrate the integrity of the windings. In
accordance with the standard, deviations of the
reactance of more than 2% are inadmissible with power
transformers having a rated power of 100 MVA and
above. Deviations between 1-2% are subject to an
agreement between manufacturer and user. Although the
detailed specification suggests a sufficient reliability of
the test procedure, the reactance measurement is usually
not applicable to detect winding displacements at power
transformers already in service. The main reason is the
accuracy of the reference values. Usually the accuracy
of the reference values is in the range of the sensitivity
of the reactance measurement. Additional phase
selective reference values often do not exist. In this case
a comparison with the results of a repetitive
measurement is doubtful and a reasonable assessment is
not possible. Furthermore, from physical considerations
one can derive that displacements as shown in fig. 1
have extremely low effect on the reactance of the
winding in concern and also the input capacitance of the
winding is normally less affected. Essential measurable
deviations in case of displacements have to be found in

UA1

UA2

UAn

complex RLCM-Network

Fig. 2: Transformer considered as linear two-portnetwork

Each defined output signal (output voltages UA and
currents IA , = 1...n) generates one TF according to:
- output voltages:

TF Au,( f ) = U A,( f )
U E( f )

(1)

- output currents:

TF Ai,( f ) = I A,( f )
U E( f )

(2)

UA,(f):
IA,(f):
UE (f):

FFT of output voltages

FFT of output currecnts
FFT of input voltage

A TF signifies a complex quotient of the Fourier

transformed output and input signals. The sensitivity to
defects and changes in transformers' assemblies for each
TF is different, [1,2,3,4].
2.2 Practical measurements on transformers
It is possible to determine the TF either in the time or in
the frequency domain, [5]. The determination in the
frequency domain is performed with a network-analyzer.
The frequency of a sine voltage excitation can be
controlled over the required bandwidth. The magnitude

and the angle of the complex TF can be evaluated, fig.

3.
5.0

5.0

Transformer

U0*(1-K(f1))

3.0

3.0

1.0

-1.0 0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1/f1

-1.0 0

1.2

-3.0

0.2

0.4

-3.0

complex RLCM-Network

-5.0

0.6

0.8

1.2

(f1)

-5.0

sine generator
(variable frequency)

(f1)

K(f1)

transfer function (magnitude)

2.5

K(f)

transfer function (phase)

3.0
2.0

2.0

1.0

1.5

(f)

1.0

0.0
-1.0

0.5

transient voltages the error of TF calculations increases

at higher frequencies for the time domain method.
Using transient signals means calculating the spectral
density at equidistant frequencies. The frequency
resolution depends on the record length of the signal.
Network-analyzers usually have several operating
modes. They use adaptive frequency steps for each
frequency range. The quality of spectral resolutions
especially for frequencies < 10 kHz is better than those
generated by transient signals. Nevertheless, final results
of both procedures are quite equal.

-2.0

0.0

-3.0
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2
MHz

1.4

0.0

0.2

Frequenz f
frequency
f

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

2.3 Signal Processing and requirements upon hardand software using the time domain method

MHz
1.2 1.4

Frequenz f
frequency
f

Fig. 3: Measuring the TF in frequency domain

In the time domain test objects are excited by low or
high impulse voltages. The input and output transients
are measured and analyzed. In low voltage
measurements the amplitudes are usually 100 V to 2000
V. The shape of the impulse voltage depends on the test
device and the test setup. The bandwidth of the exciting
signal should be as high as possible. Typical parameters
of the impulse shapes are front-times of 200 ns to 1 s
and times to half-value of 40 to 200 s, fig. 4. The
spectral distribution of the time domain signals are
calculated by using a FFT. The quotient of ouput to
input signal represents the TF in the frequency domain.
900

0.80

transformer

800

0.60

700

0.40

600

0.20

500

U (V)
400

I (A) 0.00
-0.20

300

-0.40

200

-0.60

100
0

-0.80
0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

complex RLCM-Network

100.0

Zeit (s)

0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

Zeit (s)

input signal

response signal

The signal to noise ratio of a recorded signal represents

the main quantity for the accuracy of TF calculations.
2.3.1 Sampling rate and record length
The sampling rate describes how often the analogue
signal is measured per second. The faster this is done the
higher frequencies can be measured by the digital
recorder. For a sampling rate fsample the maximum
frequency which can be recorded is given by the Nyquist
theorem:
f Nyquist =

f =

transfer function (phase)

3.0
2.0

1.5
|TF(f)|
1.0

0.0
arc(TF(f))

1.0

-1.0

0.5

-2.0

0.0

-3.0
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6
0.8
Frequenz f
frequency

1.0

1.2
MHz

1.4

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

MHz
1.2 1.4

In practice measurements in time domain can be

performed much faster than in frequency domain. One
impulse excitation takes only up to 1 ms. Storage of
samples, signal processing and calculation take a few
seconds. Depending on the test setups and the number of
channels inside the digital measuring system several
TF's can be measured at the same time. The duration of
measurements in frequency domain usually is about a
few minutes. Because most common network-analyzers
are constructed in a two channel version only one
response signal can be analyzed and only one TF can be
calculated for each test in the frequency domain. The
amplitudes of harmonic excitations at measurements in
the frequency domain are only a few volts. Distortion by
ambient noise can decrease the accuracy of the
measurement. Because of the limited bandwidth of

(4)

a = 2 k +1

Frequenz ff
frequency

Fig. 4: Measuring the TF in time domain

f sample

2.3.2 Analogue-to-digital conversion (ADC) - vertical

resolution
The amplitude resolution a describes the smallest
increment a digital recorder can resolve.
(5)

k: number of bits of ADC

The part of noise caused by ADC consequently is a
criteria for the accuracy of calculated spectral density.
Fig. 5 illustrates the effect of a 9 bit- and 12 bitquantization to the noise level.
-40
12-bit digitizing record

-60

9-bit digitizing record

|U(f)| [dB]

transfer function (magnitude)

2.0

(3)

Frequencies larger than the fNyquist are reproduced with

strong aliasing components.
The resolution f of FFT is determined by the record
length N of time domain signal:

filtering, sampling, windowing, FFT, quotient

2.5

f sample

-80
-100
-120

-104.6 dB
19.1 dB
-123.7 dB

-140
0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

frequency [MHz]

6.0

7.0

8.0

Fig. 5: Spectral density of low voltage impulses

The procedure of oversampling or resolution
enhancement relies on averaging multiple measurements of the same quantity. Oversampling can enhance
the resolution of signals in time domain at the cost of a
reduced bandwidth.
2.3.3 Transformation to frequency domain - transfer
functions
The comparabilty of TF results is affected by the test
setup, the measuring equipment, analogue and digital
signal processing and algorithms of calculation.
Sometimes, the software-based part of signal processing
is disregarded. Before a calculation of the spectral
density is performed software-based signal processing is
used. For this, several possibilities exist:
kind of windowing function (Hamming, Hanning,
exponential, ...)
parameters of windowing functions
zero-padding
using FFT or CZT (Chirp-Z-Transformation, [12])
The amplitude spectrum of a standard lightning impulse
excitation decreases strongly at higher frequencies. The
experiments.
High-voltage

Input Divider

Pre Amp.

A/D Conversion

Trigger
Logic

HV in

HV in

HV in

HV in

Digitizer CH 1

Digitizer CH 2

Digitizer CH 3

Digitizer CH 4

2.4 Hardware and software solutions

Measuring systems require a sufficient bandwidth and
vertical resolution. A high performance measuring
hardware and up-to-date software technologies are
necessary. Nowadays laboratories' test equipment are
integrated in communication network systems.
Consequently, standard hardware components of
personal computers (CPU, mainboards, ...) and standard
software applications (Windows, Linux, Office, ... )
have to be integrated. Fig. 6 shows the hardware concept
of the digital measuring device, used for the
measurements
and
evaluation
of
the

Memory

Low-voltage

Digitizer

frequency range with a signal to noise ratio > 40 dB is

only up to 400 kHz. The definition of tolerance bands
take under consideration the noise level of the recorded
signals, [7]. Two TF's are declared 'equal' if there is an
overlapping of both TF tolerance bands in the analyzed
frequency range.
The Coherence Function is another tool, which provides
an indication of the areas where the ingress of noise
made the signal processing unreliable. Assuming a linear
behaviour of the examined winding and an ideal, noisefree measuring system, the coherence shall be equal to
unity over all the analyzed frequency range, [8].

Timing
Control

3
4

Chanel Selector

b
u
f
f
e
r
e
d

CPU
(Pentium)

A
T
B
U
S

Monitor

Keyboard

COM 2

LPT 1

IEEE 488
Zip Drive
100 MByte

RS 232 C
COM 1
(Remote)

Floppy Drive

IEEE 488
(Remote)

HDD

SCSI-2
Power Supplies / Line filters

Optical (LWL)
Converter
HOST

MO-Drive
CD-Drive
etc.
= on request
= Option

Fig. 6: Modern high performance digitizing measuring device: HIAS 743 (12 Bit, 120 MHz, 128 kS)

3 Application of the transfer function

analysis in dielectric testing (lightning
and switching impulse test) and dynamic
testing in the laboratory
3.1 General
For several years the TF method is routinely applied
during the impulse test of transformers in the HV
laboratory. The real time records and the frequency
domain records of TF's represent a very sensitive
method of control for part winding breakdowns in
dielectric perspectives or for mechanical defiances such
as partwinding deformations, winding shifts, tilting or
buckling of windings in dynamic perspectives.
Furthermore, the TF method is the first tool which
allows to differentiate between test circuit deficites and
test object incipient faults. As postulated for a passive
network, the TF must stay constant and independent of
the applied waveshape. If the TF stays essentially
constant at reduced and full test level and one or more
other real time records show deviations, there is a clear
indication for a test circuit problem, fig. 7.

a.)

3.2 Lightning impulse (LI) testing

Today, LI tests are routine tests on large power
transformers. They may performed as full wave tests
1 x full wave at a reduced test level from 50% to 75%
(RFW)
3 x full wave at 100% test level (FW)
or as a combined full and chopped wave test
1 x RFW
1 x FW
1 x RCW (chopped wave at reduced test level)
2 x CW (chopped wave at full test level)
2 x FW
For transformers with built-in MO varistor protection
elements, the test sequence must be adjusted. In this
case, only TF's of records obtained at identical test
voltage can be compared.
Meanwhile the measuring and software tools have been
largely improved and some of the earlier problems with
the TF method have been solved [3]. Fig. 7a shows clear
indications for a failure (decrease of the neutral current)
but a fairly constant TF except a pole flattening which is
an indication for partial discharges without changing the
capacitive coupling of the system. However, a detailled
investigation showed a ladder was sparking to a
different ground and therefore the neutral current was
reduced. Fig. 7b shows a complete match after removal
of the ladder of the neutral current and the TF.

b.)

Fig. 7: TF analysis during the lightning impulse test of

a 300 MVA, 230 kV power transformer:
a.) with failure indication caused by a flashover
in the test circuit
b.) without failure indication after correcting
the test setup
Fig. 8 shows the records of the lightning impulse
voltage, the impulse current (iHV) from the neutral
terminal to ground, the current from the medium voltage
(MV) winding to ground (iMV) and the current from the
low voltage (LV) winding to ground (iLV) obtained
during the impulse test on the high voltage (HV) phase
1U of a 300 MVA (400 kV/115,5 kV/ 31,5 kV) power
transformer. A breakdown occurred after about 45 s.
Since the breakdown occurred in the regulating winding,
the change of the current from the neutral terminal to
ground is much higher than the change of the other
currents. The breakdown is clearly visible in the time
domain waveforms.
Fig. 9 shows the TF's of the above mentioned test
calculated as the quotient of the spectral densities of
impulse voltage and currents. There is a visible failure
indication in all three TF's. The oscillation in the TF is
typical in case of an internal breakdown and was
observed in several other cases of internal breakdowns.

4 Application of the transfer function for

diagnostic purposes to detect winding
displacements

500
kV
0
-500

-1000
-1500

a.)

4.1 Basic consideration

500
A
0

Using the TF for the detection of changes within the

transformer is a relative method of diagnoses, fig. 10.
Actual results of measurements are usually compared
with fingerprints of former times (time-based
evaluation). If there is no significant deviation of the
compared functions, there should be no change inside
the transformer during this time. Unfortunately,
fingerprints of old transformers are rarely available.
Thus, other informations have to be taken for a
comparison. TF's of identical constructed transformers
should be comparable (type-based evaluation). If
available, it can be taken as reference. If no fingerprint
and no identical test object exists, the symmetric
properties of the core-and-coil-assembly can be used to
compare several measurements (construction-based
evaluation). Sometimes, mechanical damages affect only
one of the three phases. A separate examination of all
phases will detect the differences of one phase towards
the others, [10]. The three evaluation procedures can
also be taken for fault identification and localisation.

-500

iHV

-1000

b.)

200
A
0
-200

iMV

-400
-600

c.)

200
A
0

iLV

-100
-200

20

40

d.)

60

80

120

Fig. 8: Records obtained during the lightning impulse

test of a 300 MVA power transformer at
100 % of the test level:
a.) lightning impulse voltage
b.) neutral current to ground
c.) current from the MV system to ground
d.) current from the LV system to ground

Database

3.5
3.0

|TF1(f)|

11

2.5

12

10

2.0

1.5

As a result winding faults can be seen in the time

domain measurements as well as in the TF. The
evaluation with the TF during tests in the laboratory can
improve the confidence in the test results and provides
additional information in case of an internal breakdown.

4
7

1.0

time-based
(fingerprint)

0.5
0.0
0.00

actual Measurement
Transfer Function
0.20

0.40

0.60

constructionbased (3 phases)

0.80

Comparison

type-based

Result of the Comparison

12
1
k
8

TF1

I
TF1 = HV
U

without fault
internal breakdown

no Changes

Measuring Accuracy
Measuring Error

4
0

a.)

3
1
k
2

TF2

TF2 =

IMV
U

Evaluation of the Measurement

Fig. 10: Chronology of on-site diagnostics for power

transformers using the TF method

b.)
1.2
1
k
0.8

TF3

TF3 =

ILV
U

0.4
0
0

c.)

significant Deviations

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

MHz

0.8

Fig. 9: Comparison of TF's from records with and

without internal breakdown for the time signals
of fig. 8:
a.) TF neutral current to ground(HV)
b.) TF current MV to ground

After comparing the results and considering the

expected accuracy of the measurement, the test engineer
or in future a software application has to decide, if the
results deviate significantly. If a significant deviation is
detected, the measurement has to be evaluated in detail.
The results will be compared with a database, which
includes an amount of experimental experiences and
rules of correlations of TF characteristics and changes in
core-and-coil assemblies. The expectations of the user
are some conclusions and recommendations. In case of a
detected damage inside the test object, other
examinations should follow. Measurements of partial
discharges, thermal supervisions, gas-in-oil, short-circuit
impedances and acoustic analyzes of vibrations can be
such further methods, [9].

On-site measurements should be as efficient as possible.

Performing on-site measurements represents a time out
of service for the transformer and consequently
additional costs. Test and measuring equipment to
perform TF measurements must be mobile, adaptive to
different test objects and easy to handle. Measurements
in time domain on one transformer with a mobile
equipment, including records at different phases and tap
positions, take a few hours, fig. 11. The duration of
being out of service is one day.

Fig. 11: On-site TF tests at a 200 MVA power

transformer using a mobile test equipment
Impulse generator (Umax = 4 kV, T1 500 ns, T2 100
s) and transient recorder (HIAS 743) are integrated in
a van which should be located as close as possible to the
transformer. For connecting test and measuring
equipment to the bushings of the transformer coaxial
cables and special adapters are used. The experience has
shown that arrangements are critical and have to be
performed with special care.
4.2 Investigations to the sensitivity of the transfer
function to mechanical displacements
To get an information about the sensitivity of the TF
method a lot of measurements have to be performed.
With these measurements deviations of TF's can be
correlated to mechanical displacements, [9]. Because
damaged windings are rarely available special
experiments were performed. Fig. 12 and fig. 13 show
one experimental simulation of a radial deformation at a
tapped winding of a 200 MVA generator transformer.
The experiment simulates damages in windings caused
by short-circuits in substations, fig. 1.
The upper layer of a tapped winding has been pressed in
radial direction using a thrust bolt and hydraulic jacks.
The effect of deformation is not very obvious in the TF
of the neutral current, fig. 13a.

a.)
b.)
c.)
Fig. 12: Experimental simulation of radial deformations at a tapped winding:
a.) hydraulic jacks (300 kN)
b.) thrust bolt
c.) radial deformation in tapped winding
(depth 5 cm)
The absolute effect is comparable to the uncertainty of
the measurement. The influence on the TF of the
transferred voltage is much more obvious, fig. 13b. In a
range of 400 kHz up to 800 kHz the differences are very
significant. Trends of increasing and decreasing absolute
values in this frequency range is detectable. There is
also a movement of the resonant frequency near 600
kHz.
20.0
deformation degree 1
(k )

-1

deformation degree 2
deformation degree 3

12.0

deformation degree 4

|TF1(f)|
8.0

4.0

a.a.)

0.0
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

MHz

0.8

0.9
deformation degree 1

0.8

deformation degree 2

0.7

deformation degree 3
0.6

|TF3(f)|

deformation degree 4

0.5

extent of
deformation

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

MHz

0.8

b.)
b.
frequency f
Fig. 13: Experimental simulation of radial deformations
at a tapped winding:
a.) TF: current of the grounded neutral
b.) TF: transferred voltage (impulsed block)
Short-circuits nearby a transformer may also cause an
axial shift of winding cylinders. This effect can only be
simulated with a separate block of windings. In an
experiment an axial shift of two windings have been
investigated by lifting the high voltage cylinder towards
the low voltage one with a crane.
Fig. 14 shows the determined TF's of the grounded
current and the transferred signal of the low voltage
winding.

0.25

16.0
-1

axial shift 0 cm

(k14.0
)

at manufacturers laboratory

0.20

axial shift: 5 cm

12.0

at customers substation

axial shift: 15 cm
axial shift: 25 cm

10.0

0.15

axial shift: 35 cm

|TF1(f)| 8.0

|TF 2 (f)|

axial shift: 50 cm

0.10

6.0
4.0

0.05
2.0
0.0

0.00
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

MHz
1.2

1.4

5.0
axial shift: 0 cm
axial shift: 15 cm
axial shift: 25 cm

3.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
0.5
0.6
frequency f

0.7

0.8

MHz
0.9

1.0

Fig. 15: TF measurements for monitoring a transport of

a 125 MVA-power transformer (pulsed winding
1U, transferred voltage 2U)

axial shift: 5 cm

4.0

0.0

axial shift: 35 cm

|TF2(f)|

axial shift: 50 cm

2.0
shifting

1.0

0.0
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

MHz
1.2

1.4

frequency f

Fig. 14: Experimental simulation of axial shifts of two

winding cylinders: TF's of the
a.) current of the grounded end
b.) transferred voltage of the low voltage
winding
The TF of the transferred voltage signal illustrates the
effect of an axial shift. The main resonant frequency
decreases, while the damping rate up to 700 kHz
increases. A displacement of 5 cm axial height can
indicate a significant shift in the TF and represents
therefore the sensitivity of the method. The results of the
neutral current show no significant changes.
4.3 Examples of diagnoses with the transfer
function method on new and old power
transformers
4.3.1 Control of transportation
After the test of transformers in manufacturers'
laboratories there is a partial dismantling for transport
(drain off the oil, dismantling of bushings, ...).
Dismantling, transport and final installation represents
mechanical stress for the core-and-coil assembly. To
detect possible mechanical displacements TF's can be
measured before and after the transport. To achieve a
high comparability of both results, there must be
identical conditions for setups. The equipment, the setup
of signal wires and the grounding concept should be as
similar as possible. Fig. 15 illustrates the results of TF
measurements for a 125 MVA power transformer. The
TF has been analyzed before dismantling in the factory
and after installation in the substation.

The TF's show significant deviations because of a

different setup. At the substation the test and measuring
equipment could not be installed in the same way as in
the factory. The result of this comparison shows the
effect of a non-reproductive test arrangement. It
demonstrates the influence of the test setup on the TF
and the need of a special care to perform such
measurements. Other investigations determined a
sufficient reproducibility of currents' TF's up to 400
kHz. The deviations for frequencies more than 400 kHz
were caused by different grounding setups, [13].
4.3.2 Control of short-circuit tests or short circuits in
power systems
Short circuits near transfomers usually cause currents of
high amplitudes. This leads to extreme mechanical stress
of core-and-coil assembly, fig. 1. The mechanical forces
do not always cause a failure. Sometimes, there are only
some pre-damages, which are not recognized and further
service is still possible.
In order to prove the short-circuit withstand capability,
special tests can be performed. Any damages inside the
transformer caused by the tests should be indicated by
appropriate diagnostics. According to IEC standard a
short-circuit test is accepted with a deviation lower than
2 % of the measured short-circuit impedances before
and after the tests. However, practical experiments did
not show a sufficient sensitivity of this method
concerning mechanical changes in core-and-coilassemblies. The TF method seems to represent a method
of a better sensitivity. To get some practical experience
a short-circuit test of a 125 MVA power transformer
was evaluated with TF's before and after the tests. The
TF of the neutral current and the transferred voltage of
the pulse tested winding block were recorded, fig. 16.
There is almost a perfect match of the TF's of the
current, fig.16a. On the TF of the transferred voltage is a
slight deviation at higher frequencies resulting from the
measuring circuit layout and the low signal to noise
ratio. This experiment demonstrates the sensitivity of the
TF method in order to improve the current uncertainties
in assessment of successful dynamic tests, [10]. A visual

inspection of the core-and-coil assembly after the tests

has shown no mechanical damages.

7.0
(k )

(k)

-1

Transformer 1
Transformer 2

12.0

5.0

before short-circuit test

after short-circuit test

-1

4.0

|TF1(f)|
3.0

8.0

|TF1(f)|

2.0

6.0
1.0

4.0
0.0

a.
a.)

2.0

a.
a.)

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

MHz

1.0

MHz

1.0

frequency f
0.25

0.0
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

MHz

1.0
Transformer 1

0.20

0.30

Transformer 2
before short-circuit test

0.25

0.15

after short-circuit test

|TF2(f)|
0.20

0.10

|TF2(f)|
0.15
0.05
0.10
0.00
0.05

0.0

0.00
0.0

b.
b.)

0.1

0.2

0.3

b.
b.)
0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

MHz

1.0

frequency f

Fig. 16: Evaluation of a short-circuit test of a 125-MVA

transformer using the TF method (performed at
KEMA high power laboratory, pulsed block
1V, nominal tap):
a.) TF of the current of the grounded neutral
b.) TF of the transferred voltage 2V

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

frequency f

Fig. 17: TF's of two identical constructed 125 MVAtransformers: pulsed block 1V, nominal tap:
a.) TF of the current of the grounded neutral
b.) TF of the transferred voltage 2V
The service life of the 24 tested transformers are from
24 to 32 years. Fig. 18 presents a comparison of the TF's
of two transformers in different substations. Both
transformers were constructed in the same year.
14.0

4.3.3 Inspection of 30 years old transformers

The actual condition of a transformer 30 years in service
is much more interesting than those of new ones.
Unfortunately, fingerprint measurements of TF from
former times are rarely available. In substations,
transformers were sometimes installed as a set, so that
there are two or more identical constructed transformers
at one location. If there is no fingerprint of an earlier
measurement, results of such 'twins' can be compared.
Fig. 17 presents a comparison of two new 125 MVA
power transformers in a substation to demonstrate the
type-based comparison.
The TF characteristics of both transformers are
equivalent. The TF's of the transferred voltage do not
differ significantly. There are small differences between
the results of the neutral current, fig. 17a. This is an
effect of a small signal-to-noise ratio. If transformers of
the same type are installed at different locations, a typebased comparison is also possible. To check the
practical use of the developed test and measuring setup
the TF's of several 200 MVA-transformers of one
manufacturer are examined.

12.0-1
(k)

UA Limburg Trafo 22
UA Brauweiler Trafo 22

10.0
8.0
|TF1(f)|
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0

a.)

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

MHz
0.9

1.0

0.7
0.6

UA Limburg Trafo 22

0.5

UA Brauweiler Trafo 22

0.4
|TF20.3
(f)|
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0

b.)

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
0.5
0.6
frequency f

0.7

0.8

MHz
0.9

1.0

Fig. 18: TF's of two identical constructed 200 MVA

power transformers located at different
substations (pulse 1V, tap 1):
a.) TF of the current of the grounded neutral
b.) TF of the transferred voltage

In spite of different locations for the measurement the

results of both TF's are identical. This experiment
indicates the possibility to achieve comparable TF
results at different places if there is an effort to have a
reproduceable setup and well developed measuring
equipment and it proves the equality of the mechanical
construction of windings.
To recognize more about the variations of TF results,
fig. 19 shows the comparison between 8 transformers of
the same design but manufactured at different years.
12.0

8.0
6.0
|TF1(f)|
4.0

pulsed phase 1U
pused phase 1V

10.0

pulsed phase 1W
8.0
|TF1(f)|
6.0
4.0
2.0

a.)

0.0
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

MHz
0.9

1.0

frequency f

0.8

Limburg 1
Osterath 2
Utfort
Pfalzdorf 2
Opladen 2
Ibbenbren 1
Lstringen 1
Lbbecke

10.0-1
(k)

14.0
-1
(k)
12.0

0.7
pulsed phase 1U
0.6
pulsed phase 1V
0.5

pulsed phase 1W

0.4
(f)|
|TF20.3
0.2

2.0

0.1

0.0

a.)

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

MHz
0.9

1.0

0.7

0.5
0.4
(f)|
|TF20.3

0.1
0.0
0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4
0.5
0.6
frequency f

0.7

0.8

MHz
0.9

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

MHz
0.9

1.0

frequency f

Fig. 20: Using symmetric properties of a 200 MVApower transformer: pulsed blocks 1U, 1V, 1W
(UA Brauweiler, tap 10+)
a.) TF of the current of the grounded neutral
b.) TF of the transferred voltage 2V

0.2

b.)

0.0

b.)

Limburg 1
Osterath 2
Utfort
Pfalzdorf 2
Opladen 2
Ibbenbren 1
Lstringen 1
Lbbecke

0.6

0.0

1.0

Fig. 19: TF diagnostics at a set of 200 MVA

transformers (impulse 1U, tap 1):
a.) TF of the current of the grounded neutral
b.) TF of the transferred voltage
The resonant frequencies of the neutral current are
nearly identical. There is a variation concerning
attenuation of poles. The deviations in the range 420 470 kHz is an effect of a low signal-to-noise ratio. The
spectral distributions of the transferred voltage are
identical. Most of the 24 examined transformers have a
similar mechanical state of core-and-coil assembly.
Sometimes there is neither a 'twin transformer' (identical
construction) nor a fingerprint of an earlier measurement
available. The evaluation of the TF method correlate
upon the symmetric properties of the phases. Fig. 20
illustrates an example of an inspection of a 200 MVA
power transformer using the symmetric properties.
For the measurement of an impulse response the
transformer is usually exited on one single phase.
According to the test setup, several TF's can be
calculated. Then the results of separate measurements
with different excited phases can be compared for the
detection of irregularities.

The results for the 200 MVA transformer show

equivalent resonant frequencies of the neutral current.
Above 550 kHz the accurracy is decreased due to the
noise level. Some deviations in the TF's of the
transferred voltage are detectable. Other experiments
indicate the dependence of the TF upon 3-phase
symmetrie
characteristics,
vector
group
and
specifications of construction, [10].

5 Discussion of the results

The TF is a diagnostic tool to detect winding faults
during standard impulse tests in laboratories. There is an
evident difference in the characteristics of the TF if the
fault is inside the transformer or in the test setup. The
TF method is very sensitive to winding faults. The
evaluation of TF's is a much more sensitive method than
evaluating time domain signals.
To get reproduceable TF measurements it is necessary
to use standard test setups with qualified measuring
equipment. If all requirements are fulfilled TF can be
used for the evaluation of transport damages.
Utilities are interested to detect mechanical and
electrical pre-damages on transformers in service. The
effect of radial deformations in transformer windings are
visible in the TF's of transferred voltages. Radial
deformations are of effect to electric field components,
so the influence towards transferred voltages is much
bigger than towards neutral currents. Axial shifts of
windings effect obvious changes in TF characteristics of

transferred voltages. According to the applied tests the

sensitivity of the TF method can recognize a shift of 2 %
of the axial height of the winding. The TF method is a
relative method. Three types of comparison for
measurements can be realized, fig. 10. Time-based
comparisons are used to make diagnostics at certain
moments. The reason for this can either be special tests
or a yearly performed inspection. Using standard
equipment and test setups allows to get comparable
results, even at different locations, fig. 19. Comparing
identical designed transformers represents another
method to get reference data. In spite of a certain
inaccuracy of TF measurements the main characteristics
must be equal (resonant frequencies, damping rate at res.
frequency). The results of 24 same-typed transformers
illustrate the comparability of such investigations when
the same concept of test setup is used. If there is an
effort, identical results can be achieved at different
locations, fig. 20.
The third kind of comparison uses the 3-phase
construction of the core-and-coil assembly. The results
of the separate tested blocks are compared. There may
be differences in the TF caused by the typical features of
mechanical constructions or the type of vector group.
Consequently this method can be applied to locate and
to identify the fault.
The evaluation of the TF for large power transformers
can be performed in a certain frequency range. The
lower frequency is limited by the tail-time of the applied
impulse. The higher frequency is limited by the signal to
noise ratio. In practice, the used frequency range is
between 10 kHz and 1 MHz. Below 10 kHz the FRAmethod with network-analyzers should be applied. But
mechanical displacements can be recognized at
frequencies of some hundred kHz and therefore the
evaluation of the TF with measurements in the time
domain is recommended.

breaker a record lenth of at least 200 kSamples (e. g.

sampling rate 10 MHz ) is necessary. Because of the
statistical distribution of amplitudes, the vertical
resolution should be at least 10 bit. Fig. 21 shows one
zoomed record of a signal at a 200 MVA 220/110 kV
transformer in a power station. The transient is caused
by the switching of phase 1W of the breaker poles next
to the transformer. The TF's of two records are analyzed
in fig. 22. The comparison indicates no significant
difference.
200

250

150
A

kV
200

100

150

u1U(t)

50

i1N(t)

100

0
50

-50

-100
-150
0.00

a.)

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90
ms

-50
0.00

1.00

b.)

50

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

ms
0.90

1.00

0.60

0.70

0.80

ms
0.90

1.00

Zeit

250

kV0

kV
200

-50
150

-100

u1V(t)

u1W(t)

100

-150
-200

50

-250
0
-300
-350
0.00

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

ms
0.90

-50
0.00

1.00

Zeit

c.)

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

Zeit

d.)

Fig. 21: Transient signals for TF on-line diagnostics at a

200 MVA transformer in a power station
(switching 1W):
a.) neutral current (HV)
b.) transient voltage 1U
c.) transient voltage 1W
d.) transient voltage 1V
This
on-line monitoring system is in continious
operation since 1995.
14.0
-1
(k)
12.0

transient record 02.09.96

transient record 27.09.95

10.0
8.0
|TF (f)|

6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0

6 On-line measurements of transfer

functions
TF measurements in time domain can be practiced with
high or low voltage impulses. On-site measurements are
performed offline. For this usually low voltage
excitations are used. Performing TF analysis with high
voltage signals is typical for standard impulse tests at
manufacturers' laboratories. It can also be performed onsite in a substation. High voltage transients at the
bushings of transformers are overvoltages e.g. switching
transients originated by a breaker operation, [11]. The
quality of a TF calculation depends mainly on the
spectral quality of the transient signal. Recording such
transients during the regular service represents a
possbility to practice on-line-TF-monitoring. For this a
high performance digitizing system, a trigger device,
high voltage sensors and current sensors have to be
installed at the transformer. Because of the required
bandwidth sampling rates should not be lower than 10
MHz. To record all single transients caused by a 3-phase

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

MHz
0.9

1.0

frequency f

Fig. 22: On-line TF diagnostics at a 200 MVA

transformer in a power station (TF of the
neutral current, excitation at 1W)
There are some additional requirements for a
comparison of TF's calculated by on-line recorded
transients:
thermal conditions of the transformer must be similar
identical position of tap-changer
comparable circuit of the power system next to the
transformer
sufficient vertical resolution
Due to these requirements not all measured transient
signals can be used for TF analysis. In addition,
economic considerations clearly demonstrate the
advantage of the low voltage method for the evaluation
of the TF with time domain signals for diagnoses.

7 Conclusions
The TF method seems to represent a quite sensitive
method to detect faults in test setups and transformers.
In high voltage laboratories this method is able to
evaluate impulse tests. Detectable faults usually are
dielectric faults. The aim of evaluating TF's during
impulse tests in manufacturer's laboratories should be to
generate a data base for the identification and
localization of faults.
Previous
investigations
indicate
a
sufficient
reproducibility of low voltage on-site measurements
even at different locations. This is an essential
requirement to do on-site diagnoses for power
transformers. The presented experiments to estimate the
sensitivity to mechanical defects and pre-damages are
first results. To confirm the presented results and trends
further experiments and evaluations have to be
performed. Only a suitable set of experimental
investigations allow to create rules about correlations
between TF characteristics and mechanical faults. In
addition to these experiments mathematical models must
be developed to prove the general validity of the
experimental results.
The results indicate limits and possibilities in diagnoses
of mechanical displacements with the evaluation of TF's
(low voltage method). Especially for TF analysis the
amplitude resolution of the analogue to digital converter
is the most important quantity. An amplitude resolution
of 12 real bits was improving the sensitivity as well as
the upper frequency limit. The sensitivity of the TF
method with time domain measurements of voltages and
currents was sufficient in a frequency range of 10 kHz
f 1 MHz. Below 10 kHz the tail of the impulse was too
short and above 1MHz the signal to noise ratio became
too small. Further researches are nescessary for the
application of the TF method for diagnoses on
transformers.

8 Literature
[1] IEC 722: Guide to the lightning impulse and
switching impulse testing of power transformers
and reactors. International Electrotechnical
Commission, 1982
[2] Malewski, R.; Poulin, B.: Impulse Testing of
Power Transformers using the Transfer Function
Method. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery,
Vol. 3, No. 2, 1988
[3] Maier, R.; Kachler, A. : Neues Verfahren zur
Beurteilung der Stospannngsprfung von
Transformatoren" Elektrizittswirtschaft Jg. 89
(1990), Heft 18, p. 984-989
[4] Malewski, R.; Gockenbach, E.; Maier, R.;
Fellmann, K. H.; Claudi, A.: Five Years of
Monitoring the Impulse Test of Power
Transformers with digital Recorders and the

Transfer
Function
Method.
International
Conference on Large High Voltage Electric
Systems (CIGRE), 1992, Bd. I
[5] Christian, J.; Feser, K.; Sundermann, U.:
Beurteilung des Zustandes von Transformatoren
mit der bertragungsfunktion. ETG-Fachbericht
79, Internationale ETG-Tage '99, Mnchen, 1999
[6] Claudi, A.; Loppacher, M.: New Methods for
Improving the Reliability of Non-Destructive
High-Voltage Impulse Testing. 5th International
Conference on Transformers, Mumbai, 1998
[7] Leibfried, T.; Feser, K.: A new Method for
Evaluating Transfer Functions of Power
Transformers. 10th International Symposium on
High Voltage Engineering, Vol. 4, Montral, 1997
[8] Malewski, R.; Claudi, A.; Josephy, Ch.; Jud, St.:
Checking electromagnetic compatibility of a HV
impulse measuring circuit with coherence
functions. ERA Technology Conference H.V.
Measurements and Calibration, Arnhem, 1995
[9] Christian, J.; Feser, K.; Sundermann, U.:
Diagnostics of Power Transformers by using the
Transfer Function Method. 11th International
Symposium on High Voltage Engineering, London,
1999
[10] Christian, J.; Feser, K.; Leibfried, T.; Jeaggi, F.:
Die bertragungsfunktion als Methode zur
Beurteilung der Stosskurzschlussprfung und VorOrt-Diagnose. Elektrizittswirtschaft, Jg. 98
(1999), Heft 7,
p. 40-44
[11] Feser, K.; Feuchter, B.; Lauersdorf, M.; Leibfried,
T.: Gerneral Trends in Condition Monitoring of
Electrical Insulation. International Symposium on
Electric Power Engineering, Stockholm Power
Tech Conference, SPT IS 05-1, Stockholm, 1995
[12] Pfeiffer, W.; Scheuerer, F.: Vergleichende
Bewertung der Chirp-Z-Transformation und der
Fast-Fourier-Transformation. Elektrie, 10 (1993),
p. 370-374
[13] Leibfried, T.; Feser, J.; Miksa, T.: On-lineberwachung eines 350-MVA-Transformators
durch
die
bertragungsfunktion.
Elektrizittswirtschaft, Jg. 96 (1997), Heft 10, p.
477-482

Haefely Test AG
High Voltage Test Division
CH-4028 Basel/Switzerland
Phone +41.61.373 41 11
Fax
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www.haefely.com
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