Surfaces

Contaminant
1 nm
1100 nm

1100 nm
10100 nm
1100 mm

Adsorbed gas
Oxide layer
Beilby (amorphous) layer
Work-hardened layer
Metal substrate

FIGURE 4.1 Schematic illustration of the cross-section of the surface structure of metals. The thickness of
the individual layers depends on processing conditions and the environment. Source: After E. Rabinowicz and
B. Bhushan.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Terminology for Surface Finish

Flaw
Waviness
height

Lay direction

Roughness
height, Rt
Roughness spacing

Roughness-width cutoff
Waviness width

=
Surface profile

Error of form

Maximum waviness height

Maximum Ra
Minimum Ra

Waviness

0.002-2
125
63 0.010
0.005

Roughness

Maximum waviness width

Roughness-width cutoff
Maximum roughness width

Lay
(a)

Lay
symbol

Interpretation

Examples

Lay parallel to the line representing the surface

to which the symbol is applied

Lay perpendicular to the line representing the

surface to which the symbol is applied

FIGURE 4.2 (a) Standard terminology and symbols used to

describe surface finish. The quantities are given in in. (b)
Common surface-lay symbols.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Lay angular in both directions to line representing

the surface to which symbol is applied

Pitted, protuberant, porous, or particulate

nondirectional lay

(b)

Surface Roughness

Digitized data

y
A

f g hi j k l
a b c de

B
Surface profile

Ra Roughness
ya + yb + yc + + yn 1 n
1
Ra =
= yi =
n
n i=1
l

Center (datum) line

|y| dx

FIGURE 4.3 Coordinates used for measurement of

surface roughness, used in Eqs. (4.1) and (4.2).

Rq Roughness
"
!
#Z l
$1/2
n
2
2
2
2
ya + yb + yc + + yn
1
y2 dx
=
y2i =
Rq =

n
n i=1
0

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Stylus Profilometry
Stylus
Head

Stylus path

Rider

Actual surface
Stylus
Workpiece

(a)

(b)

0.5 m (20 in.)

0.6 m (25 in.)

0.4 mm (0.016 in.)

(c) Lapping

3.8 m (150 in.)

(d) Finish grinding

5 m (200 in.)

(e) Rough grinding

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

(f) Turning

FIGURE 4.4 (a) Measuring surface

roughness with a stylus. The rider
supports the stylus and guards against
damage. (b) Path of the stylus in
measurements of surface roughness
(broken line) compared with the actual
roughness profile. Note that the profile
of the stylus' path is smoother than the
actual surface profile. Typical surface
profiles produced by (c) lapping, (d)
finish grinding, (e) rough grinding, and
(f) turning processes. Note the
difference between the vertical and
horizontal scales.

Micro-Scale Adhesion

N
F
Microweld
Plastic
Projected
contact
patches

Elastic

FIGURE 4.5 (a) Schematic illustration of the interface of two contacting surfaces, showing the real
areas of contact. (b) Sketch illustrating the proportion of the apparent area to the real area of contact.
The ratio of the areas can be as high as four to five orders of magnitude.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Friction in Manufacturing

Friction force, F

Ar ~A

Ar<A

Ar<<A

Forging, extrusion
F
M
N

Drawing, rolling

Stretch forming
Deep drawing

Coulomb Friction
F
Ar

= =
=
N Ar

Metal cutting

Bending

Normal force, N

FIGURE 4.6 Schematic illustration of the relation between friction

force F and normal force N. Note that as the real area of contact
approaches the apparent area, the friction force reaches a maximum
and stabilizes. At low normal forces, the friction force is proportional
to normal force; most machine components operate in this region.
The friction force is not linearly related to normal force in
metalworking operations, because of the high contact pressures
involved.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Tresca Friction
i
m=
k

Coefficient of Friction in Metalworking

Process
Rolling
Forging
Drawing
Sheet-metal forming
Machining

Coefficient of Friction ()
Cold
Hot
0.05-0.1
0.2-0.7
0.05-0.1
0.1-0.2
0.03-0.1

0.05-0.1
0.1-0.2
0.5-2

TABLE 4.1 Coefficient of friction in metalworking processes.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Effect of Lubrication
Good lubrication

Poor lubrication

(a)

(b)

FIGURE 4.7 (a) The effects of lubrication on barreling in the ring compression test. (a) With good lubrication,
both the inner and outer diameters increase as the specimen is compressed; and with poor or no lubrication,
friction is high, and the inner diameter decreases. The direction of barreling depends on the relative motion of
the cylindrical surfaces with respect to the flat dies. (b) Test results: (1) original specimen, and (2-4) the
specimen under increasing friction. Source: A.T. Male and M.G. Cockcroft.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Original dimensions
80 of specimen:
OD = 3/4 in.= 19 mm
ID = 3/8 in.= 9.5 mm
70 Height = 1/4 in.= 0.64 mm

=0
.577

Ring Compression Test

0.40
70
0.30

m = 1.0
60

0.20

50
0.15

40

0.12

30

0.10
0.09
0.08
0.07

20
10

0.06
0.055
0.05

0
210

0.04

220

Reduction in internal diameter (%)

Reduction in internal diameter (%)

60

50
0.7
40
0.5

30
20

0.3
10
0.2
0

0.15

0.03
210

230

0.10

240
250

~0.02
0
0

10

20 30 40 50 60
Reduction in height (%)

70

(a)

220
0

10

0.05
20
30
40
50
Reduction in height (%)

60

70

(b)

FIGURE 4.8 Charts to determine friction in ring compression tests: (a) coefficient of friction, ; (b) friction factor, m. Friction is
determined from these charts from the percent reduction in height and by measuring the percent change in the internal diameter
of the specimen after compression.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.
Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Profile Evolution Due to Wear

Scale:

250 m
25 m

Unworn

Worn
(a)

Unworn

Worn
(b)

FIGURE 4.9 Changes in originally (a) wire-brushed and (b) ground-surface

profiles after wear. Source: E. Wild and K.J. Mack.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Adhesive Wear Model

Hard
Plastic zone
(microweld)
(a)

(b)

Soft

Metal transfer
(possible wear
fragment)
(c)

FIGURE 4.10 Schematic illustration of (a) asperities contacting, (b) adhesion between two asperities,
and (c) the formation of a wear particle.
Unlubricated
Mild steel on mild steel
6040 brass on hardened tool steel
Hardened tool steel on
hardened tool steel
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
on tool steel
Tungsten carbide on mild steel

k
to 103
103
104

102

105

Lubricated
52100 steel on 52100 steel
Aluminum bronze
on hardened steel
Hardened steel
on hardened steel

k
to 1010
108
109
109
109

107

106

TABLE 4.2 Approximate order of magnitude for the wear coefficient, k, in air.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Archard Wear Law:

LW
V =k
3p

Abrasive and Other Wear

Top die

Chip

1 5 3 4 2 1

1 5 3 4 1

1 Erosion
2 Pitting (lubricated dies only)
3 Thermal fatigue

Hard particle

4 Mechanical fatigue

Ejector

Bottom die

5 Plastic deformation

C
L

FIGURE 4.11 Schematic illustration of abrasive

wear in sliding. Longitudinal scratches on a
surface usually indicate abrasive wear.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

FIGURE 4.12 Types of wear observed in a single die used for

hot forging. Source: After T.A. Dean.

Regimes of Lubrication
Tooling
Lubricant
Workpiece
(b) Thin film

(a) Thick film

Boundary film

(c) Mixed

(d) Boundary

FIGURE 4.13 Regimes of lubrication generally occurring in metalworking

operations. Source: After W.R.D. Wilson.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Roller Burnishing

Roller
Roller
Burnished
surface

Roller

Workpiece
(a)

(b)

(c)

FIGURE 4.14 Examples of roller burnishing of (a) the fillet of a stepped shaft, (b) an
internal conical surface, and (c) a flat surface.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Thermal Wire Spraying

Wire or rod
Gas nozzle

Air cap

Workpiece

Combustion chamber
Oxygen
Fuel gas
High-velocity gas

Molten
metal spray
Deposited coating

FIGURE 4.15 Schematic illustration of thermal wire spraying.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Chemical Vapor Deposition

Carrier gases

Exhaust

Exhaust scrubber
TiCl4

Graphite shelves
Tools to be coated

Electric furnace

Stainless steel retort

FIGURE 4.16 Schematic illustration of the chemical vapor deposition process.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Electroplating
+

SO4-H+
Cu++
SO4-Cu++

Agitator

Cu++

SO4--

SO4-H+

H+

Cu++
SO4--

H+

Cu++

H+
SO4--

Part to be plated
(cathode)

Heating coils

Sacrificial
(copper) anode
(a)

(b)

FIGURE 4.17 (a) Schematic illustration of the electroplating process. (b) Examples of electroplated
parts. Source: Courtesy of BFG Electroplating.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Coordinate Measuring Machine

z-axis spindle

Probe adapter
Probe

(b)

Measuring table

Computer
controller

Machine stand

(c)

FIGURE 4.18 (a) A coordinate measuring machine with part being measured; (b) a touch
signal probe measuring the geometry of a gear; (c) examples of laser probes. Source:
Courtesy Mitutoyo America Corp.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Upper deviation

Basic size

Zero line or line

of zero deviation
Maximum
diameter

Lower deviation
Minimum
diameter

Shaft

Tolerance

Upper deviation

Hole

Basic size

Lower deviation

Minimum
diameter

Maximum
diameter

Tolerance

Dimensional Tolerancing

(a)

Bilateral
tolerance

40.00 + 0.05
mm
- 0.05
1.575 + 0.002
in.
- 0.002

(b)

Unilateral
tolerance

(c)

40.05 + 0.00
mm
- 0.10
1.577 + 0.000
in.
- 0.004

Limit
dimensions

40.05
mm
39.95
1.577
in.
1.573

(d)

FIGURE 4.19 (a) Basic size, deviation, and tolerance on a shaft, according to the ISO system.
(b)-(d) Various methods of assigning tolerances on a shaft. Source: L.E. Doyle.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Tolerances by Process
N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9 N10 N11 N12 ISO No.
0.025 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.6 3.2 6.3 12.5 25

nt

Tolerance range (in.)

e
an

nd
Sa

st
ca

ll
he e
m
S
r
g
Pe
or
r
,f
e
e
t
as trud
Pl
ill
ex
m
et st oll,
h
m
er ca t r t
ug
ro
wd ie Ho cas
,
t
Po Al-d
h ne
en ll
n
nc pla
tm , ro
die
u
s
ur
,
p
n
e
e d
,t
Z
d
ill, ape
Invxtru
r
in
D Sh
e
gr
ld
h,
o
g
C
u
Ro
w
ll
dra
mi
ld
e
Coank inish -EDM, bor
l F
n
M
r
b
m
n
ECsh tu
rea
sio
i
i
,
c
n
h
i
f
c
Pre
d,
roa
rin
B
g
ish
Fin

0.010

0.001

,
, lap

sh
Poli

0.0001
0.5

old

e
hon

50 m
2.0
1.0
0.5

0.1

mm

0.100

0.05

0.01
0.005

4
8 16 32 63 125 250 500 1000 2000
Surface roughness, Ra (in.)

FIGURE 4.20 Tolerances and surface roughness obtained in various manufacturing processes.
These tolerances apply to a 25-mm (1-in.) workpiece dimension. Source: After J.A. Schey.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

Frequency Distribution

6
4
2
13.00
Diameter of shafts (mm)

13.05

-4! -3

-2

-1

(a)

0 +1

+2

+3

+4!

(b)

8
6

Upper
specification

10
Lower
specification

0
12.95

99.73%
95.46
68.26

Frequency of occurrence

Frequency of occurrence

Frequency of occurrence
(number of shafts)

10

4
2
0
12.95

13.00
Diameter of shafts (mm)

13.05

(c)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

FIGURE 4.21 (a) A plot of the number of shafts measured

and their respective diameters. This type of curve is called a
frequency distribution. (b) A normal distribution curve
indicating areas within each range of standard deviation.
Note: The greater the range, the higher the percentage of
parts that fall within it. (c) Frequency distribution curve,
showing lower and upper specification limits.

Average diameter, x (mm)

Control Charts
13.04
13.03
13.02
13.01
13.00
12.99
12.98
12.97
12.96
0

Average of 5 samples
Average of next 5 samples
Average of next 5 samples
UCLx
_
x (average of
averages)
LCLx

Time

Range, R (mm)

(a)

0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0

UCLR
R (average
range)
LCLR
Time
(b)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

FIGURE 4.22 Control charts used in statistical quality

control. The process shown is in good statistical control,
because all points fall within the lower and upper control
limits. In this illustration, the sample size is five, and the
number of samples is 15.

Constants for Control Charts

Sample Size
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
15
20

A2
1.880
1.023
0.729
0.577
0.483
0.419
0.373
0.337
0.308
0.266
0.223
0.180

D4
3.267
2.575
2.282
2.115
2.004
1.924
1.864
1.816
1.777
1.716
1.652
1.586

D3
0
0
0
0
0
0.078
0.136
0.184
0.223
0.284
0.348
0.414

TABLE 4.3 Constants for Control Charts.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

d2
1.128
1.693
2.059
2.326
2.534
2.704
2.847
2.970
3.078
3.258
3.472
3.735

Control Chart Trends

_
Average diameter, x (mm)

Tool changed
UCLx_
_
x

LCLx_
Time

_
Average diameter, x (mm)

(a)

UCLx_

LCLx_
Time

_
Average diameter, x (mm)

(b)

UCLx_

LCLx_
Time
(c)

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7

FIGURE 4.23 Control charts. (a) Process begins to become

out of control, because of factors such as tool wear. The
tool is changed, and the process is then in good statistical
control. (b) Process parameters are not set properly; thus,
all parts are around the upper control limit. (c) Process
becomes out of control, because of factors such as a sudden
change in the properties of the incoming material.

Micrometers

(a)

(b)

Digital gages

Display examples

CRT

Floppy
disk drive

Bar-code reader

Printer

(c)

FIGURE 4.24 Schematic illustration showing integration of digital gages with a miniprocessor
for real-time data acquisition and SPC/SQC capabilities. Note the examples on the CRT
displays, such as frequency distribution and control charts. Source: Mitutoyo Corp.

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed.

Kalpakjian Schmid
2008, Pearson Education
ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7