FOURTH EDITION L e e CRA RR RRR RRR RRR ee ee iF PHYSICAL GEOLOGY LABORATORY MANUAL Fourth Edition Karen M. Woods Lamar University Contributing Authors Margaret S. Stevens James B. Stevens Roger W. Cooper Donald E. Owen James Westgate Jim L. Jordan Bennetta Schmidt (cal fost ws UNT PUBLISHING COMPANYCopyright © 1994, 1997, 2001, 2006 by Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company Revised Printing 2009 ISBN: 978-0-7575-6114-6 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. Printed in the United States of America 098765 4CONTENTS Preface v Chapter 1 Minerals 1 Introduction 1 Minerals 1 Identification of Mineral Unknowns 12 Mineral Property List 15 Mineral Uses 19 Chapter 2 Rocks 31 Igneous Rocks 31 Sedimentary Rocks 43 Metamorphic Rocks 53 Rock Property List 63 Uses for Common Rocks 67 Chapter 3 Tectonics, Structure, and Soils 69 The Earth (Zones and Characteristics) 69 Continental Drift 71 Plate Tectonics 71 Plate Boundaries 71 Structural Geology 79 Soils 97 Chapter 4 Topographic Maps 107 Elevation 107 Contours 107 Coordinate Systems and Map Locations 121Chapter 5 Streams, Rivers, and Landscapes 129 Water Cycle 129 Streams and Rivers General Terminology 129 Rivers and Erosion: Development of Landscapes 131 Stream Drainage Patterns 134 Chapter 6 Groundwater, Karst Topography, and Subsidence 139 Groundwater 139 Caves and Karst Topography 141 Karst Topography 141 Subsidence 143 Chapter 7 Shorelines 149 General Shoreline Features 149 Sea-Level Changes: Eustatic, Local, and Regional 151 Emergent Shorelines, Causes and Characteristics 152 Submergent Shorelines, Causes and Characteristics 153 References 159 iv Physical Geology Laboratory ManualPREFACE Physical Geology is the first introductory course in the field of Geology. The faculty and staff ‘of Lamar University, Department of Earth and Space Sciences have collaborated to produce a laboratory manual that is informative and easily understood. It has been customized to present the concepts and ideas the faculty feel are most important in Physical Geology. Itis intended to supplement the main lecture course by exposing the student to conceptual exercises and hands-on experience of the subjects introduced in lecture.OCCMOOOCOHOCCCOOOOOSCTODIIAT7T2DOIIINGCII7F © O DMinerals HA INTRODUCTION Geology deals with the physical and historical aspects of the Earth. Physical geology is the study of the composition, behavior, and processes that affect the Earths lithosphere. The science of geology also provides the means to discover and utilize the Earth’s natural sources (coal, gas, petroleum, minerals, etc). Geologists also study the Earth and its processes so that they can better understand and predict potentially dangerous geologic situations (earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, etc.), which results in the saving of lives. Historical geology, the second introductory course, deals with geology as it relates to the Earth's history. ‘This laboratory manual begins with the study of common Earth materials, minerals, and rocks that make up the lithosphere, and proceeds to the kinds of forces and situations that can alter (build up or tear down) the surface of the planet. MINERALS Minerals are the basic building blocks of nearly all Earth materials for most geological purposes. A mineral is a naturally occurring, solid, inorganic combination (compound) of one or more elements, whose atoms are arranged in an orderly fashion (crystallinity) and is composition that can vary slightly within Minerals also have a set of physical properties (hardiness, color, etc.) that distinguish them from each other. "Mnorganic” means that the compound was not the result of organic processes. Natural compounds are not “pure” in the pharmaceutical sense, particularly if mod- ‘em analytical methods are used. Most chemical elements can be shown to consist of sev- eral “isotopes,” atoms of different atomic weights that have a closely similar set of ‘chemical properties. Minerals as natural compounds are fairly complicated. They consist of one or more elements that consist of one or more isotopes, are not absolutely “pure” compounds, and show some variation, even within materials called by the same mineral name. The guideline geologists have agreed on to define a particular mineral is the nature Of the intemal geometric arrangement (the crystallinity) of the atoms. This arrangement isusually called the crystal structure (technically, the term “crystal structure” is redundant—the word “crystal” by itselfs sufficient). Materials such as glass and opal have ‘and are noun Jack crystallinity The term “mineraloid” used for these materials, and some mineraloids are simply called rocks (natural glass, obsidian, isa kind of volcanic rock)SUMMARY: a material must behave the following characteristics to be classified as a mineral: 1. be naturally occurring (not man-made). 2. be solid. 3. be inorganic (not compounds that can be produced only by living organisms). 4, have a geometric arrangement ofits atoms—crystallinity 5. have a chemical composition that can vary only according to specific limits. A substance that satisfies these requirements will have a characteristic set of physical properties that can be used for identification, Common Minerals Many of the minerals studied in the laboratory (Table 1.1) are familiar to nongeologists. Some elemental materials (sulfur, graphite, and diamond) are classified as minerals when found in large, natural cohesive quantities. Quartz (SiO,, silicon dioxide) is the most com- monly known mineral. Varieties of quartz include: rose quartz, milky quartz, chert (in many different colors), flint, agate, rock crystal (clear), amethyst (purple), aventurine (green), jasper (red), ete. Halite (NaCI, sodium chloride) is probably the most commonly used mineral and is found in most spice cabinets as table salt. Minerals have many unex- pected uses and a list of some of these uses is found at the end of this chapter Physical Properties of Minerals All minerals have a set of distinctive physical properties that can be used to identify them. “The goal of the student is to become familiar with geological terminology and apply the terms to unknown mineral specimens in order to correctly identify them. Students should note that the physical properties of each different mineral group are not absolutes. Hardness is one property that can vary from sample to sample ofthe same mineral, The mineral magnetite has a hardness of 6, but it can actually range between 5.5 and 6.5. Therefore, some specimens of magnetite will easily scratch a glass plate (hardness = 6) and some specimens may barely scratch glass or not scratch it at all, Color is another property of minerals that can vary widely and thus should not be the only criterion used for idemtfication of an unknown mineral specimen. Quartz.comes in many different col ors and is easily confused with other minerals of similar color. Amethyst purple quartz is easily mistaken for purple fluorite, and vice versa, ‘The student should not use any one property alone to identify unknown minerals. A group of physical properties leads to a more accurate identification, Crystal Form Crystal form is the geometric arrang Of plane (“flat*) surfaces on the outside of a mineral that reflect the internal crystallinity of the mineral (Fig. 1.1a and Fig. 1.1b). Crys- tal faces develop only when the crystal has enough room to grow without interference. The planar (flat) sides ofa cube, for example, are called faces. A cube isa crystal form that has six faces (Nat sides) (Fig. 1.1a). Halite and fluorite often have cubic erystal form, while gar- net and pyrite have more complicated crystal forms that are variations on the cube. Corun- dum, quartz, and calcite show different variations on the hexagonal (six-sided) erystal form (Fig. 1-1b). The hexagonal form of calcite (Fig 1.1b) is the most difficult of these to see, buta calcite crystal will have one or two sharp points, and if one looks along the line be- tween these two points, the visible outline is hexagonal. Minerals without an external crys- tal form are referred to as massive (chert, limonite, etc). 2. Physical Geology Laboratory Manual‘TABLE 1.1 Chemical Groups of Selected Minerals Chemical Class Mineral/Mineraloid Chemical Composition Natives Sulfur s (Sulfur) Only one kind of element present, | Graphite/diamond (not available) | C (Carbon) “naturally pure” Onides ‘Quartz (quarts crystal, milky, rose, chert, smoky, agate, ete) SiO, (ilicon dioxide) Oxides of fron (A metal bonds directly with oxygen dlitic Hematite Fe,0, (lron oxide) asthe nonmetal) Specular Hematite Fe,0; (ron oxide) Goethite FeQ(OH) — (Hydrous iron oxide) Limonite (mineraloid) Fe,OjnH1,0 (Hydrous iron oxide) Magnetite FeO; (ron oxide) Corunduin ALO; (Aluminum oxide) Bousite (mineraloid) ALO\nH,O (FHydrous Al oxide) Sulphides Pyrite FeSy (fron sulfide) (metal bonds directly with sulfur | Galena bs (Lead sulfide) asthe nonmetal) Sphalerive 28 Zine sulfide) Sulfates Gypsum Gelenite, Satin spar, CaSO, 2H1,0 (Hydrous caleium (A metal bonds withthe SO, Alabaster) sulfate) ‘complex ion acting asa nonmetal) | Anhydrite CxO, (Calcium sulfate) Carbonates Calcite CaCO, (Calcium carbonate) (A metal bonds with the CO; Dolomite MgCaCO, —(Caleium-magnesium complex ion aeting asa nonmetal) carbonate) Halides Halite Nac (Sodium chloride) (Armeral bonds with halogen [Cl, | Fluorite CaP; (Caleium fluoride) F, Br or I] a the nonmetal) jcates (A metal bonds withthe SiO, compley ion as the nonmetal) Nesosilicates (island silicates) Olivine (Fe, Mg)SiO, (ron magnesium silicate) Garnet Complex Ca, Mg, Fe, Al silicate Inosilicates (hain silicates) Hornblende Ca, Na, Fe, Mg, Al silicate Augite (CaNa}(MgsFeADSiAD, Og Phyllosilicates (heetsiliewes) | Museovite (OH, K, Alsliate (Hlydrous porassium-aluminum silicate) Botte OL, K, Mg, Fe, AL silicate lorite OH, Mg, Fe, Alsilcare Tile OH, Mgssilcate Kaolinite OH, Al silicate ao “Tectosilicates G-D silicates) Orthoelase K, Alsilcate Plagioclase(Albite, Labradorite) | Ca,Na, Alsilicate Quaree SiO, Chapter 1 Minerals 3Crystal Systems Caystal systems are groups of crystals based on the symmetry of crystal faces. There are six ‘eqstal systems and within these systems there are the thirty-iwo classes of minerals, ‘The six crystal systems are cubic (isometric), hexagonal, tetragonal, orthorhombic, mono- clinic, and triclinic (Fig. 1.1 and Fig, 1.1) ‘The cubic (isometric) crystal system consists of three equal-length axes intersecting at 90" angles from one another. The hexagonal crystal system consists of thee equal- length axes that intersect at 120° angles to one another and a fourth axis perpendicular the first three axes. The tetragonal crystal system consists of two equal-length axes and a third axes of a different length, all at 90° angles to one another. The orthorhombic crystal system consists of three axes of different lengths that intersect at 90° angles to one another. The monoclinic crystal system consists of two unequal-length axes that intersect at 90° angles and a third that intersects obliquely. The triclinic crystal system consists of three ‘unequal-length axes that intersect obliquely. Crystal systems are studied in more detail in the upper-level Mineralogy course Caystals “grow” as “invisible atoms” of a solution bond together in a given geometric framework that is consistent with the atoms’ electical or size characteristics. As the geo: etsic framework enlarges with continued “growth,” that geometry becomes visible as smooth surfaces that are called crystal faces. The smooth crystal faces give crystals of vari ‘ous minerals their characteristic shape and beauty. vite KO Isometric (Cubic) Crystal System ‘Vhree equal-length axes ai! that intersect at 90° angles. Two of the axes intersect on the atera same plane, and the thied is perpendicular. ‘Typical Minerals Op m Fluorite Galena Magnetite ‘Tetragonal Crystal System ‘Two equal-length axes and a third, either longer or shorter, that intersect at 90° angles. icon ‘Two of the axes intersect on the same plane, and the third is, perpendicular, ‘Typical Mineral Ziscon Orthorbombic Crystal System Three axes of different length that imtersect at 90° angles. Two of the axes intersect ‘on the same plane, and the third is perpendicular. Typical Minerals Topaz Stowlte Staurolite FIGURE 1.1a Crystal Systems, Crystal Forms, and Typical Minerals. 4 Physical Geology Laboratory ManualGypsum } ty Plagioclase I Feldspar A Calcite # Quartz FIGURE 1.1b Crystal Systems, Crystal Forms, and Typical Minerals. Monoclinic Crystal System ‘Two unequal-length axes that in- tersect at 90° angles on the same plane, and a third that inter- sects obliquely, ‘Typical Minerals Orthoclase Gypsum ‘Ticlinic Crystal System ‘Three unequal-length axes that in- tersect obliquely. ‘Typical Minerals Plagioclase Feldspar Hexagonal Crystal System ‘Three unequal-length axes that intersect at 120" angles on the same plane, and a fourth that is perpendicular to the other three. ‘Typical Minerals Quartz, Corundum Apatite Calcite Chapter 1 Minerals 5Cleavage Cleavage isthe tendency of a mineral to break in a systematic (regular, ordered) way, along planes of weakness determined by the type and strength of the chemical bonds (see lecture book) between the atoms that make up the mineral (Fig, 1.2a and fig. 1.2b). The cleavages (planes of weakness) represent layers between rows or sets of planar atoms where the atomic bonds are weaker. Some minerals (micas and gypsum) have one direction of cleav- age (Fig, 1.2a) but most minerals have multiple cleavage directions. Not all specimens of a given mineral will have readily identifiable cleavage planes, although itis a useful identifying feature when present, Even when cleavage planes are not visible on a particular hand spec- imen, itdoes not mean that the mineral lacks cleavage. Look at other examples of the same mineral. Some cleavage surfaces are microscopic and therefore invisible to the naked eye. Since many minerals do not have cleavage or have microscopic cleavage (not visible to the naked eye), you can use the presence of visible cleavage to eliminate those minerals that do not have cleavage. Some minerals always demonstrate cleavage, such as muscovite and ite, which have cleavage in one direction, Muscovite and biotite easly cleave (split) into flat flexible sheets. Unfortunately, cleavage and crystal form are easily confused. They both result in flat planes, but for different reasons. Some minerals have both crystal form and cleavage (halite, fluorite, calcite, etc.), some only have cleavage (muscovite), and some only have ‘crystal form (quartz). Minerals with cleavage will break in the same direction or set of directions every time and form flat planes or a stair-step pattern on the mineral face. A mineral with only crystal form will break in no particular direction and develop irtegular (uneven) surfaces when broken, Fracture Fracture is the nonsystematic and irregular way some minerals break, The fracture surface is rough or uneven, unlike cleavage planes, which are smooth and flat, Conchoidal fracture is a special kind of breakage that results in a curved parting surface, When a bullet passes through glass, a curved or listric surface is produced (conchoidal fracture). Conchoidal fracture is characteristic of homogenous materials that lack planes of weak: ness, thus the material is about equally strong in all directions (eg, glass). Quariz ‘commonly shows conchoidal fracture NOTE: Some minerals display both fracture and cleavage. Albite, for example, has two directions of cleavage (two flat sides) and two opposing sides with fracture (rough sides). Striations Striations are very fine. parallel lines visible on the cleavage planes or crystal faces of some minerals due to their crystal structure and growth patterns. Albite and labradorite, both plagioclase feldspars, commonly exhibit striations on one cleavage plane. The striations on plagioclase become increasingly obvious as the calcium content of the feldspar increases. Striations may also be visible on the crystal faces of other minerals, such as pyrite, quartz, and garnet. Striations become more visible when the mineral is, slightly rotated back and forth in the light. As the mineral is turned, the striations reflect the light 6 Physical Geology Laboratory ManualCleavage: Cleavage is the tendency of certain minerals to split (cleave) along planes of weakness, between layers of weak bonds that unite the atoms of which the mineral is ‘made, when the mineral is broken, Some minerals cleave in only one direction, others have two, three, four, or even six directions of cleavage. Examples are shown below. CAUTION: Beginning geology students often confuse the smooth cleavages surfaces with the smooth crystal faces of minerals crystals, and thus often believe that cleavage “chunks” are crystals. Crystal faces are produced when minerals “grow” as, invisible “atoms” of various elements within a solution and bond together in a given geometric framework called crystallinity. The cleavage surfaces of cleavage “chunks” form when the mineral breaks. tine oh cleavage sheet. Biatte o Museovite il FIGURE 1.2a Cleavage. One Direction of Cleavage Certain minerals, when bro- ken, break only along one plane. ‘Typical Minerals Biotite Muscovite Chiorite Tale Selenite Gypsum ‘Tivo Directions of Cleavage Certain minerals, when bro- ken, break along two plane surfaces that intersect at a 90° angle to each other. ‘Typical Minerals Orthoclase Feldspar Plagioclase Feldspar Three Directions of Cleavage Certain minerals, when broken, break along three plane surfaces that intersect at a 90° angle to each other. ‘Typical Minerals Galena Halite Chapter 1 Minerals 7Rhombie (sided) clenvaye chunk, Calcite Octahedrat (sides) ‘lenage chunk, Fluorite Dodecahedral (12-sided) sfeavage chunk Sphere © FIGURE 1.2b Cleavage. 8 Physical Geology Laboratory Manual Three Directions of Cleavage Cestain minerals when bro- ken, break along three planer surfaces that intersect obliquely to each other. ‘Typical Minerals Calcite Four Directions of Cleavage Certain minerals, when broken, break along four planar surfaces that intersect at different an- sles. ‘Typical Minerals Fluorite Six Directions of Cleamuge Cenain minerals, when broken, break along six planar surfaces that intersect at different an- sles to each other ‘Typical Minerals SphaleriteTenacity ‘Tenacity is the resistance of a mineral to breakage. Some minerals are very hard to break, whereas others are easily broken. Terms used to describe tenacity include brittle, elastic, and malleable. Gold, a soft mineral, is malleable and easily deformed when hit. Diamond, the hardest known mineral, is very brittle and will shatter when hit. Do not test the tenac- ity of mineral specimens unless instructed to do so. ‘TABLE 1.2 Mohs’ Scale of Hardness ° 8 7 10 Diamond Corundum “Topaz Quartz Orthoctase Feldspar Apatite Flaocite Calcite Gypsum Tale Hardness Hardness is a mineral’s resistance to being scratched, Some miner- als are soft enough that they can be scratched with a fingernail, while others are hard enough to scratch glass. The relative hardness of a mineral is determined with the use of Mohs Scale of Hardness. ‘The hardness scale is named after Freidrich Mohs (1773-1839), the German mineralogist who developed it. Mohs arranged common or 55. Steel certain unique minerals in order of their increasing relative hard- Nail/Knite | _n€38 0 provide a standard (or scale) to which all other minerals can Glas be compared. Mohs chose talc to represent the sofiest mineral and Plate diamond to represent the hardest mineral (Table 1.2). Some com- mon everyday materials also fit conveniently into the Mohs scale. ‘These include fingemails, copper pennies, steel nails and knives, 3.5. Copper enn | and glass plates paral The best way to determine hardness isto find the softest mate- 2.5 Fingernail} tial chat will scratch the mineral being tested. For example, a finger- nail cannot scratch calcite but a copper penny can; therefore the hardness of calcite is between that of a fingernail and that of a penny (2.5-3.5). Since calcite is one of the minerals on the Mohs scale its ‘exact hardness is known (3). For minerals that aren't included on the Mohs scale, the stu- dent should use the smallest hardness range possible. The Mineral Property List atthe end of the chapter lists the hardness or hardness range of each mineral. You do not have to ‘memorize the exact hardness of every mineral, although you should learn those that are on the Mohs scale. In general, minerals can be separated into two groups, those that are harder than the glass plate (scratch the glass) and those that are softer than the glass plate (do not scratch the glass). The student can then begin the process of identification of mineral un- knowns by separating the minerals into hardness groups, Then determine the other physi- cal properties (crystal form, cleavage, fracture etc.) to identify the unknown minerals. Chapter | Minerals 9Color Color isa function of how the surface ofa mineral reflects or absorbs white light. It is one of the least helpful physical properties of minerals because very few havea consistent color. The mineral sulfur is an exception—it is always bright yellow—as is pyrite which is a brassy yellow. Both calcite and quartz are good examples of how color is varies within a mineral. They can be green, yellow, red, brown, blue, clear, ete, There are three general «causes of color variation in minerals, 1. Impurities within the mineral change the color: 2. The disturbance of the crystallinity of the mineral can cause variations in color. 3. The size of the mineral pieces can affect color. Thin pieces usually are lighter in color than thicker pieces (one of the most common causes of color variation). Although minerals can be grouped into groups of darker and lighter hues, do not count on color alone to identify unknown minerals. Streak Streak is the color of a mineral’s powder (or the color ofthe mineral when the crystals are very small). The streak is obtained by rubbing the mineral on an unglazed ceramic or porcelain plate. Gently shake or blow off as much as possible of the powdered mineral formed in this way. The color of the powder that sticks to the streak plate isthe actual streak. The ‘mineral hematite illustrates the importance of streak in mineral identification. Varieties of hematite ofien have a visibly different color from one another (specular hematite is silvery and oolitic hematite is reddish brown), yet both have a red-brown streak, Luster Luster is the way that a mineral reflects light. It is described as either metallic (like fresh, untamished metal) or nonmetallic (pearly, waxy, greasy, vitreous [like glass}, earthy, rusty, etc). Reaction to Dilute Hydrochloric Acid Some minerals will chemically react (fizz, give off H,0 and bubbles of CO.) in the pres: ence of a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid (HCl). This testis primarily used to identify calcite (CaCO,) and dolomite [CaMg(CO,),|- Calcite reacts strongly with cool, dilute HCI, and most dolomites only react when powdered. Scratch dolomite with a nail to produce ‘enough powder totes its reaction with acid. Apply one to two drops of acid on the powder. After the acid is applied and the result noted, wipe the excess acid off the mineral andor streak plate with a paper towel CAUTION: All students are to wear safety goggles when using acid. Apply acid one drop ata time to the specimen and wipe the acid off the specimen before putting it back in its place. ‘Magnetism ‘Magnetism is the atraction of a magnet to the mineral. Minerals vary from nonmagnetic (most minerals) to weakly magnetic (some hematite) to strongly magnetic (magnetite). 10. Physical Geology Laboratory ManualDensity Density is mass per unit volume. Specific gravity is the ratio ofthe density ofa given ma- terial to the density of an equal volume of water (at 4° C). Minerals that have a high spe- cific gravity, such as galena, feel unusually heavy for their size, whereas those with low specific gravity feel lightweight Diaphaneity Diaphaneity refers to how and to what extent light is transmitted through a mineral. A thin section is a 0.03-mm slice of a mineral that is thin enough to allow light to pass through it. Although diaphaneity is usually applied to thin sections, we will apply the same terms to the hand samples seen in the laboratory. The diaphaneity for each mineral is determined simply by looking at it. 1. Transparent: light passes easily through the mineral, thus images can be clearly seen through it. Clear quartz is an example. ‘Translucent: some light passes through the mineral but the light is diffused and absorbed internally by the mineral, thus images cannot be seen clearly. Translu- cency is, in part, a matter of the thickness and purity of the mineral. Hematite is usually thought of as opaque, but extremely small, pure crystals are translucent. Although pure quartz is clear and colorless, the presence of large numbers of very small bubbles (milky or vein quartz) can make it translucent. Disturbance of the crystal by radiation from decaying radioactive elements can make quartz gray, brown, or black, and the crystal, particularly if thick, may be translucent, or nearly opaque (see below). 3, Opaque: the mineral allows no light to pass, thus images cannot be seen through the ‘mineral. Opacity (“opaqueness”) i, in part, a matter of the thickness and purity of the crystal, Very pure minerals with metallic or submetallic luster (pyrite, magnetite) are opaque even in very thin slices (thin sections). Luster and opacity are tied together by the extreme ability of these minerals to bend light. Double Refraction Double refraction is the doubling of a single image seen through a transparent mineral Minerals, except the cubic ones (such as fluorite, halite, and diamond), split light rays into two parts that follow different paths as they pass through the crystal. Optical quality cal- cite crystals are the best example of this because the two parts of the light follow very di ferent paths. To see double refraction, place an example of optical quality calcite on 1 page and look at the words. Special microscopes and specially prepared specimens are used in serious work with double refraction, but geologists frequently make use of this, property in hand specimen mineral identification, Other Identifying Properties ‘There are other properties that help identify unknown minerals. Many minerals have a strong smell, such as sulfur (like rotten eggs). A fresh streak of sphalerite smells strongly of sulfur. The way minerals feel can also be used in conjunction with other properties. The longera person handles halite, the greasier it feels. Taste can also be used for identification purposes. Halite (salt) tases salty. DO NOT TASTE ANY MINERALS IN LAB. Chapter 1 Minerals 11IDENTIFICATION OF MINERAL UNKNOWNS, ‘The identification of mineral unknowns is easier for the beginning geology student ifa log- ical step-by-step procedure is followed. + Step one: Separate the minerals into like shades of color. See the “Mineral Identification Key” (Fig, 1.3). Put all the white or light-colored minerals in one pile the dark-colored minerals in another pile, and the metallic minerals in a thitd pile + Step two: Determine the relative hardness of each mineral. Place the light-colored minerals that have a hardness of less than 5'/2 into a subpile and all the minerals, greater than §'/, into another. Repeat this step with the dark-colored and metalic minerals, * Step three: Separate the minerals into groups that have and do not have visible cleavage. ++ Step four: Suggest a tentative identification of the mineral and then consider the other physical characteristics of the mineral to make a positive idemtfication. Place the minerals on the figures as you determine their identity, and your instructor will verify your identification, Use the “Guide to the Identification of White or Light Colored Minerals” and "Guide to the Identification of Dark, Metallic or Green Unknowns” as study guides for review. Mineral pictures can be found on the Earth & Space Sciences website (hup://ess.lamar.edu). Click on People, Staff, Woods, Katen M., Teaching, Physi- cal Geology Lab, Minerals. ness >5 L 23 | tamene iy Qa ee FIGURE 1.3 Mineral Identification Key. 12. Physical Geology Laboratory ManualGuide to the Identification of White or Light Colored Unknown Minerals cuerr FLINT Rose ‘iy Quy, ovat sasern ROCK CRYSTAL No Cleavage, (eel) SMOKY QUARTZ. Conchoidal fracture, QUARTZ ‘sors suorre & CHALCEDONY suhmmapontry, ‘rune oxroctast, KAOLINITE FELDSPAR. "Chalk Docs not react “ hex conuHDU fag nets 28 GARNET hind White or Muscovr Light Colored “CALCITE Mineral Unknowns DOLOMITE. SATINSPAR. GYPSUM. Easily scratched hy Fingernail “TALE SULFUR How to Use: 1, Determine the general hardness of the unknown mineral, 2, Mateh the unknown mineral to the characteristics in the outer circle that correspond with the hardness determined. *May also be dark in color Chapter | Minerals 13vNaTvo ALIHaVaD ALINONIT ALIYOTHD, parojoo rut] aq ose key ‘saue10 o1 SOLA, ALLLOIG ALLLLWINAH, wv AINoads ALROGVUSV1 sumouyun, (s1100) Tesounyy NYO LiVIWaH suiegds DULITOO | punoy AQNTTENYOH awa IVHas q 3 ? 1a oF SpRADUTYY ITEITY 10 MON Cao | Boe pun a : sprig 40 woutaynuapy ay oF oping, sag eq ALLLANOVIN . auony 14 Physical Geology Laboratory ManualMINERAL PROPERTY LIST ‘Augite—Augite is a pyroxene with two cleavage planes, one at 87° and the other at 93°, Augite is dark green to black, has a vitreous to dull luster, a specific gravity of 3 to 3.5, a hardness that ranges from 5 to 6, and lacks a streak. Other identifiable properties include a hackly or splintery fracture opposite to the cleavage direction. Crystal system: monoclinic. Chemical formula: (Ca,Na)(Mg.Fe,Al)(SiAl);O, (calcium, sodium, magnesium, iron, aluminum silicate). Bauxite—Bauxite (a mineraloid) is brown, gray, white, or yellow, has a dull to earthy luster, no cleavage, a white to yellow-brown streak, and a hardness that ranges from 1 to 3. Bauxite usually occurs in compact masses of pisoliths (pea-sized concretions, spheres coarser than odliths), Fracture is uneven. Chemical formula: AIO(OH) (hydrous aluminum oxide). Biotite—Biotite is a black to dark brown mineral with a vitreous to pearly luster Biotite has perfect cleavage in one direction, allowing it to be separated into thin sheets, Biotite has a brown to dark green streak if the specimen is big enough, and a hardness of 2.5 to 3. Fracture is uneven perpendicular to cleavage direction. Crystal system: monoclinic. Chemical formula: K(MgFe),(AISis0,)(OH);, (hydrous potassium, magnesium, iron, aluminum silicate). Calcite—Calcite is usually white to colorless, but may be yellow, green, blue, red, black, ete. cute to impurities. Calcite has perfect rhombohedral cleavage (see photo), hexagonal crystal form (if present), a white to gray streak, and a vitreous to earthy luster. Hardness is 3 on the Mohs scale. Specific gravity is 2.71. Calcite is soluble in dilute hydrochloric acid with a strong effervescence (fizz). Double refraction is visible through colorless rhombs. Crystal system: hexagonal. Chemical formula: CaCO, (calcium carbonate) Chlorite—Chlorite is a green to greenish-black mineral with a waxy to earthy luster, Chlorite has a perfect basal cleavage (not apparent in massive pieces), anda pale green to white streak, The specific gravity is 3 and hardness is 210 2.5. Chlorite feels slippery. Crystal system: monoclinic. Chemical formu (Mg, Fe)s(Si,Al),Oo(OH),(Mg,Fe)s(OH), (magnesium, iron, aluminum silicate). Corundum—Corundum varies in color (brown, blue, red, etc.), has an adamantine to vitreous luster, a hardness of 9 on the Mohs scale, and a specific gravity of 4. Corundum is found in massive deposits as emery and as hexagonal crystals (see photo) with striations on basal faces and has conchoidal fracture. Gem-quality corundum is commonly known as sapphire and ruby. Crystal system: hexagonal. (Chemical formula: Al,O, (aluminum oxide). Dolomite—Dolomite vaties from colorless to white, gray brown, and_pink Dolomite has perfect rhombohedral cleavage, hexagonal crystal form, and a dull to vitreous to pearly luster. Cleavage and crystal form are not evident in massive pieces. Specific gravity is 2.85, hardness is 3.5 t0 4, and dolomite has a white streak. In powdered form, dolomite effervesces in cold, dilute hydrochloric acid. Crystal system: hexagonal. Chemical formula: CaMg(CO,); (calcium, magnesium carbonate). Fluotite—Fluorite has perfect octahedral cleavage, cubic crystal form, and conchoidal fracture, Fluorite is colorless and transparent when pure but may be blue, green, pink, purple, yellow, or black. Fluorite has a vitreous luster, specific gravity of 3.18, hardness of 4, and a white streak. Crystal system: isometsic (cubic). ‘Chemical formula: CaF, (calcium fluoride). Galena—Galena has a perfect cubic cleavage and cubic or octahedral crystal form. Galena is lead gray, has a gray streak, metallic luster, and a hardness of 2.5. Galena has a high specific gravity (7.57). Crystal system: isometric (cubic). Chemical formula: PbS (lead sulfide). Chapter 1 Minerals 15Garnet—Garnet has a splintery or conchoidal fracture, no cleavage, and a resinous to vitreous luster. Color varies with composition but is commonly dark red to reddish brown or yellow. Garnet forms dodecahedral crystals in some metamorphic rocks and is also found in coarse granular masses. Garnet has a specific gravity of 3.5, to 4.3, and a hardness of 6.5 10 7.5. Crystal system: isometric (cubic), Chemical formula: Fe, Mg Mn, Ca, Al silicate (complex iron, magnesium, manganese, calcium, aluminum silicate) Goethite—Goethite is a variety of iron oxide. Goethite has a prismatic erystal form and cleaves parallel with the prisms. Goethite is yellow or yellowish-brown to silvery brown in color, has a brownish-yellow streak, a specific gravity of 4.37, and a hardness that ranges ftom 5 to 5.5. Massive goethite has an adamantine to dull luster. Goethite is also found with rounded (reniform) masses that have a metallic luster Crystal system: orthorhombic. Chemical formula: Fe(OH) (hydrous iron oxide). Pronounced “guhrethite.” Graphite—Graphite has perfect cleavage in one direction, although the mineral is usually found as foliated masses. Graphite is dark gray to black in color, has a gray to black streak, a metallic luster, a specific gravity of 2.23 (low), and a hardness of 1 10 2. Graphite feels “greasy.” Crystal system: hexagonal. Chemical formula: C (carbon), Gypsum—Gypsum is translucent and generally white, but may be tinted to various colors. Gypsum has a white streak, pearly to vitreous luster, cleavage a conchoidal irregular, or fibrous fracture, a specific gravity of 2.32, and a hardness of 2 on the Mohs scale. Crystal system: monoclinic. Chemical formula: CaSO,-211;0 (hydrous calcium sulfate). Three varieties are distinctive. Alabaster gypsum—Alabaster is the fine-grained, massive variety of gypsum Alabaster, also called rock gypsum, is generally white, but may be slightly tinted with other colors. It has a pearly luster and cleavage is not apparent, Chemical formula: See above Selenite gypsum—Selenite gypsum has perfect cleavage in_one direction and a conchoidal fracture. Selenite is colorless to white, transparent to translucent, and has a vitreous luster. Chemical formula: See above Satin spar gypsum—Satin spar gypsum is brous, colorless to white, and has a silky luster, Cleavage is not apparent in this variety. Chemical formula: See above, Halite—Halite has perfect cubic cleavage and cubic crystal form (see photo). Halite is colorless to white but impurities can give it a yellow, red, blue, or purple tint Halite is transparent to translucent, has a vitreous luster, a specific gravity of 2.16 and a hardness of 2.5. Halite feels greasy and tastes salty (tasting of laboratory specimens is not recommended). Crystal system: isometric (cubic). Chemical formula: NaCl (sodium chloride) Hematite—Hematte is steel gray, to black, 1o red, to reddish brown. Hematite has a red to red-brown streak, a specific gravity of 5.26, a hardness that ranges from 5.5 to 6.5, an irregular fracture, and a metallic or a dull luster. Crystal system: hexagonal Chemical formula: FeO, (iron oxide). Odlitic and specular are two important hematite—Oélitic hematite is composed of small spheres (odliths) of hematite. Odlitic hematite is red to brownish red, has a red streak, and an earthy luster. See hematite above for other properties. Chemical formula: See above Specular hematite—Specular hematite has a platy (glitter-like) appearance and may be slightly to strongly magnetic. Specular hematite is steel gray or “silvery” with a metallic luster, and has a red streak. See hematite above for other properties. Chemical formula: See above. -al Geology Laboratory ManualHornblende—Homblende is dark green to black, has a vitreous luster, a specific gravity of 3 t0 3.5, a white to gray streak, and a hardness of 5 to 6. Hornblende is an amphibole with two cleavage angles (56° and 124°) and an uneven fracture ‘opposite of the cleavage directions. Crystal system: monoclinic. Chemical formula: Ca, Na, Mg, Fe, Al silicate (calcium, sodium, magnesium, iron, aluminum silicate). Kaolinite—Kaolinite has perfect cleavage (not apparent in massive pieces). Kaolinite is white, has a dull to earthy luster, a white streak, a specific gravity of 2.6, and a hardness of 2. Kaolinite looks and feels like chalk, a kind of limestone, but does not react with hydrochloric acid. Kaolinite fractures irregularly. Crystal system: triclinic. Chemical formula: Al,SisO g(OH)q (hydrous aluminum silicate) Limonite—Limonite, a variety of iron oxide, is dark brown to brownish yellow, has a yellow to brown streak, an earthy to dull luster, a specific gravity of 2.9 t0 4.3, anda hardness of 4 to 5.5. Limonite fractures irregularly. Chemical formula: Fe(OH) (hydrous iron oxide), Magnetite—Magnetite is a black mineral with a gray to black streak, a specific gravity of 5, a hardness of 5.5 to 6, a dull luster, is strongly magnetic, and fractures imegularly. Crystal system: isometric (cubic). Chemical formula: FeO, (iron oxide). Muscovite—Muscovite is colorless to brown, gray, or green. Muscovite has a vitreous to silky to pearly luster, perfect cleavage in one direction allowing it to be separated into thin flexible sheets, a white streak (if sample is thick enough), a specific gravity of 2.8, and a hardness of 2 to 2.5. Fracture is uneven perpendicular to the cleavage direction. Crystal system: monoclinic. Chemical formula: KAL(AISi)O (OH), (hydrous potassium, aluminum silicate). Olivine—Olivine is an olive-green to light gray mineral with a vitreous luster, conchoidal fracture, a specific gravity of 3, and a hardness of 6.5 to 7. Cleavage. when visible, is poor. Grystal system: orthorhombic. Chemical formula: (Mg.Fe);SiO, (magnesium, iron silicate). Orthoclase Feldspar—Orthoclase feldspar is white to pink, has a vitreous luster, a specific gravity of 2.57, and hardness of 6 on the Mohs scale. Orthoclase has two ns of cleavage at 90° angles and an uneven fracture opposite the cleavage directions. Crystal system: monoclinic. Chemical formula: KAISiO, (potassium, aluminum silicate). Plagioclase Feldspar—Plagioclase feldspar includes a group of feldspars that occupy ‘radational positions within a single series (see Bowen's Reaction Series, Chapter 2) Plagioclases are white to gray, to dark gray, have a vitreous luster, a specific gravity of 2.62 to 2.76, and a hardness of 6 on the Mohs scale. The minerals in this group have cleavage planes at or almost at 90° angles and striations may be noticeable on some cleavage planes. Crystal system: triclinic. Chemical formula: (Ca.Na)(ALSi)AISi;0, (calcium, and/or calcium-sodium, and/or sodium, aluminum silicate). Albite and labradorite are low- and medium-temperature varieties. Albite—Albite is a low-temperature, light-colored, plagioclase feldspar with two directions of cleavage. Fracture is uneven perpendicular to the cleavage direction, Striations may be present. Chemical formula: NaAlSi,Q, (sodium aluminum silicate) Labradorite—Labradorite is gray-blue, medium-temperature, plagioclase feldspar with two directions of cleavage, and two opposing sides with uneven fracture, Some samples exhibit a lash (“play”) of different colors on cleavage surfaces. Striations may be present, Chemical formula: (Ca,Na)AISi,O, (calcium-sodium aluminum silicate) Chapter 1 Minerals 17Pyrite—Pyrite is a brassy-yellow mineral with a greenish to brownish-black streak, has a metallic luster, a specific gravity of 5.02 (high), and a hardness of 6 to 6.5. Pyrite has cubic or octahedral crystals and striations may be seen on some crystal faces. Crystal system: isomettic (cubic). Chemical formula: FeS, (iron sulfide). Quartz—Quartz is colorless to white but is ofien tinted. Quartz has a vitreous luster, conchoidal fracture, a specific gravity of 2,65, anda hardness of 7 on the Mohs scale. Caystal system: hexagonal. Chemical formula: SiO, (silicon dioxide). Quar. has many varieties, ‘Amethyst—Amethyst is the purplestinted hexagonal crystal variety of quartz. See quartz (above) for other properties and chemical formula, Chalcedony/Agate—Chalcedony is a milky colored cryptocrystalline variety of quartz, Chalcedony is frequently banded, and more transparent varieties with darker mineral inclusions ("growths") are usually called agate. Chalcedony/agate has a waxy (0 vitreous luster, and an obvious conchoidal fracture, See quartz (above) for other properties and chemical formula. Chert/Flint—Chery/lint is an opaque, cryptocrystalline, and darker variety of quartz. Chert is generally lighter in color than flint. The dark gray to black variety is usually called flint. Cher/Flint has waxy to vitreous luster, and an obvious conchoidal fracture. See quartz (above) for other properties and chemical formula, Jasper—lasper is a red to reddish-brown cryptocrystalline quartz with an obvious conchoidal fracture. See quartz: (above) for other properties and chemical formula Milky quartz—Milky quartz is the translucent to white, crystalline variety of ‘quartz, with microscopic conchoidal fracture. See quartz (above) for other properties and chemical formula, Rock crystal—Quartz crystals are bipyramidal hexagonal, and usually show striations. See quartz (above) for other properties and chemical formula, Rose quartz—Rose quartz is the pink-tinted crystalline varieyy of quartz. See quartz (above) for other properties and chemical formula, Smoky quartz—Smokey quartz is the smoky-yellow, to brown, to black variety of crystalline quartz, See quartz (above) for other properties and chemical formula, Sphalerite—Sphalerite is brown, yellow or black, has a brown to yellow streak {strong sulfur smell), a resinous to submetallic luster, a specific gravity of 4, and a hardness of 3.5 to 4. Sphalerite has a perfect dodecahedral cleavage. Crystal system: isometric (cubic). Chemical formula: ZnS (zinc sulfide). Sulfir—Sulfur is usually bright yellow but may vary with impurities to green, gray, or red. Sulfur has a white to pale yellow streak, a resinous (0 greasy luster, no cleavage, a conchoidal to uneven fracture, a specific gravity of 2, and a hardness of 1.5 to 2.5. Sulfur has a “rotten egg” odor. Crystal system: orthorhombic, Chemical formula: § (sulfur) ‘Tale—Tale is white, brownish, gray, or greenish-white, has a white streak, a pearly to dull luster, a specific gravity of 2.7 to 2.8, and a hardness of 1 on the Mohs scale of hardness. Tale has perfect basal cleavage (not apparent in massive specimens), and a smooth or soapy feel, Crystal system: monoclinic. Chemical formula: Mg,SiO (OH), (hydrous magnesium silicate) 18 Physical Geology Laboratory ManualMINERAL USES ‘Augite—Most augite is only of interest to mineral collectors. Clear varieties are occasionally used as gemstones. Name derivation: ftom Greek augities, meaning “brightness” or “luster.” Bauxite—Bauxite is a mineraloid, not a true mineral. It is important as an aluminum ore, the source material for aluminum as metal. Bauxite forms by the concentration of hydrated aluminum oxides in the soils of humid tropical regions. Bauxite is a heterogeneous mixture of the minerals gibbsite [AIO(OH),|, boehmite, and diaspore [both AIO(OH)]. Hematite and/or limonite may be present in small amounts. Name derivation: for occurrence near Baux, France. Biotite—Biotite has no economic use but is of interest to collectors, Name derivation: for French physicist, J.B. Biot Calcite—Calcite has many uses: lime (Ca oxide) isa fertilizer, the raw material from which Portland cement (for making concrete) is made, and is used as a building stone (limestone and marble), Name derivation: from Latin calx, meaning “burnt lime” Chlorite—Chlorite has no commercial value, but is a natural green pigment often found in marbles, etc. Name derivation: from Greek chlores, meaning “green.” Corundum—Because of its great hardness (9), corundum is used as an abrasive ("black sandpaper), or for emery wheels for the grinding of metal. Rubies (if red) and sapphires (if blue, pink or yellow) are transparent varieties. Name derivation: hauruntak—Indian (Hindu) name for corundum. Dolomite—Because dolomite contains magnesium, it is a source of this element for magnesium-deficient diets. It is also used as a building stone or as road gravel. Name derivation: after French scientist D. de Dolomieu. Fluorite—Fluorite is a source of fluorine, used to fluoridate drinking water or added to toothpaste to increase the hardness of dental enamel; is used in the manufacture of hydrofluoric acid (the only acid that will dissolve glass); as a lux in steel making, ete. Name derivation: Latin fluere, meaning "to flow.” Refers to the ease at which fluorite melts when heated, compared to other minerals. Galena—Galena is a source of lead as metal when refined, is used in glass making (leaded crystal), and is used in radiation-shielding material. Name derivation: Latin ‘galena—original name for lead ore. Garnet—Gamet is slightly harder than quartz and thus is a good abrasive (“red” sandpaper). Itis used as a sandblasting medium and as a grit and powsler for optical grinding and polishing. When transparent and without internal fractures, garnet is also a semiprecious gem. Name derivation: Latin granatus, meaning “like a grain.” Goethite—Goethite is an ore of iron. Name derivation: after J. W. Goethe, a German poet and scientist. Graphite—Graphite is the “lead” in pencils, a dry lubricant, and is used in the steel industry. Name derivation: Greek graphein, meaning “to write.” Gypsum—When the H,0 is driven off by heat, gypsum becomes anhydrite, and when ground to a powder, it becomes plaster of Paris. Gypsum is used in the manufacture of sheet rock, plaster, plaster casts, as a fertilizer, etc. The alabaster variety is used to make statuary, and satin spar is used as ornamental decoration. Name derivation: Arabic ds, meaning “plaster.” Halite—Used as table salt, a food preservative, for tanning leather, and as a source of sodium and chlorine, etc. Name derivation: Greek halos, meaning “salt.” Hematite—Hematite is an ore of iron, the material from which, through the smelting process, iron is extracted as pure metal. Hematite ores can run up to about 70 percent (by weight) iron. It is also used as a red pigment in paint. Name derivation: Greek haimatas, meaning “blood” for the “blood” red streak color Chapter 1 Minerals 19Hornblende—Homblende has no commercial value, but is of interest to collectors Name derivation: from German horn and blenden, meaning “hom” and “blind” in reference to its luster and lack of value. Kaolinite—Kaolinite is pure china clay and is used for clay for ceramics, filler in paper, rubber, candy, medicines, etc. Name derivation: Chinese name Kao-ling, meaning “high ridge.” refers to the area in China where it was frst obtained for export. Limonite—Limonite is a hydrous, powdery variety of hematite that comes in many shades of yellow, orange, red, and brown. Limonite is the primary pigment in many such colored paints. 1 is also a natural pigment responsible for soil color. A darker brown limonite rock formed in the red soils of East Texas (Jefferson City) sometimes is used as iron ore Magnetite—Magnetite is the most superior iron ore because ofits high iron content, Name derivation: for Magnesia, an area near Macedonia, near Greece, where it was, originally found, Muscovite—Because muscovite is a transparent heat-resistant mineral, itis used as the “windows” in high temperature ovens. It is also used as an electrical insulator, and was earlier used as decorative “snow” for Christmas ornaments. Name derivation: from the Muscovy area in Russia where it was used as window glass and from Latin micare, meaning “to shine.” Olivine—Olivine, because it is heat resistant, is used as “brick” liners for high temperature ovens or furnaces. It is, when transparent, the gem peridot. Name derivation: from its olive-green color, Orthoclase—When ground to a powder and mixed with water, orthoclase forms thecoating on ceramics that, when fired in a kiln, tums to glaze, glass. Name derivation: Greek orthos, meaning “right angle,” and klasis, meaning “to break.” Plagioclase Feldspar—Labradorite is used as an ornamental stone when it displays labradoresence (play of colors). Albite, when opalesent, is cut and polished and known as the gem moonstone. Name derivation: Greek plagio, meaning oblique (cleavage angle) Pyrite—Pyrite, because of its high sulfur content, is used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid, Name derivation: Greek word pyr, meaning fre Quartz—Varieties include citrine (yellow), rose (pink), amethyst (purple). smoky (brown-black), milky (white), chalcedony-agate (banded), jasper (red), chert (light gray), flint (dark, dull color), rock crystal (crystal form), etc. Quartz cystals are often use! as semiprecious gems or for display in mineral collections. Agate, if panially transparent or translucent, is often polished and used as a semiprecious gem, ete. Chert and flint are the raw material from which stone tools were once made. Pure quartz sand is used to make glass. Name derivation: German quartz. Sphalerite—Sphalerite is zinc ore, the material that, when refined, gives us zine as metal. A thin coating of zine on iron or steel offers considerable protection from oxidation (rusting). Originally the zinc was applied by electrolysis, which gave rise to the name “galvanized iron,” but it is cheaper to dip the material in a bath of molten zine, Zinc is used to galvanize corrugated iton roofing iron buckets, or nails, etc, Name derivation: Greek sphaleros, meaning “treacherous.” Sulfuur—Sulfur has many uses. It is used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid. Also, when added to rubber (vulcanized rubber) it makes the rubber able to withstand high temperatures as for ties, rubber hoses, etc. It is also used in the production of sulla <énugs. Name derivation: From sulphur, meaning “brimstone.” ‘Tale—Talc, when ground to a powder and scented, is used as body powder (talcum, baby powder), and as an ingredient in paint, paper, etc, Name derivation: Arabic word falg, meaning “pure.” 20. Physical Geology Laboratory Manuala EXERCISE 1: IDENTIFICATION OF MINERAL UNKNOWNS AND THEIR PROPERTIES Identify the mineral specimens supplied using the properties discussed in the lecture. You will be supplied with the following material Glass plate Paper towels Steel nail Penny Streak plates Magnet Dilute hydrochloric acid SAFETY INFORMATION ‘The identification of minerals utilizes materials that may cause minor injury if used improperly. The following instructions are intended to familiarize the student with proper laboratory procedures. Glass Plate “The purpose of the glass plate isto determine whether or not a mineral is harder than the glass plate (25.5) or softer than the glass plate (5.5). The correct and safe way to nse the glass plate isto press it firmly against the table while you scratch the mineral across it Do no hold the glass plate in your hand while pressing the mineral aguinstt‘The glass may break and cause injury. Streak Plate ‘The purpose of the streak plate is to determine the color of a mineral’s powder. Ifthe mineral has a hardness less than that ofthe streak plate (5.75) then a powder will be let behind. The correct and safe way to ws the streak plate is to press it firmly against the table while you scratch the mineral against it. Don't hold the streak plate in your hand while pressing a mineral against it. ‘The porcelain may break and cause injury. Hydrochloric Acid ‘The purpose of the hydrochloric acid (HCI) is to determine to what extent a mi powder effervesces (fizzes). When applying acid to mineral samples, use common sense. DO NOT squirt acid on the samples. It may splash and ger on clothing, bare skin, or in the eye. One drop will suffice. Hydrochloric acid can irritate the skin on contact. Ifthis happens, immediately wash the area with plenty of water. Ifyou get acid in your eyes call for help immediately and the lb instructor will assist you to the closest rinse station, All students must wear safety glasses when using HCL acid. Chapter 1 Minerals 21WON GEX THOSE I suoneins, reaauyyy 40 4010 2 9qH989¢) PRY 1OH 01 wonsery TeRIOUNOD TEE Oe sen cite} TWRTTSEX THUONG uty FG SST, amin suveuvydend (010) swans, ates suo wo jt ex auey ssoupzeyy sopodorg Jesu 2TON IE X OSS suoneing, ‘uonovoy 2qu989q PRY IH & wopseay TERRI IEE ON ‘SA, sumed “&NDOH J 2 Ayneap aypsods SqaIstA 3! 9QH989q uuiog 122s) tuspaude ‘yuaredsuesy, peueydeia (240) ye5 | joumuou jr oquSseC) NEW! 2215071 aeas suowy wos) 20x adury ssoupaeyy | a 23989 au0 Isr “ON 9A same rosa ean | Pr Seay Snedoag esau9s 240 sr] WONG OSA I suonenns, 1eA9UW JO 4010 worse squ9s9q PRY IDH 0 won2eaay TROUT ON. ‘S94 suman TANIA SUNT UA J! SOUELd JO # SBeABID SHPUREUON IX ‘House sig usyouBE\ ‘bw 20 Woon SUE, ‘suouedsunay, Gpeueyderd (ao}03) eos joumuou jy San Hee 229807] areas suo wos! 98x] Suny ssoupaeyy ymuis0g peoqw9y yes 00H 25esauyyy 40 4009 {wonseay aqu289q) TROND ON “SOA 2umse44 22180") ayes soy Hoss 2x Bucy ssouprey muzog peou94.3) Suey _Senodong reiaui 26YON FTX MOSH HG suowens === ‘wons8>y 2qH950q PY [DH oF uonsea POH JE Aygeay ayppads ‘SRDUBEUUON I! oneudeyy J wsuuse yy FABRA 10 WuSSn ET, ‘wuaredsuesy, Apeueydeia (2009) yuo. joa Sq IDOI 21807 yeas sony wos eK sfurgy ssaupsepy 27989 au0 sy WON J! X 149804, suoneLs twauity Jo 4010 wonaeay aqussoq) PIV [DH 01 woHDEOR tihaog [esky OUseMUON EX reauny. 2829 aqeas suoy uo sy a90Ka sBuryl ssoupsey resuGOOBOOCCHOOCTODOOOOC7TF9000077739000090907- © O DRocks ae ere A rock is a natural aggregate (combination) of one or more minerals, mineraloids, glass, and/or organic material. There ae three families of rocks distinguished from one another by the processes involved in their formation, The three rock families are 1. Igneous—originating from a molten silicate melt. 2. Sedimentary—originating from the deposition of the by-products of weathering. 3. Metamorphic—develop via the change in form or chemical composition of preexisting rocks and minerals by new conditions of temperature, pressure, and/or the addition of hot chemical fluids. Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks are described and identified on the basis of their composition and texture, Composition, in general, refers to the chemical makeup, the particular elements that are present in the rock. Texture, in general, refers to the size, arrangement, and shape (“morphology”) of the constituent minerals or materials, in the rock. There are different sets of textural terms for each rock family that ofien denote the same or closely similar conditions. IGNEOUS ROCKS gneous rocks are the solids produced by the cooling and crystallization of molten silicate ‘material initially formed beneath the Earth’s surface. Crystallization occurs when cooli allows for the growth of mineral crystal grains. The cooling rate and space available deter- mine the size of the crystals that form, Large crystals form when magma, molten silicate material below ground, is insulated by the surrounding country rock (rock that has been intruded by the magma), and therefore cools very slowly. When magma solidifies under- ground, it forms intrusive (plutonic) igneous rocks. The shape and position of emplacement differentiate plutonic igneous rock bodies. A dike is a pluton that cuts across pre-existing, rock (strata). (Principle of Crss-Cuating Relationships: a race body must already exist in onder for it to be cut by another). A sill is a two-dimensional pluton that is placed parallel to and between layers (strata) of existing rock. Batholiths are very large, three-dimensional plutons, usually the result of multiple intrusions of magma, hundreds of miles in length and width, which cool and crystallize very slowly beneath the Earth's surface. A laccolith is a smaller three-dimensional pluton with a convex roof and a flat floor. Volcanic (extrusive) igneous rocks form on or above the surface of the Earth by the cooling of lava (molten silicate flows on the surface), or by the deposition of violently ejected pyroclastic (pyro = fire, clast = fragment) material such as volcanic ash. Lava cools 31faster than magma because it is exposed to environments that allow for the rapid dissipa- tion of heat and therefore prevent the formation of large crystals. In general, most extru- sive igneous rocks develop crystals that are too small to be seen without the aid of a microscope. There are different types of basaltic lava. Aa is blocky, sharp-edged lava that moves very slowly and pahoehoe is ropy, "smooth” lava. Volcanic glass (obsidian) forms when lava is cooled 100 rapidly for crystals to develop. Bowen’s Reaction Series Igneous rocks, with few exceptions, are made of silicate minerals, An understanding of igneous rock formation can be gained by considering Bowen's Reaction Series Bowen’s Reaction Series (Figure 2.1) is the result of experiments conducted by N. L Bowen and first published in 1928, Bowen’s Reaction Series is an organization of the silicate minerals according to the conditions required to crystallize them, as the tem- perature of a melt lowers. Bowen discovered that in addition to the availability of needed chemical elements, temperature and pressure determine when and where given, silicate minerals form. He observed that some minerals form as a continuous series belonging to a single silicate family (tectosilicates) but with progressive change (sub- stitution) of chemical composition, whereas others form as a discontinuous series of different silicate crystal families as their crystal structures readjust. The discontinuous series of readjustments proceeds from what could be thought of as 0 (zero) dimen- sional arrangements (highest temperatures and pressures) through 1-D, 2-D, to 3-D arrangements (low temperature/pressure) if all of the necessary elements to build a particular mineral are available “The continuous series involves the plagioclase feldspar group. These minerals have a three-dimensional covalently bonded structure that includes metal ions. The structure is Bowen's Reaction Series Tey teste (Wear Surface ovate rte Contos) ial aris Low Tempersure ‘Que Low Pressure Muscovite Sheet Silicate Mierocline Orthoctase SS Sheet Silicate Mbite Amphibole (HHornfende) — Oigoctase i Double Chain Silicate Aiesine ep roxene (Augie) Labragorite Single Chain Silicate . ‘ian Buoy Island Si “dvnte Deon Doe Sand Seale te ndergronnd FIGURE 2.1 Bowen's Reaction Series, 32. Physical Geology Laboratory Manualcontinuously modified as ions are ex- changed with the magma during cooling. Calcium-rich (Ca) plagioclase crystals, (anorthite, CaAL,Si,0,) first begin to form when the magma has cooled to 1400 to 1200°C. As cooling continues (1200 to 100°C), the crystals exchange Ca and alu- minum (Al) ions for sodium (Na) and sili- con (Si) ions from the magma, to form ‘aystals that are more sodium and silicon- rich, Calcium-rich plagioclase enystals also form directly from the magma at this tem- perature range. If the temperature of the magma continues to decrease very slowly so that equilibrium is approximately main- tained, plagioclase feldspars will continue to exchange ions in this manner until the magma solidifies. If there is. sufficient sodium, Ca plagioclases disappear com: pletely, but in many magmas all of the Na and Al becomes bonded early and is lost from the system. Thus this process— which can proceed successively from anorthite ich), to bytownite, labradorite, ande- lase, and albite (Na-tich)—in practice produces a variety of different mi erals, depending on the original composi tion of the magma and the rate of cooling, Silicate minerals of the discontinuous series have a variety of different structures of increasing complication that appear and disappear successively and pre- dictably, as conditions (mainly tempera FIGURE 2.2 Silicate Structures. ture) in magmas change. The following discussion is primarily concerned with de- creasing temperature, but the effects of pressure are generally similar. Olivine (1400-1200°C) is the first mineral (stable silicate or structure) to appear. The olivine crys- {al consists of individual tetrahedra (plural of *tetrahedron;” four oxygen and a much smaller silicon hidden in the center Fig. 2.2a) tied together by bivalent iron [Fe] and mag nesium [Mg] ions in a three-dimensional network. Olivine crystals become unstable ‘when the melt cools to about 1200 to 1000°C, the temperature range in which pyroxene be- comes stable. Augite is an example of a common mineral in the pyroxene family. Olivine crystals suspended in the magma react to form the more complex single chain (pyroxene, augite, Fig. 2.2b) silicate structure. Amphibole (another family of silicate minerals, of which homblende is a common example) becomes stable at approximately 1000 to 800°C. Again the earlierformed (pyroxene, augite) crystals react with the melt and form double chain (Fig. 2.2c) amphibole (homblende) crystal structures. Ifsufficient magma and silica (SiO) are stil available, the hornblende will react with it and will begin to change to biotite, a sheet silicate (Fig. 2.2d). Onthoclase and microcline (both three-dimensional covalently bonded structures with metal ions), muscovite (sheet structure), and quartz (three-dimen- sional structure) will form last if enough magma is let. Igneous Rocks: Composition ‘The composition of igneous rocks can be determined, ina general way, in hand specimens by the relative abundance and color intensity (pale versus dark or strong color) ofthe min- erals that make up the rock (Figure 2.3). Chapter 2 Rocks 33Inter yfafje Ultra mediate mafic 100— a2 100 Phslocaser Ay 2 A 90 a 5 [se 3 : S [75 po FE 0% = oe Fo i oz B30 4 o fF 30S & 2-7 ;— 202 wo 4 = I 10 0. — = ° oxi ioe Syenite Granite Diorite Gabbro. Peridotite (ate) Volenme (umene, Trachyte Rhyolite Dacite Andesite Basalt Komatite FIGURE 2.3 Common Igneous Rocks (mineralogy and composition), 1. Felsic (sialic) igneous rocks are composed mainly of potassic and sodic feldspars (light-colored minerals) that formed under low-temperature and low-pressure conditions (Bowen's Reaction Series). Felsic rocks include syenite, trachyte, granite, rhyolite, granodiorite, dacite, and some obsidian, 2. Intermediate igneous rocks have subequal amounts of light and dark minerals Intermediate rocks include andesite (named for the Andes Mountains), and diorite. 3. Mafic igneous rocks have a large percentage of darker and strongly colored minerals rich in ferromagnesian components and calcic plagioclase feldspars. These are minerals that form under high-temperature and high-pressure conditions (Iowens Reaction Series). Mafic rocks include basalt and gabbro, and some obsidian. 4, Ultramafic igneous rocks often contain 70 to 90 percent olivine, other dark and strongly colored ferromagnesian minerals, the most calcic plagioclases, and very minor, ifany, percentages of silica. These minerals form under very high-temperature and high-pressure conditions (Bowen's Reaction Series). Ultramafic rocks include peridotite and komatite. Ultramafic rocks are not common at or near the Earth's surface, but form in the asthenosphere and mantle. Igneous Rock Texture ‘The texture of igneous rocks refers to the physical appearance (“visual feel") and arrange- ment of minerals within the rock. Texture may include the absence of crystals in a rock, the presence and/or relative size of the crystals that make up the rock, any contrast in crystal sizes within a given rock specimen, the arrangement of minerals in a rock, and/or the pres- ence of bubbles (vesicles) in the rock, 1, Glassy texture is applied to igneous rocks that have cooled! so rapidly that crystals didn’t have time to develop and grow. Igneous rocks that have a combination of glass and visible crystals are referred to as vitrophyres. Vitrophyres often form dur ing rapid intrusion when magma comes in contact with much cooler, surrounding, 34 Physical Geology Laboratory Mancountry rock, A chilled (rapidly cooled) margin is a thin zone of rapidly cooled igneous rock that forms a rind on the pluton, and can be aphanitic, glassy, or vitrophyric 2, Aphanitic is the textural term used to describe igneous rocks that have crystals that are approximately uniform and small in size. “Small” means that the crystals are not distinguishable by the unaided eye (<1 millimeter); both microcrystalline (crystals, visible only under the microscope) and eryptocrystalline (crystals too small to be clearly distinguished with the ordinary microscope) textures are included. 3. Phaneritic is the textural term used to describe igneous rocks that have crystals large enough to be seen without magnification ( ~1 mm) and less than 1 inch (2.54 cm, ‘medium size). The rock is “megascopically crystalline.” 4, Pegmatitic is the textural term applied to igneous rocks in which the crystals are large or very large. “Large” means very coarsely crystalline; crystals in a pegmatite may be a few centimeters (1 inch = 2.54 em) or several meters (100 cm, or ~39 and 1/3 in/m) in length. 5. Porphyritic texture is the term used when the crystals in a rock fall into two distinct size groups (small versus large). When a rock has this combination of crystal sizes, porphyritic is usually appended to the rock name. Porphyritic basalt is an example. A vitrophyre is a special kind of porphyritic rock. The smaller aphanitic crystals and lass, if present, form what is called the matrix or groundmass matrix ofthe rock. ‘The matrix, if aphanitic or partly glassy, contains minerals that formed at low temperatures and pressures. The larger crystals are called phenocrysts. Phenocrysts are commonly early-formed, slow-growing minerals that crystallize at higher temperatures and pressures. Asa result, phenocrysts are more likely to have better formed crystal faces (be euhedral) than crystals that form later. Crystals that form late, quartz in a granite for instance, do not develop crystal faces (are anhedral ) ‘The rock is probably volcanic or part of a very shallow intrusion (plumbing of a volcano) if the groundmass is aphanitic. 6. Vesicular texture describes volcanic igneous rock with bubbles (holes). The bubbles form when pressure is released during eruption and volatile components of a ‘magma exsolve (come out of solution). Water (H1,0) and carbon dioxide (CO,) are the two most abundant volatile components. Bubbles are most commonly found in volcanic rocks, but sometimes occur in the "uppermost parts of dikes that were par ofthe plumbing for an eruptive center. Expansion of the gasses formed the bubbles, and the expansion helps to cool the magma/lava. Bubbles range in size from very small (small fractions of a mm) to more than a meter, although very large vesicles are uncommon. The rate of cooling and the viscosity of the magma/lava control the size of the bubbles. Most of the terms arising from vesicular textures are associated with abundance of vesicles as well as size, Rocks with widely spaced and clearly visible vesicles are referred to as vesicular. Vesicular basalt is a ‘common volcanic igneous rock. Rocks with closely spaced bubbles that are on the order of 1 to 2 mm in diameter or larger may be referred to as scoria. Scoriaceous basalt identifies the tops of basalt flows. Contact with oxygen in the air oxidizes iron in the glass to produce tiny crystals of hematite, and a reddish color in many scorias, Scoria has a very low density for a rock, but usually does not float on water Rocks with microscopic bubbles (ess than a mm, usually) may be referred to as pumice. Most pummiceous rocks are felsic. Pumice often has a density so low that the rock ‘will float on water, Seoria and pumice both have vesicular texture, yet they are both forms of obsidian, volcanic glass, The release of gases creates a frothy or vesicular texture in the obsidian. Vesicles later filled with solid material (secondary minerals) are called amygdules. Amygdaloidal basalt is basalt with filled vesicles. Common vesicle-filling minerals in- clude quartz, erystals, chalcedony, agate, and calcite. Large chalcedony or agate-filled Chapter 2 Rocks 3536 amygdules can be handsomely colored and have some value to collectors. Large, partially hollow amygdules are sometimes referred to as "geodes,” though technically geodes form. in sedimentary rocks. Arrangements of Crystals and Bubbles “The arrangement of crystals and bubbles is also an important aspect of texture in igneous rocks. For the purposes of this discussion, an “arrangement” of textural elements is asi uation where the occurrence or orientation of the feature is not random. Arrangements are a product of local variations in the chemical and physical conditions within a magma or lavaand gravity. Understanding of such nonrandom organizations of textural features, and particularly specific kinds of erystals (minerals) is a major area of sty in igneous petrology and geochemistry. “The beginning of crystallization of any mineral variety requires just the right balance of ion availability, temperature, and pressure. 4 simple way forall of these to vary at once is for the magma to be in motion, lowing, Shearing stresses induced by flow can align ex- isting acicular (needle-shaped) crystals producing an arrangement called flow lineation, Surfaces of low pressure sub-parallel to the boundaries of low develop when flow expands (cross-sectional area of the flow increases). These can localize precipitation of sheet-like mineral masses, flow foliation. Early-formed crystals have densities greater than that of the ‘magma, and collect near the bottom of magma chambers under the influence of gravity “The natural form of bubbles and vesicles is spherical, ot, when many bubbles are closely packed (scoria), compact. Under the influence of gravity, bubbles rise and expand to collect atthe top of a lava flow, if the viscosity is low. Flow will deform vesicles into el- lipsoids all aligned in the direction of flow. Basaltic lava can move fast enough to achieve ‘very complicated (turbulent) flow, somewhat like that of water in a brook, In this situa tion, vesicles can take complicated shapes. Identification of Igneous Unknowns Use the “Key to the Identification of Some Common Igneous Rocks" as you identify your igneous rock unknowns, then use the study guide for review. Igneous rock pictures can be found on the Earth & Space Sciences website (htp://ess.lamar-eduy/) Click on People, Staff, Woods, Karen M., Teaching, Physical Geology Lab, Igneous Rocks Physical Geology Laboratory ManualSLLLOanaad < anuaueyg PUIANO %06-0L ‘UONIsodu0D syeue.nI) uiSu9 pend — LTWSVE OLLIOHAYOd <—— sjeiso sejndiue Arewuyd ‘sisKsoouayd yim gT— go NCISHO OMIIVEVE (eatsninxgy g ———— VP#O9S = sayagng pazis winpour «aia 3} \ a1ur294_«—— “IVSVa arigye9 40 zrenb se yons jesourus iacydaog Assuig “WaIOTWaDANY Azopuooos wats pe[ty Seer TELS Va pmeay Garena “LvSVa av INOIsdA +———— and Ayasreoo “sajqqng are] yim 5 Swain, owaavo + apuauena S[B4aUIJA] P2.10[0D yYaRQ ‘uoHIsodwoyD ye, (oxsnnxa) : ‘nuvafon ALISIGNY +— onueqdy . a BUISQNV OLLIWAHAHOd BLO TI A sipiota ounixHadod SL SISK enue Krew ‘sisKioouoyd yum ]—— — antadydaog (eaysnnuy) aquoIntd aLnioId + S[RADUITA, P2.10]0D YAR FP 3431] Jo spunowe jenbaqng ‘uonisoduio; az¥ipautidzuy —_— aLINVTT syersAxo zamenb anjq quia Jf __ SS _SITOXE, +s njséuo sete Aso “siskso0uayd nim s-«—— OLLIYAHa Od : (useing) AOIWNd + _paynd Sjouy ‘sajqang jews yee 3 A onyoueya oreng onpcydaog 1594 21URDIOA NYIGISEO 4 Asst) ee ALIOAHY mueydy: (Consent) auINVUD renb jenuysqns «ny oquonig “aren jenurisgns yi JT snuomea aINVN aaALXaL S[BADUITA, P210J0D IYI] ‘uoNIsodwo; (a1¥Ig) I1S]a4 syaoy snoausy Jo uoKyKayNUapy ay 0} Aay 37z a eS ~ Ny “a, ot ys so oo aouwnd SOUEN YOY “93py apISINO, LIvsva soannx9y, ‘Bury 42109 sod. Bury sun oan 7 09.20 Gy Du jit¥sv, ease we a syd0y Snosus] UoWUIOD Jo woRvaIUEpy ay} 0} apIND 38rir IGNEOUS ROCK WORKSHEET Igneous rocks are classified on the basis of and Define the following terms completely Igneous rock Febsic (lie) Buamplss LT , 3 Intermediate Eampls 1, Mafic Fxamples 1 Ultramafic Fxamples List the Igneous Rock Textures Vocabulary 1. Magma 2. Lava 3. Plutonie (intr ive) 4, Voleanie (extrusive) 5. Sill 6. Dike. 7. Batholith 8. Laccolith Chapter 2 Rocks 39POOOSOCECHOCTIOOOOOOATOHODIICTIDODOIIOT c © Da EXERCISE 2.1: IGNEOUS ROCK IDENTIFICATION For each rock, list the composition, texture, percentage of each mineral in the rock, and environment of formation, and provide a brief description, Rock Name| Feldspar % Plagioclase “Vif intrusive Xf Extrusive Description % Amphibole Properties Composition Texture % Biotite % Olivine % Pyroxene % Quartz atuondyosaq, AIST EX auaxo. weaspPa asepouiiid & sedspieg aSEIPOULO % 10% anno % aroquydury % umn, uonssodwo3 sonodosa lowe you a2SEDIMENTARY ROCKS Sediments are particles that settle to the bottom of a basin of deposition such as a lake, river, sea, etc. Although many sedimentary rocks form as the result ofthe erosion (pick- ing up), transportation (carrying away), deposition (laying down), and lithification (com- paction and/or cementation) of sediments (mechanical processes), some are the result of chemical processes, and some are the result of the accumulation and lithification of or- ganic material (plants or shells). Weathering (rock and mineral destruction) operates con- tinuously at the Earth’s surface. The by-products of weathering include the generation of silicate clastic particles (large to small fragments of preexisting rocks), cays, soluble sil- , soluble salts (K, Na, Ca, Mg, bicarbonates, etc.), and/or iron oxides. ‘There are two main ways that unconsolidated sediments are lithified (turned to stone) ‘compaction and cementation. Compaction results when the pore spaces between clasts (grains) are reduced, due to the weight of the overlying sediments (overburden). Shale is a very fine-grained rock with a tendency to part or break in a direction at right angles to the direction of the weight that caused the compaction. If there is no preferred direction ‘of breakage (thus has conchoidal fracture), the very fine-grained, soft rock is called clay stone, Cementation results when mineral-bearing groundwater ("hard” water) moves through the pore spaces of the sediment and deposits dissolved mineral material in the pores, The added mineral, with time, “glues” the grains together. Calcite, silica, and iron, ‘oxides are common cementing agents. Sedimentary rocks are described and named according to their texture, composition, and internal structures directly related to their mode of formation. Sedimentary particles originate in three general ways. These basic modes of origin follow: 1. Terrigenous, those derived from the land. 2. Evaporite, crystalline precipitate, those crystallized from an aqueous solution, 3. Biogenic, (biologic) origin, those derived from living matter (plant or animal). Terrigenous is the term used to describe material derived from the land. A “clastic* texture is the term used to describe a sediment or sedimentary rock made up of bits and pieces of minerals, rocks, or shells (Fig. 2.4), etc, The clastic sedimentary rocks that have had a terrigenous, extrabasinal origin because of the mechanical or partial chemical weathering of silicate precursors produce rock fragments, large to small, that are here called silicate clastic sediments, Extrabasinal sediments (pebbles, sand, silt, and clay) are those that originated outside the basin of deposition (lake, pond, ocean, etc.) Intrabasi- nal sediments originate within the basin of deposition. These include both evaporitic and biogenic material. Since biogenic sedimentary rocks are formed from pieces derived from ‘once-living organisms, they have a bioclastic texture. ‘Terrigenous Silicate Rocks (Clastic Texture) Grain or (“clast") sizes are subdivided into four categories. 1. Coarse-grained (> 2 mm) includes pebbles, cobbles, and boulders (conglomer- ates and breccias). 2, Medium-grained (1/16 -2 mm), sand-sized material (sandstone). 3. Fine-grained (1/256-1/16 mm) siltsized material (siltstone), 4, Very fine-grained (< 1/256 mm), clay-sized grains (claystone or shale). ‘The grains that make up silicate clastic sedimentary rocks have an angular, sub- rounded, or rounded shape. Angular shaped clasts indicate that the clasts either did not travel far from the source area to the basin of deposition or that the clasts are hard and more resistant to erosion. The size, shape, and process of deposition determine the arrangement (orientation) of the grains as they are deposited. Roundness is a partial indicator of the distance sediment is transported by running water before deposition. A variable, however, Chapter 2 Rocks 43