SPE 30320

Mechanisms of Formation Damage and Permeability Impairment Associated With the

Drilling, Completion and Production of Low API Gravity Oil Reservoirs
D.B. Bennion, F.B. Thomas,D.W. Bennion and R.F. Bietz
Hycal Energy ResearchLaboratoriesLtd

ABSTRACT

9,

The economicproduction of heavy oil reservoirsrequiresan indepth understandingof the specific mechanismsof fonnation
damagewhich are unique to these types of formations. This
paperwill provide a brief descriptionof someof the dominant
mechanismsof permeability impainnentwhich can occur in low
API gravity oil-producing zones. Theseinclude:

This paperprovidesa generaloverview of many of the potential

types of fonnation damage which drilling, production and
reservoirengineersaswell asgeologistsandgeophysicistsshould
be awareof when planning exploitation programsfor heavy oil
plays.

..
..

1
3
4.
6.

Drilling induceddamage
solids entrainment
fines migration
rock/fluid incompatibilities
fluid/fluid incompatibilities
Reactiveclay induceddamage
Formationof emulsions(water-oil, oil-water)
Foamy oil phenomena
Sandcontrol and consolidationissues
Completion induced damage,acidizing, solvent injection,
etc.
Thennally inducedformation damage
mineral transformations
mineral and formation dissolution
wettability alterations
Biologically inducedformation damageissues

..
.

Referencesand illustrations at end of paper

Formation damage issues peculiar to the drilling and

completionof horizontalwells in heavyoil producingmnes.

INTRODUCTION
Heavyoil reservoirspresenta unique challengeto reservoirand
exploitation engineersas they exhibit propertiesnot commonly
found in normal more conventionalAPI gravity oil reservoirs.
Theseinclude:
Properties associated directly with the heavy oil such as high
asphaltene(and possibly paraffm) content, extreme viscosity,
solids content and a propensity to fonn stable water in oil or
gas in oil emulsions.

2 Many heavyoil producingfonnationsarecontainedin poorly

consolidatedor unconsolidatedsandstonefonnationsin many
locationsin the world. Theseparticulartypes of formations
posetheir own particularchallengewith respectto contentof
reactive clays, potentially mobile fines, mineral
transformationsand the physical problems associatedwith
sand retention and control during nonnal production
operations.

MECHANISMS OF FORMATION DAMAGE & PERMEABILITY IMPAIRMENT SPE 30320

ASSOCIATED WITH DRilLING, COMPLETION & PRODUCTION OF
lOW API GRAVITY Oil RESERVOIRS

This paperwill attemptto quantify in a brief descriptivemanner

many of the common mechanismsof formation damagewhich
should be consideredwhen drilling and completing heavy oil
reservoirs,and provide indicationsof potentialtechniqueswhich
may be consideredto attemptto reduceor eliminatesomeof the
concerns associatedwith these particular formation damage
mechanisms.

~AJOR
HEAVY

FORMATION
OIL

RESERVOIRS --

DAMAGE

MECHANISMS

IN

---

Major formation damagemechanismsin heavyoil reservoirscan

be subdividedinto four major classifications,thesebeing:

2.
3.
4.

Mechanicallyinducedfonnatjon damage
Chemjcally inducedfonnation damage
Biologically inducedfonnation damage
Thennally inducedfonnation damage

Each of thesewill now be discussedin greaterdetail

Mechanically Induced Formation Damage Mechanisms
PhysicalMi2ration of In-Situ Fines
Many heavy oil reservoirsare clastic formations which contain
a high concentrationof potentially mobile, in-situ fmes and
particulates.Thesecould include clays suchaskaolinite, detrital
rock fragments, pyrobitumen or other potentially mobile
materials. Heavy oils occurring in carbonatereservoirsare also
not immune to fines migration phenomenaas documented
instances of the migration of dolomite or carbonate fines,
pyrobitumen, etc. have also been observed in this type of
reservoirapplication.
Finesmigration is controlled by a number of factors including
wettability of the porousmedia (fines generallytend to migrate
fairly exclusively in the phase that wets the rock). This
phenomenais illustrated in Figure 1. Poresizedistribution and
size of fines, as well as velocity of the fluids flowing in the
interstitial space,also strongly control the severity of problems
associatedwith fmes mobilization. Fines migration can be
controlled in a number of fashions in heavy oil reservoirs,
ranging from reducing apparent velocity by utilization of
openhole completions, selective fracturing jobs or, in some
situations,potentially mobile clays can be stabilizedthroughthe
use of chemical clay stabilization treatmentswhich have been
describedby a number of authors(l).

SandControl and ProductionIssues

A major problem associated with the production of heavy oils
and bitumens from many low API gravity crude oil reservoirs is
the fact that it is very difficult to produce the bitumen without
producing large quantities of entrained formation fines and sand.
A variety of techniques to retain sand such as pre-packed screens,
openhole gravel packs, formation consolidation treatments, frac
and pack treatments, etc. have been attempted, in many situations
over the years, with varying degrees of success. General
consensus among operators often is that, when sand production
is significantly reduced, oil productivity also tends to be
significantly reduced. A number of different authors have
investigated gravel packing as a technique for sand retention(3.6).
Bennion et al(7) provides a detailed discussion of gravel pack
sizing criteria for the Rosary sands in the Battrum reservoir.
This study illustrates significant reduction in gravel pack
permeability and ultimate well productivity is achieved if poor
gravel pack sizing is selected which allows the physical invasion
of produced particulates and fines from the formation into the
gravel pack. The authors also postulated, based on results in
both Canadian and Bakersfield heavy oil producing operations,
that many of the problems associated with restricted gravel pack
production may be related to near wellbore disturbance and
damage phenomena associated with problems in the original
drilling and completion operations. It was discovered that, if
invasive formation damage and near wellbore disturbance could
be minimized during the original drilling and completion
operations, near wellbore consolidation and sand control
problems were much less problematic resulting in significantly
(500%) greater productivity on the post-gravel packed wells.
Solids Entrainment
Phenomena
-

Figure 2 provides a schematicillustration of the mechanismof

solids entrainmentinto homogeneousmatrix type systemswhich
are commonly encounteredin most heavy oil applications.
Solids invasion is a common occurrencewhich happensduring
overbalanceddrilling and completion operationsdue to the fact
that the hydrostatic pressurein the circulating fluid system is
usuallygreaterthan the formation pressure.Due to the relatively
high penneability of most low API producing gravity oil
horizons, this results in relatively large pore throats and a
significant propensityfor the physical invasion of both artificial
solids (ie. weighting agents,fluid loss control agentsor artificial
bridging agents) or naturally occurring drill solids (silicate,
carbonate,dolomite or other fonnation fines) into the formation.

SPE 30320

D.B. Bennion, F.B. Thomas, D.W. Bennion, A.F. Bietz

In general,many studiesconductedindicate that the fonnation

acts very much like a large filter element. filtering out the
majority of the entrainedsolids in an arearelatively closeto the
wellbore. In many situations, if a cased and perforated
completionis beingcontemplated,a relatively shallowamountof
invasivefonnation damage(less than 2 cm in depth) is usually
not significant. asperforationchargeswill usually penetratewell
beyond this radius. However, if extremely high permeability
formations are encountered,or if drilling and completion in
highly overbalancedconditions in a pressuredepletedformation
occurs,it is documentedthat invasive solids damagecan extend
a significantly greaterdistanceinto the fonnation. Also, a large
numberof completionsin heavyoil reservoirs,particularly with
respectto horizontal wells, tend to be either openhole,slotted
liner or gravel pack type completions. In this type of situation,
the remaining zone of high skin induced by the invasion of
artificially or naturally occurring drill solids remains a
problematic barrier to production and must be physically
produced through, and therefore becomes of much greater
significance with respect to impaired productivity. Past
experiencewith laboratorystudiesand field studiesindicatesthat
this particularmechanismof formationdamagein manyopenhole
horizontal wells which have been completed in low API
producing reservoirs plays a significant role in reducing
productivity.
This problem can be obviatedin many situationsby appropriate
designof a fluid systemwith the appropriatesize distribution of
granular bridging agents to create an effective, sealing,
impermeable filter cake very rapidly upon the face of the
fonnation, therebyinhibiting continuallossesof small solidsand
potentially damaging mud filtrate into the fonnation. This
phenomenais further illustrated in Figure 2.
A variety of bridging agents are available for this purpose,
including calcium carbonate, oil soluble resins, cellulosic
materials,sized salt, etc. Care should be taken in the selection
of a bridging agent with respect to the completion practices
proposedfor the well to ensurethat. if pennanententrainmentof
the bridging agent does occur, an acceptable stimulation
technique is available to remove the bridging agent without
damagingthe formation.
Another potential mechanism of permeability impairment
associatedwith solids entrainment can occur during water
injection or water disposaloperationsin heavy oil applications.
Strict filtration criteria must be maintained in order to avoid
long-termplugging of the sandface by suspendedsolids. This
phenomena is illustrated in Figure 3. Bennion(l) provides
additional criteria with respect to water filtration and water
quality concernsassociatedwith water injection and disposal
operations.

Generalscreeningcriteria suggeststhat the long-termbuildup of

an external stable filter cake causing significant reductions in
penneabilityduring water injection, can be avoidedby ensuring
that filtered injection water is filtered to a size distribution of
particulatesof lessthan approximately200/0of the medianpore
throat size diameterof the target formation.
Relative PenneabilitvEffects
Watertrappingand retentionor aqueousphasetrapping (APT) is
not usually consideredto be a significant permanentproblem in
many heavyoil reservoirsdue to the fact that:
The majority of heavy oil reservoirsexist at some initial
watersaturationcomparableto what would be consideredthe
ultimate irreduciblewater saturation.

2 The majority of heavy oil reservoirs exhibit high

permeabilityandporositycharacteristicsandcorrespondingly
low apparentcapillary pressureswhich also tend to reduce
the propensityof damageassociatedwith permanentaqueous
phasetrapping.
Bennion(9.IO)
further discussthis phenomena. Figure 4 provides
a schematicillustration of relative permeability curvesshowing
the mechanism of an aqueousphase trap in an oil or gas
situation. In general,due to the high permeability pre-existing
in heavyoil reservoirs,they may susceptibleto a non-pennanent
phenomenawhich is called an aqueousphase load. In this
situation,a substantialamountof water-basedfluid is lost to die
fonnation directly adjacent to the wellbore. This createsan
adverserelative permeabilityeffect in the highly water saturated
zone which results in a significant reduction in the apparent
relative penneability to oil. This phenomenagenerally (if it is
not accompaniedwith other damagemechanismssuch as the
fonnation of emulsions,fines migration or clay reactions)canbe
graduallycleanedup over a period of time if a sufficient pressure
gradientcanbe mobilized within the formation over the invaded
zoneto producedie fluid back to the wellbore. This may result
in impairedproductivity for a period of time andhence,although
permanentreductionsin penneability in heavy oil reservoirsdue
to die establishmentof aqueousphasetraps, may occur. short or
medium term reductions in production rates can be readily
apparentwhen wells areunnecessarilykilled or subjectedto high
amountsof invasion with water-basedfluids. The lower the
penneabilityof the fonnation,the more significantthe propensity
of aqueousphase trapping and permanentretention of water
problems becomes. Figure 5 provides a schematicexample
showingdie relative severity of potential aqueousphasetrapsas
a function of initial water saturationand permeability in porous
media. If a low penneability heavy oil play at a low water
saturationis under consideration.care should be taken to avoid

MECHANISMS OF FORMATION DAMAGE & PERMEABILITY IMPAIRMENT SPE 30320

ASSOCIATED WITH DRilLING. COMPLETION & PRODUCTION OF
lOW API GRAVITY Oil RESERVOIRS

the introduction of potentially damagingaqueousphasefluids

into the formation.
Slugs of skim oil or enb'ajnedoil during water injection and
waterdisposalcanalsohaveadverserelativepenneabilityeffects,
particularly if the targetedinjection zoneis an aquiferor entirely
water saturateddisposal zone. Further infonnation on this
phenomenais contained in Bennion(l). This phenomenais
schematicallyillustratedasFigure6 and is especiallyproblematic
with heavyoils, due to both the difficulty in separatingproduced
water and heavyoil emulsionsprior to re-injection and the tarry
nature of heavy crude oils and their ability to rapidly wet and
fonn high residualoil saturationsin porousmedia.
In orderto eliminateconcernswith skim oil injection, suspended
oil in water content should be kept lessthan 100 ppm with the
suspendedoil being injected as a finely divided oil in water
emulsion,ratherthan a nucleatedsolution wherefree oil droplets
can coalesceand, insteadof moving with the bulk injectedfluid
stream,can be entrappedin the porous media as a residual oil
saturation.
Foamy Oil Phenomena
Considerableinterest has been expressedin recentyears in the
generationof stablefoamy oil emulsions,both at downholeand
surfaceconditions,asboth a mechanismfor the increasedand,in
somecases,reducedproduction of oil from heavyoil reservoirs.
A number of authorshave discussedfoamy oil behaviotll-14).
Foamy oil emulsions are created due to the high inherent
viscosity andinterfacialtensioncharacteristicsexhibitedbetween
gasandcrudeoil, aspressuresarereducedbelow the bubblepoint
pressure. General researchat Hycal indicates that a certain
critical threshold pressuremust be exceededto generatethe
formation of a true foamy oil emulsion. This pressure,in past
experience,has been a function of the oil gravity, temperature
conditionsand oil compositionwhich existsin the reservoir,but
generallyfalls in the pressurerangeof approximately700 - 1400
kPa. Upon the formation of a stablegasin oil emulsion,a large
portion of gas which would otherwise be liberated as free gas
remainsentrappedin the oil in an emulsion form. This causes
a reverse formation volume factor phenomenaand a rapid
expansionin swelling of the crudeoil which is postulatedto be
the primary mechanismassociatedwith the high productionrates
which are often associatedwith foamy oil reservoirs. In-situ
viscosity measurementsindicate that foamedoil emulsionscan
exhibit significant increasesin apparentviscosity due to the
entrainmentof the gas in solution. This increasein viscosity,
coupledwith the presenceof the gas saturationboth entrapped
within the oil. and as a critical free gas saturationwithin the

porous media, has been documented to cause significant

reductionsin the apparentproductivity and overall permeability
to oil. Therefore, the radical expansioneffect causedby the
entrapmentof the residualgassaturationis partially counteracted
by reducedproductivity and permeabilityimpairmentassociated
with the entrainmentof the foamy oil. This also results in
increasedpressuredrawdownsand gradientsnear the weUbore,
andmay aggravateproblemsassociatedwith sandcontrol. There
has also been someevidencethat the stable interfacesbetween
the gas and oil phasesin the foamy oil emulsions can act as
transportation sites for small fines which may exacerbate
problems with fines migration, sand transport and formation
consolidation.
Emulsions
Emulsions are a problem associatedwith many heavy oil
operationswhere both oil and water are simultaneouslybeing
produced. Bennion(IS)discussesthe fonnation of emulsionsinsitu at elevatedtemperaturesin porous media.
With respectto water in oil emulsions,two different types of
emulsionsare possible- the water-in-oil emulsion,which tends
to be the most problematic as it exhibits very high apparent
viscosity in comparisonto cleanoil, and the lessproblematicoilin-water emulsion.
Waterin oil emulsionsaregeneratedby a numberof documented
phenomenaincluding turbulence,the presenceof sand, silt or
dispersedfines, paraffins, iron sulphide,asphaltenesand resins,
and a variety of organic acids and cyclic and aromatic
hydrocarboncompounds.
The major problem associatedwith the formation of water in oil
emulsions is the extremely high viscosity exhibited by these
fluids. Over four orders of magnitude increasesin viscosity
causedby the generationof stable water and oil emulsionshas
been documentedin the literature. Some examplesin recent
laboratory evaluations illustrated produced emulsion from
Battrum areaftrefloods with reservoirtemperatureviscositiesin
the rangeof approximately3S 000 mPa.sin comparisonto clean
oil viscositiesfrom the samefield of 190 mPa.s.
The fonnation of emulsionsdownhole results in the generation
of a high viscosity block which canimpair fluid flow towardsthe
wellbore. Researchgenerallyindicatesthat, althoughemulsions
do tend to fonn in-situ in porous media, the majority of the
extremely tight and highly viscous emulsions that are often
encounteredon surface appear to be generatedin downhole
pumping and surfacetransferequipment.

SPE 30320

D.B. Bennion, F.B. ThorT8S, D.W. Bennion, A.F. Bietz

A variety of other potential agentsmay result in the formation of

stable in-situ emulsions. One of these agentswhich will be
discussedin greaterdetail later is hydrochloric acid which, in a
spentfonn, particularly in the presenceof high concentrationsof
acid, can spontaneouslyemulsify with many heavy oils to
generateextremely viscous emulsions which may result in a
temporary or permanentblocking effect in the near wellbore
region.

crude oils). It is only when the asphaltenes are destabilized and

flocculate from solution as solid bodies that significant reductions
in both in-situ penneability and plugging in surface production
and treating equipment may become problematic. Asphaltenes
are typically destabilized by reductions in temperature and
pressure or by contact with precipitative agents such as
unsequesteredhydrochloric acid or a variety of organic materials
such non-compatible oils or diesels or gaseous treating agents
such as LPG or carbon dioxide gas.

Clay Reaction
Sinceof the majority of heavyoil producingformationsareoften
containedin clastic formations, a variety of different types of
authigenicand detrital clays may be presentsuch as kaolinite,
smectite,mixed layer clays, chlorite and illite. Each of these
particularclayshastheir own potentialsensitivity with respectto
differenttypesofformation damagemechanisms.Kaolinite clay,
as already mentioned, has a propensity to be susceptibleto
velocity inducedmigration associatedwith high flow ratesand
pressureshocks. Mixed layer or smectitic clays (Figure 7) are
susceptibleto swelling causedby contactwith either low salinity
or fresh water. The expansionof the smectitic or mixed layer
lattice can causea constriction in the pore systemand result in
substantialreductionsin permeability. This phenomenahasbeen
well documentedby a number of authors(16).
Another potentially significantly damaging mechanism of
permeability impaimlent in unconsolidatedsandstonereservoirs
containing heavy oils is that of clay deflocculation. Clay
deflocculation is less well understoodthan clay swelling and
representsa disruption of electrostaticbondswhich are holding
the claystogetherin a boundor flocculatedstate. Abrupt contact
with a pH shockor significant alterationin brine chemistry(such
as the introduction of fresh or low salinity water) can causea
disruptionof theseelectrostaticforcesand result in dispersionof
the clays and subsequentmigration and significant reductionsin
permeabilitydue to blocking and bridging. This phenomenais
discussed in detail in the literature(8)and is schematically
illustrated in Figure 8.
In many cases,producing heavy oil formations are inadvertently
damaged by the use of low salinity or fresh water simply because
preliminary petrographic analysis indicates an absenceof classical
fresh water swelling clays such as smectite. A variety of other
particulates, including kaolinite clay, can be susceptible to
detlocculation induced damage and this can have significant
results with respect to impaired productivity.

Wax and AsohalteneProblems

Many heavy crude oils contain a high concentration of
aspbaltene.This may not necessarilybe a significant problem if
the asphaltenesare peptized (suspendedor solubilized in the

Most heavy crude oils do not naturally destabilize asphaltenes

with nonnal reductions in temperature or pressure, but may be
fairly susceptible to the fonnation of asphaltic sludges when
contacted with some of the aforementioned precipitative agents.
Therefore, before any type of acidiZBtion or chemical stimulation
b'eatment is attempted, it is usually advisable to conduct
extensive compatibility tests to ensure that the fonnation of either
asphaltic based sludges or emulsions does not occur in-situ upon
contact with the potential stimulation or treating fluid.
Paraffins are more problematic in some situations with heavy oils
and are generally conuolled by reductions in temperature. In
many situations, paraffin problems tend to be more of a
production issue rather than a downhole issue as generally, at
reservoir temperature conditions, temperature remains sufficiently
high enough to inhibit the formation of crystalline waxes.
Detailed cloud and pour point measurements can be undertaken
on produced heavy crudes to ascertain the precipitation
characteristics of the crudes as well as solid hydrocarbon analysis
to quantify the fraction of white vs black wax can be undertaken
to ascertain whether wax treatments are better accomplished
using thermal or chemical suppression treatment methods.
Thomas(17,11)
provides additional insight into the methods of the
prediction and mitigation of problems associated with solids
precipitation in porous media.

Biologically Induced Formation Damage Mechanisms

Bacteriacanbe introducedinto the fonnation at any time during
drilling, completion, stimulation or workover operationswhen
aqueousphasefluids are utilized and improper bacteriological
control is maintained. Bacterially inducedfonnation damageis
a particularly insidious type of fonnation damagein that the
apparentdeliterious effects of the introduction of the bacterial
agentsare usually not readily apparent.but are of a delayedand
usually significant onset. Bacteriawhich can be problematicin
heavyoil reservoirsfall into two types, classifiedas aerobicand
anaerobic. Aerobic bacteria require a constant source of
dissolvedoxygento survive and are usually only problematicin
long-term water injection operations. Anerobic bacteriarequire
no dissolved oxygen and tend to be more widespread and
problematicin a numberof different scenarios.

MECHANISMS OF FORMATION DAMAGE & PERMEABILITY IMPAIRMENT SPE 30320

ASSOCIATED WITH DRilLING, COMPLETION & PRODUCTION OF
lOW API GRAVITY Oil RESERVOIRS

Bacteria thrive best at a temperature range between

approximately40C to approximately70-800Cbut can actively
propagateat temperturesas low as 200Cand at temperaturesof
up to 13SoCfor very hardy strains. There are three major
problems associatedwith the introduction and propagationof
bacteriain porous media. Thesebeing:
Plugging - bacteriaproduceextremelyhigh molecularweight
polyacharridepolymer and fonn a biofilm upon the surface
of the fonnation to protectthemselvesfrom fluid shear. The
physical adsorptionof this biofilm can causea significant
reduction in injectivity or productivity of a given well over
an extendedperiod of time. Oxidants such as bleach or
peroxideare commonly usedto both reduceand desorbthe
polymer and kill coloniesof growing bacteria.

2 Co"osion problems - bacteria, when colonized on metal

surfiM:es,form small electrochemicalcells which result in a
hydrogenreduction reactionwhich causesthe corrosionand
pitting problemson surfacessuchasdownholetubing, pumps
and in surf~ facilities.
3,

Toxicityconcerns- sulphatereducingbacteria.a particularly

troublesome family of anaerobic bacteria. metabolize
elemental sulphate which may be present in naturally
occurring formation water or injection waters and create
toxic hydrogensulphide gasas a by-product. This HzSgas
is highly soluble in oil or water and can be potentially toxic
or lethal to human beings in concentrationsof greaterthan
approximately 1000 ppm. Documentedcasesof sulphate
reducing bacteria producing in-situ HzS concentrationsin
excessof 20,000 ppm havebeenillustrated in areassuchas
the EastWilmington field in California andthe Kuparik field
in the North Slope in Alaska.

Biological damage problems are extremely difficult to remediate,

particularly with sour gas once the gas has propagated a
considerable distance into the reservoir. Therefore, the best
technique associated with biologically induced damage is to
ensure continuous and diligent monitoring of surface and
downhole bacterial levels using rapid detection field kits and an
aggressive biocide and treating program for not only continuously
injected fluids such as injection water, but also any fluids used
for drilling, completion, workover or stimulation operations is
rigorously implemented.

Thermally Induced Formation Damage

Thermally induced formation damage is a family of potential
damage mechanisms which are unique to the production of heavy

oil reservoirsby hot water,steamor in-situ combustionenhanced

oil recovery mechanisms. The nature of mechanisms of
thermally induced formation damage would fall into the
following classifications:
Mineral Transformations
At temperatures in excess of approximately 200C, the potential
for mineral transformations is present. This occurs when a
relatively inert clay such as kaolinite is transfonned into a fresh
water sensitive clay such as a smectite. This reaction has been
documented by various authors(19.Z0).
Subsequent contact of fresh
steam condensatewith the newly transfonned fresh water reactive
clay can result in significant swelling and expansion and large
reductions in apparent penneability of the pore system. This
phenomena has been well documented in many thennal
operations throughout the world.

SolubiliDtion and Precioitation

Another potential mechanism ofthennally induced damage is that
the solubility of both carbonates and silica increases in aqueous
solution as temperature is elevated. This can result in the
dissolution of portions of the forDlation. This can have a twofold
effect. Firstly, the dissolution may dissolve partially soluble
clasts of carbonaceous or silicate material, thereby releasing
previously immobilized fmes which subsequently migrate to pore
throats and cause reductions in perDleability and productivity.
Secondly, the mineral saturated brine, as it moves further into the
forDlation, encounterscolder forDlation material and subsequently
cools and loses the ability to maintain the materials dissolved in
solution. This results in re-precipitation of calcium, magnesium
or silicate based solids and the magnitude and location of this reprecipitation can also result in potential reductions in
perDleability and productivity. A schematic illustration of both
these phenomena appears as Figure 9.

Wettabilitv Alterations
Wettability of porous media is strongly controlled by the physical
adsorption of heavy polar constituents on the surface of the rock.
This adsorption is governed by temperature considerations. As
temperature becomes higher, the amount of physical adsorption
decreasesand many of the heavy polar constituents tend to be
physically desorbed from the surface of the rock. This generally
results as temperature increases in formations tending to become
more and more water-wet. This is schematically illustrated in
Figure 10. This generally has favorable connotations in that the
relative permeability to oil is generally increased while the
relative permeability to water is reduced. This is particularly
beneficial in cyclic stearnflood projects where the mobility ratio

SPE 30320

D.B. Bennion, F.B. Thomas, D.W. Bennion, A.F. Bietz

is dramatically increased resulting in higher oil production on the

production cycles. If the relative permeability to water is
severely depressedby temperature induced wettability alterations,
it may result in reductions or restrictions in injectivity of hot
water or steam into the formation. Generally, this is not a
concern as at high temperature the viscosity reduction associated
with the increased temperature with the injection water or steam
is sufficient to overcome the corresponding reduction usually
noted in the relative permeability.
There have also been some isolated incidences of significant
long-term wettability alterations caused by steamflooding
operations. In this situation it is postulated that, when steam
temperature is achieved and the connate water layer present in
the porous media is vaporized and removed, a portion of the
residual oil saturation is allowed to directly contact the rock and
establishes an oil-wet film on the surface of the formation. This
causesa rapid transition from a strongly water-wet to a strongly
oil-wet scenario and a large increase in the water phase relative
permeability and subsequently degrades the performance of any
type of a cyclic steam operation resulting in high produced water
cuts and poor recovery to oil.
This phenomena has been
documented in the laboratory on both a permanent and a
transitory basis and is discussed in Bennion(19).
Absolute PerDleabilitv Chane:es

Conflicting evidence exists in the literature on the effect of

temperatureon absolutepermeability. In general,increasesin
temperatureresult in an increasein compressionon the grain to
grain contactscausedby thermal expansioneffects associated
with the porousmedia. This generallyhas a moderateto slight
reducingeffecton the effectiveabsolutepermeabilityof the rock.
Previously mentioned problems such as dissolution and reprecipitationcan also result in motion of in-situ particulatesand
changesin poregeometrywhich may haveincreasingor reducing
effects on the apparent absolute permeability of the porous
media.
For this reason, elevated temperature absolute
permeability measurementsare difficult to conduct in a
reproduciblefashion due to the fact that a considerableamount
of permanentphysical alteration in the rock characteroccurs
from the start to the conclusionof the test sequence,eliminating
the possibility for reproducible repeat control permeability
measurements.
Acidiziol! in HeaVYOil Reservoirs
Well designed acid treabnents can be of benefit in some
situtations when heavy oil reservoirsare being producedfrom
carbonateor dolomite fonnations or from sandstoneformations
containing a high fraction of carbonaceousmaterial. In some
situations,well designedhydrofluoric acid treatmentshavealso
beeneffective in decomposingand removing clay and drilling

induced damage in unconsolidated sandstone fonnations. In

general, however, the use of hydrochloric acid or hydrofluoric
acid in predominately quartose heavy oil bearing reservoirs is not
advised as a primary completion treatment due to the potential
problems which can often be associated by adverse interaction of
acid both with the fonnation and with the in-situ crude in the
porous media. These problems would tend to include:
A propensity for most acids, particularly when spent and in
the presenceof high concentrations of iron, to spontaneously
emulsify with many heavy crude oils creating extremely high
viscosity tight emulsions and asphaltic based sludges which
tend to have a plugging effect in the porous media.

2. Potential precipitation problems associatedwith the use of

hydrofluoric acid and reaction with carbonate or other
potentialmaterialswhich arepresentin the porousmedia. If
hydrofluoric acid is to be considered,a detailedcompatibility
program and an extensivedesign program and stagedacid
job, complete with pre-flush treatment of carbonaceous
material, should likely be conductedin order to minimize
potentialconcernsassociated
with fluoride basedprecipitates.
HeaVYOil Productionand Horiztonal Wells
Heavy oil production in many areasof the world has increased
substantially in recent years with the advance of horizontal
drilling. Horizontalwells areparticularly susceptibleto a variety
of fonnation damageinducedmechanismsdue to their geometry
and completion characteristics. Horizontal wells are more
susceptibleto fonnation damagefor the following reasons:
Increasedpropensityfor invasion of both liquids and solids
during overbalanceddrilling operations due to extended
exposuretimes.

2. Even shallow invasive damagecan often be significant in

horizontal wells due to the fact that the majority of
horizontal wells, particularly in heavy oil applications,are
either openhole or slotted liner type completions and
production must occur through the damagedzone.

3.

If damage does occur, obtaining penetrating stimulation

treatmentsis difficult and expensivedue to the size of the
exposedareaand the limited ability to obtain zonal isolation
in many situtationswhere slotted liners are present.

4. Fonnation damageeffects are accentuatedby penneability

anisotropy effects in lower K to ~ penneability ratio
fonnations. This is often the case in many heavy oil
situationswhere,dueto depositionalenvironment,laminated
vertical permeability barriers exist. Additional detailed
discussionon potential severity of permeability impairment

MECHANISMS OF FORMATION DAMAGE & PERMEABILITY IMPAIRMENT SPE 30320

ASSOCIATED WITH DRilLING, COMPLETION & PRODUCTION OF
lOW API GRAVITY Oil RESERVOIRS

with respect to anisotropic permeability impainnent is

containedin the referencesfll-24).

REFERENCES
Sydansk, R.D.: "Stabilizing Clays With Potassium
Hydroxide", JPT (Aug. 1984) 1366.

LaboratoryTeststo EvaluateFonnationDama2eMechanismsin
Heavy Oil Reservoirs
2.
A wide suiteof avajlablelaboratorytechnologyexiststo evaluate
many of the potential fonnation damagemechanismswhich have
been discussedin this paper. A proper understandingof the
petrology and geology of the reservoir coupled with the flow
characteristicsof the rock, wettability, emulsificationpotentialof
the crude oil and specific tests with relationship to pore size
distribution and solid size distribution of the fluid systemsand
composition of the fluid systems proposed for drilling.
completion or stimulation can be evaluated in controlled
laboratorysituationsto obtain a significant degreeof confidence
in the proposed viability of specific drilling, completion,
production or operation scenarios. Additional information on
specificlaboratoryproceduresutilized for both conventionaland
heavy oil formation damage operations is contained in the
literature(2I-24).

),

4.

s.

Coberly, C.J. and Wagner, F.M.: "Some Considerations

in the Selection and Installation of Gravel Packs For Oil
Wells", JPT (Aug. 1938).

Hill. K.E.: "FactorsAffecting The Useof Gravel in Oil

6.

Stein, N.: "Sand Control Methods Using a Particulate

Pack With External and Internal Particle Size
Distribution Relationships", U.S. Patent 3, 434, 540
(March 25, 1969).

7.

Bennion, D.B., Sanders, R. and Thomson, W.S.:

"Minimizing Formation Damage to Gravel Packs:
Laboratory and Field Case Studies in the Battrum
Field", paper SPE 27355 presented at the SPE
Symposiumon Formation DamageControl, Lafayette,
Louisiana,February7-10, 1994.

8.

9.

injectivity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authorswish to expressappreciationto the managementof
Hycal Energy ResearchLaboratories Ltd. for pennission to
publish this paper.

Saucier,R.J.: "Considerationsin Gravel Pack Design",

JPT (Aug. 1974),205.

Wells", API Drilling and Production Practice (1941)

134.

CONCLUSIONS
A wide range of different potential types of fonnation damage
mechanisms have been discussed for heavy oil reservoirs. These
have been broadly classified into the subclassifications of
mechanical, chemical, biological and them1al1yinduced formation
damage. In the majority of operations in heavy oil, much of the
formation damage is typified to be of the mechanical nature with
physical invasion of solids and the formation of emulsions being
some of the more problematic offenders in many operational
situations. A proper understanding of the rock character involved
in a particular heavy oil reservoir coupled with a proposed fluid
program and the interaction of the fluids and contained solids
within the porous media is essential in understanding and
minimizing potential problems associatedwith formation damage
which will result in apparent reduction in the productivity or

Sloat, B.F.:
"Field Test Results With Alkaline
PotassiumSolutions to Stabilize Clays Pennanently",
SPERE(May 1990) 143.

10.

Bennion, O.B., Bennion, O.W., Thomas, F .B. and Bietz,

R.F.: "Injection Water Quality, A Key Factor to
Successful Waterflooding", paper CIM/AOSTRA 94-60
presented at the 46th ATM held June 1994, Calgary,
Alberta.

Bennion,D.B., Bietz, R.F., Thomas,F.B. and Cimolai,

M.: "Reductionsin the Productivity of Oil and Low
Permeability Gas Reservoirs Due to Aqueous Phase
Trapping", JCPT (Nov. 1994)44.
Bennion,D,B., Thomas,F,B., Bietz, R.F, and Bennion,
D.W,: "Water and Hydrocarbon PhaseTrapping in
PorousMedia - Diagnosis,Preventionand Treatment",
paper CIM 95-69 to be presentedat the 46th Annual
Technical Meeting of the Petroleum Society of CIM.
May 14-17, 1995,Banff, Alberta.

SPE 30320

D.B. Bennion, F.B. Thomas, D.W. Bennion,

Maini, B.B., Sanna, HoK. and George, A.Eo:

"Significance of Foam-Oil Behavior in Primary
Productionof Heavy Oils", paperCIM 92-77 presented
at the CIM ATM, June7-10, 1992,Calgary,Alberta.

12.

A.F.Bietz

20.

Kraus, W.P., McCaffery, W.J. and Boyd, G.W.:

"Psuedo-BubblePoint Model for Foamy Oils", paper
CIM 93-45 presentedat the May 9-12, 1993 ATM,
Calgary, Alberta.

Hutcheon, I. et at: "A Comparison of Folmation

Reactivity in Quartz Rich and Quartz Poor Reservoirs
During Stearn-Assisted Thennal Recovery", 4th
UNITAR/UNDP Heavy Crude and Tar Sands
Conference,Vol. 2, paper235,747.

21.

Smith, G.E.: "Fluid Flow and Sand Production in

Heavy Oil ReservoirsUnder Solution GasDrive", SPE
15094(1986).

Beatty, T. et al: "Minimizing Formation Damagein

Horizontal Wells: Laboratoryand Field CaseStudies",
paper CIM 93-16, presented at the 1993 Annual
TechnicalMeeting, May 9-12, 1993, Calgary, Alberta.

22.

Bennion, D.B. and Jones, W.:

"Procedures for
Minimizing Drilling and Completion Damage in
Horizontal Wells - LaboratoryandField CaseStudiesin
the Virginia Hills Belloy Sands", presentedat the
SPFlCIM 4th Annual One Day Conference on
Horizontal Wells, Nov. 22, 1994,Calgary, Alberta.

23.

Bennion. D.B. et al: "Effective Laboratory Coreflood

Teststo Evaluateand Minimize Fonnation Damagein
Horizontal Wells", presentedat the 3rd International
Conferenceon Horizontal Well Technology,Nov. 1214, 1991,Houston,Texas.

24.

Bennion, D.B. et al: "UnderbalancedDrilling of

Horizontal Wells: Does It Really Eliminate Formation
Damage?", SPE 27352, presented at the SPE
InternatjonalSymposiumonFormatjonDamageControl,
Feb. 7-10, 1994,Lafayette,Loujsjana.

14.

Loughead,D.l. and Saltuklaroglu,M.: "Lloydrninster

Heavy Oil Production - Why So Unusual", 9th Oil
Sands Technology Symposium (March 11, 1992),
Calgary, Alberta.

1S.

Bennion, D.B., Chan,M., Sarioglu, G., Courtnage,D.,

Wansleeben,J. and Hirata, T.: "The In-Situ Fonnation
of Bitumen-Water Stable Emulsions in PorousMedia
During Thermal Stimulation", paper ClM 93-46,
presentedat the 1993A TM (May 9-] 2, 1993),Calgary,
Alberta.

16.

Bennion, D.B., Scott, JA. and Bennion, D.W.:

"Detailed Laboratory Studies of Chemically and
Biologically Induced Formation Damage in the East
Wilmington Field", paper CIM 92-44 presentedat the
ATM of the Petroleum Society of CIM (May 7-10,
1992),

7.

Thomas,F.B., Bennion, D.W., Bennion, D.B., Hunter,

B.E.: "Experimentaland TheoreticalStudiesin Solids
PrecipitationFrom PorousMedia", JCPT (1992).

18.

Thomas,F.B., Zhou, X., Moore, R.G.: "Modelling of

Solids PrecipitationFrom ReservoirFluids", paperCIM
95-46, to be presentedat the 46th Annual Technical
Meeting of the PetroleumSocietyof CIM, May 14-17,
1995, Banff, Alberta.

19.

Bennion, D.B., Thomas, F.B. and Sheppard,D.A.:

"Fonnation Damage Due to Mineral Alteration and
Wettability ChangesDuring Hot Water Injection and
SteamInjection in Clay-BearingSandstone
Reservoirs",
paper SPE23783 presentedat the 1992 Symposiumon
Formation Damage Control, February 26-27, 1992,
Lafayette,Louisiana.

FIGURE 1
IllUSTRATION OF EFFECT OF WETTABIUTY
ON FINES MOBILIZATION

FIGURE2
SOLIDS INVASIONINTOA
HOMOGENEOUSPORESYSTEM

--

..
~

"""-

10__14_-

""

c..1.~

t-a_-

...~

to

---

AIr_-&-

~-~ ~ 10__10__&~

\It

-/

r--

FIGURE 3
MECHANISM OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS
ENTRAINMENT

FIGURE 4
MECHANISM OF
AQUEOUS PHASE TRAPPING

FIGURE 5
SEVERITY OF AQUEOUS PHASE TRAPPING

~
:a
~
m
~
Q.
~

10

20
I~

30
40
Water Saturation

50

S)

70

FIGURE 7
EXPANSION OF SWELLING CLAYS
Stabilized

Dehydrated

Expended

~ted

".,

Water
&ms~

----+

t,.-k_-tQnC!

t.,-k_-tQnC!

""

+-

--

.~
(N*:~
It8WkIg8
-diekIjed8cI
oils ~
~~
- . - 8dcIIkJfW
dam8ge
meybe~)

almpatible
n n-.abIe~ die

FIGURE 8
MECHANISM OF CLAY DEFLOCCULATION

-High
8aIk*Y
-~
-~

- Low I8InIy

-~
-DeIDcxxMI8d

- 0
H
.H

FIGURE 9
EXAMPLE OF FORMATION DAMAGE
MINERAL DISSOLUTION

FIGURE 10
INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON
RELATIVE PERMEABILITY/WETTABILITY
(Illustrative Example)