Chapter 7

Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals
Chapter 7
Introduction to Drilling Fluids
The objective of a drilling operation is to drill, evaluate, and complete a well that
will produce oil and/or gas efficiently. Drilling fluids perform numerous functions
that help make this possible. The responsibility for performing these functions
is held jointly by the mud engineer and those who direct the drilling operation.
The duty of those charged with drilling the hole – including the oil company
representative, drilling contractor, and rig crew – is to make sure that the correct
drilling procedures are conducted. The chief duty of the mud engineer is to
assure that mud properties are correct for the specific drilling environment. The
mud engineer should also recommend drilling practice changes that will help
reach the drilling objectives.
7.1 Functions of Drilling Fluids
Drilling fluid (also called drilling mud) is a mixture of water, oil, clay, and various
physical chemical additives. It performs various functions in drilling and con-
tributes with a large portion to the total well cost. In this way the drilling fluid
system (or mud program) has to be carefully designed to ensure a successful
drilling project.
The drilling fluid serves many purposes, which may not all be achieved si-
multaneously for all parts of the well. In this way, an individual prioritization has
to be followed. Below is a summary of some main drilling fluid functions:
1. Transport the drilling cuttings from the bottom of the hole to the surface.
For this, a higher fluid circulation velocity and a higher fluid viscosity are
favorable.
2. Create an overbalanced drilling condition to control the formation pres-

sure. Fluid density (or mud weight) is increased with additives like barite,
iron oxide, etc, to maintain a hydrostatic pressure inside the well which is
slightly higher than the formation pressure. Normally, an overbalance of
100 to 200 psi has proven to be adequate to establish safe drilling.
CHAPTER 7 Page 7–1

3. Reduce chemical and physical interactions with formation. This avoid or

reduce the occurrence of formation swelling, formation cave–in, and prob-
lems associated with cementing. The invasion of fluid, filtrate, or small
solids into the formation can cause damage to the formation and result is
less productivity
4. Produce an impermeable and thin seal (mud cake) along the walls of
permeable formations to reduce fluid and filtrate loss to the formations,
reducing the damage potential of the fluid. This function is obtained by
adding bentonite to the fluid, and by appropriate chemical treatment to
enhances deflocculation and solids distribution.
5. Cool and lubricate the drilling bit and drillstring to minimize wear. Ben-
tonite, oil, various emulsifying agents, graphite, and others favor the cool-
ing and/or lubrication capacity of the fluid.
6. Allow efficient solids control at the surface (separation of cuttings, forma-
tion gas, etc, from the fluid) by using appropriate solids control equipment.
(To be recirculated, a maximum of 2% of sand contends are allowed to
avoid early wear of mud pumps and drilling equipment in general.)
7. Hold drilling cuttings in suspension when circulation is interrupted. Failure
of this function would allow cuttings to fall down the hole and settle around
the drillstring possibly causing pipe sticking problems. The thixotropic 1
behavior of drilling fluids determines its capacity to keep solids in suspen-
sion (including weighting material).
8. Produce buoyancy force to partly support the weight of the drillstring and
casing string. An increase in mud weight, which increases buoyancy, re-
sults in smaller surface hoisting equipment requirements.
9. The drilling fluid should not interfere with logging measurements.
10. Transmit he hydraulic power to the bit and allow maximum penetration
rates.
11. Minimize the torque and drag of the drillstring to reduce wear and failure
of drillstring.
12. As a mean to transmit data between bottom hole equipment and surface
equipment.
7.2 Types of Drilling Fluid
The composition of a particular drilling fluid system depends on the actual re-
quirements of the individual well or well section. Wells are drilled through dif-
ferent formations, which require different mud properties to achieve optimum
1
The ability of a fluid, such as cement or drilling mud, to develop gel strength over time when
not subject to shearing, and then to liquefy when agitated.

penetrations and stable borehole conditions. Economics, additives (cost and

availability), temperature profile, contamination, and environment are some im-
portant factors that determine the design of the drilling fluid. The basic classifi-
cation of drilling fluids is (sub–classifications exist):
1. Water–base fluids
(a) Clear water and native muds

(b) Inhibitive water–based muds – calcium muds
(c) Dispersed muds – lignosulfonate muds
(d) Non–dispersed muds – KCL/Polymer muds
(e) Flocculated muds
(f) Salt–saturated muds
2. Oil–base fluids and Emulsion fluids
(a) Oil–in–water emulsion

(b) Water–in–oil emulsions
3. Synthetic Fluids
4. Aerated fluids
(a) Gaseous fluids (air, nitrogen, CO2 , natural gas)

(b) Foams
(c) Mists
7.2.1 Water–Base Fluids
Water–base fluids are any drilling fluid in which the continuous phase, where
some materials are in suspension and others are dissolved, is water. Thus any
water–base fluid system consists of a water phase, inert solids, reactive solids
phase, and chemical additives. Each of these parts contribute to the overall
fluid properties. The individual contributions are:
water: create initial viscosity,

inert solids: (low-gravity solids like sand and chert, and high-gravity solids like
barite and lead sulfides) produce required mud weight,
reactive solids: ( low-gravity solids like bentonite and attapulgite clays) cause
additional viscosity and gel,
chemical additives: (thinners [phosphate, chrome, lignosulfonate, lignites, sur-
factants] and thickeners [lime, cement,polymers]) provide control to vis-
cosity, yield point, gel strength, fluid loss, pH, filtration behavior, etc.
Caustic soda (NaOH) is used to keep a high pH required to control corro-
sion, hydrogen embrittlement and the solubility of Ca2 + and Mg2 +.

7.2.1.1 Clear Water and Native Muds
To drill compact formations which are normally pressured2 , fresh water and
salt–saturated water can be used as drilling mud. Native muds are the result
of mixing water and clays or shales from the cuttings drilled. Here the clays
or shales are dissolved by the water and returned to the surface. Clear water
and native muds are the cheapest mud systems since no additional material is
needed to form the mud. They are also environmentally best accepted.
7.2.1.2 Inhibitive Water–Base Muds – Calcium Muds
When swelling and hydration of clays and shales are expected, inhibitive water–
base muds can be used. Calcium muds are best suited to drill formations
that contain gypsum and hydrite. A subclassification of inhibitive water–base
muds distinguishes seawater muds, saturated saltwater muds, lime muds, and
gypsum muds.
7.2.1.3 Dispersed Muds – Lignosulfonate Muds
Dispersed muds are used when the following characteristics are required:
• relative high mud weight (larger than 14 ppg),

• tolerance to moderately high formation temperatures,
• low filtration loss
• high tolerance for contamination by drilling solids.
Some of the disadvantages of dispersed muds are sloughing of shales and

formation damage due to dispersing of formation clays in the presence of lig-
nosulfonate.
Dispersed mud systems consist of:
• fresh or salty water,

• bentonite,
• lignosulfonate,
• caustic soda
• colloidal polymers (carboxymethylcellulose or stabilized starch).
In general, these mud systems exhibit better control of viscosity, higher solids
tolerance, and better control of filtration than non–dispersed muds.
2
Formation with pore pressure gradient equal to brine density

7.2.1.4 Non–Dispersed Muds – KCL/Polymer Muds
To drill sloughing shales and water sensitive rocks such as productive sands,
which are prone to formation damage, fresh water non–dispersed muds are
used. Commonly, non–dispersed muds are associated with low mud weights
and low solid concentrations.
Non–dispersed mud systems consist of:
• fresh water or brine,
• potassium chloride (KCl),
• inhibiting polymer,
• viscosifier,
• stabilized starch or carboxymethyl cellulose,
• caustic soda,
• lubricants.
Low–solids polymer mud systems are widespread in the industry since they
offer advantages like increased penetration rate, hole stability, shear thinning
ability, hole cleaning with maximum hydraulics, and lower equivalent circula-
tion density over conventional deflocculated muds. Besides these advantages,
they also have disadvantages like instability at temperatures above 250 ◦ F, ir-
reversible absorption of the polymer on clay, higher dilution, the requirement of
adequate solids removal equipment, and the fact that they are more corrosive.
7.2.1.5 Flocculated Muds
Flocculated muds generally causes a dynamic increase in filtration, viscosity,

and gel strength. Flocculation refers to a thickening of the mud due to edge–
to–edge and edge–to–face association of clay particles.
The flocculation is commonly caused by high active solids concentration,
high electrolyte concentration, and high temperature. To reduce the flocculating
tendency of the mud, chemical additives, also called deflocculants or thinners,
are used. Thinners like phosphates, tannin, lignin, and lignosulfonate are used
to lower the yield point and gel strength. When deflocculants are added, the pH
is controlled by NaOH.
7.2.1.6 Salt–Saturated Muds
Several mud systems have been included in this classification. Saturated salt
systems have a chloride concentration near 190,000 mg/l (saturated) and are

used to drill salt formations. Saltwater systems have a chloride content of

10,000 to 190,000 mg/l. The lower levels are usually referred to as brackish
or seawater systems.
Salt–saturated muds are used to drill through salt domes and salt sections.
These mud systems are saturated with sodium chloride (NaCl), which prevents
severe hole enlargements due to washouts of the salt formations. Swelling of
bentonitic shales is controlled by adding of polymer.
Various specialty products, such as attapulgite, CMC, starch, and others,
are used to increase viscosity for hole–cleaning properties and to reduce fluid
loss.
7.2.2 Oil–Base Muds
In oil–base mud systems, crude or diesel oil forms the continuous phase in the
water–in–oil emulsion. In this way oil–base mud can have as little as 3% to 5%
or as much as 20% to 40% (invert emulsions) of water content. Oil–base mud
systems are used when:
1. Drilling sensitive production zones or troublesome shales,
2. Directional drilling and slim hole drilling,
3. Drilling of depleted reservoirs,
4. Drilling salt sections and formations that contain hydrogen sulfide,
5. High risk of pipe sticking problems,
6. Drilling formations with higher temperatures.
Low–gravity solids content has to be monitored closely when drilling with oil–
base muds. The reason is because there is no hydration of solids (clays),
which frequently causes the contents of low–gravity solids to exceed acceptable
levels. This results in reduction of penetration rate, increase risk of formation
damage, and increase risk of differential sticking.
Since oil–base muds contain substantially less colloidal particles, they ex-
hibit an increased spurt fluid loss 3 . Due to the higher filtration rates, the mon-
itoring of high–pressure/high–temperature filtration and the drilling conditions
are important to ensure that excessive filtration or filter cake buildup does not
lead to drilling problems.
3
The instantaneous volume (spurt) of liquid that passes through a filter medium prior to
deposition of a competent and controlling filter cake.

7.2.3 Synthetic Fluids
Synthetic fluids are designed to mirror oil–based mud performance without the
environmental hazards. Primary synthetic fluids are esters, ethers, poly alpha–
olefin and isomerized alpha–olefin. They are environmentally friendly, can be
discharged offshore, and are non–sheening and biodegradable.
7.2.4 Aerated Fluids
Four basic operations are included in this specialized category. These include:
1. Dry air drilling, which involves injecting dry air or gas into the wellbore at
rates capable of achieving annular velocities that will remove cuttings;
2. Mist drilling, which involves injecting a foaming agent into the air stream
that mixes with produced water and coats the cuttings to prevent mud
rings, allowing drill solids to be removed;
3. Foam uses surfactants and possibly clays or polymers to form a high

carrying-capacity foam;
4. Aerated fluids rely on mud with injected air (which reduces hydrostatic
head) to remove drilled solids from the wellbore.
These fluids are discussed in details in advanced drilling courses (air drilling,
underblanced drilling, etc).
7.3 Laboratory Tests
The API has recommended standard methods of conducting field and labora-
tory tests for drilling fluids and detailed procedures may be found in the API
publication, “Recommended Practice: Standard Procedure for Field Testing
Water–Based (Oil–Based) Drilling Fluids,” API RP13B–1, 13B–2 and supple-
ments (also see 13I for Laboratory Testing Drilling Fluids, 13J for Testing Heavy
Brines and supplements).
7.3.1 Water–Base Mud Tests
7.3.1.1 Density of Fluid (Mud Weight:)
The density or weight of the mud may be determined by the use of any instru-
ment of sufficient accuracy to permit measurement to within 0.1 lb/gal (0.5 lb/ft3
or 5 psi/1000 ft of depth).

Figure 7.1: A mud balance. Figure 7.2: A Marsh funnel.
For all practical purposes, density means weight per unit volume and mak-
ing a density test means weighing the mud. The weight of mud may be ex-
pressed as a hydrostatic pressure gradient in psi/1000 ft of vertical depth, as a
density in lb/gal, lb/ft3 , or specific gravity.
7.3.1.2 Marsh Viscosity:
The Marsh funnel is used for routine field measurement of the viscosity of
drilling mud. It is a simple device for indicating viscosity on a routine basis.
When used with a measuring cup, the funnel gives an empirical value for the
consistency of a fluid.
7.3.1.3 Dynamic Viscosity, Gel:
The rotary viscometer is used to supplement the information obtained from the
Marsh funnel, particularly with respect to the gel characteristics of the mud.
It is capable of giving the apparent viscosity, plastic viscosity, yield point, and
gel strengths (initial and timed). Drilling fluid contained in the annular space
between two concentric cylinders is sheared by the rotation of the outer cylinder
(rotor sleeve) at a constant RPM (rotational velocity). The torque at the rotor
sleeves is transmitted by the fluid to the inner cylinder (bob). A torsion spring
restrains the movement of the bob, and a dial indicates displacement of the
bob. Instrument constants are adjusted so that plastic viscosity and yield point
are obtained by using readings from rotor sleeve speeds of 600 and 300 RPM.
A six-speed model (600, 300, 200, 100, 6, and 3 rpm) can be used to fully
characterize a fluid.
7.3.1.4 API Fluid Loss:
Determines the filtration properties of drilling muds and cement slurries. Gen-
erally consists of a mud reservoir mounted in a frame, a pressure source, a
filtering medium, and a graduated cylinder for receiving and measuring filtrate.

Figure 7.3: A rotational viscometer (rheometer).
Working pressure is 100 psi and the filtering area is 7.1 in2 , as specified by the
American Petroleum Institute (API RP13B–1 and RP13B–2).
7.3.1.5 HTHP Filtration:
Similar to API filter press (with half filtration area), but can be used in pressures
up to to 1200 psi and temperatures up to 500◦ F.
Figure 7.4: A API filter press. Figure 7.5: A HTHP filter press.

Figure 7.6: Sand content sieve. Figure 7.7: Retort.
7.3.1.6 Filter–Cake Compressibility:
This is not yet an API test. The purpose is to determine some mechanical prop-
erties of the mud cake like penetration resistance, adherence, compressibility,
etc.
7.3.1.7 Solid Contents:
A retort is used to determine solid contents including dissolved ions.
7.3.1.8 Sand Content:
Determines sand content by sieve analysis. The volume of sand, including void
spaces between grains, is usually measured and expressed as a percentage
by volume of the drilling fluid.
7.3.1.9 Methylene Blue Capacity:
Determines the capacity of a clay to absorb cations from a solution, and thereby
predict how the clay will react in its intended use. The clay may be component of
a drilling fluid, a binder in foundry sand, or a clay used for some other purpose.
The Methylene Blue Test is based on the property of clays known as base
exchange capacity, that is, clays can exchange some of their ions for the ions
of certain other chemicals. The number of ions available for this exchange
varies with different types of clay.
Flocculant Efficiency Test:

Figure 7.8: Methyl blue capacity test kit. Figure 7.9: A pH meter.
7.3.1.10 pH:
Indicator sticks and/or pH meter are used to determine the hydrogen ion con-
centration in the mud and in the filtrate.
7.3.1.11 Chemical Analysis of Water–Base Fluids (Titration)
• Alkalinity (Pf, Mf, Pm and Lime Content)
• Garrett Gas Train (GGT) Test for Carbonates
• Chloride (Cl)
• Calcium Qualitative
• Total Hardness
• Hardness in Dark Filtrates
• Sulfate
• Potassium (K+)
• Nitrate Ion Concentration
• PHPA Polymer Concentration
7.3.1.12 Chemical Analysis Relating to Corrosion
• SULF-X (ZnO) and Basic Zinc Carbonate (ZnCO3 Zn(OH)2 )
• Iron Sulfide Scale (Qualitative)
• Hydrogen Sulfide (H2 S)
• Phosphate

Figure 7.10: A titration kit.
Figure 7.11: A permeameter kit.
• Oxygen Scavenger: SO3 2- Content
• Resistivity
• Resistivity of the mud, filtrate and filter cake is sometimes needed in order
to help evaluate the electric logs.
7.3.1.13 Permeability Plugging Test
The Permeability Plugging Apparatus (PPA) is designed to provide accurate

simulation and measurement of downhole static filtration. The PPA is very use-
ful in predicting how a drilling fluid can form a permeable filter cake to seal
off depleted/under pressure intervals. The PPA utilizes a conventional HTHP
Heating Jacket to simulate reservoir temperature.
7.3.2 Oil-Base Mud Testing
7.3.2.1 Aniline Point Determination
The test indicates if an oil is likely to damage elastomers that come in contact
with the oil. It is the lowest temperature (°F or °C) at which equal volumes of
aniline (C6 H5 NH2 ) and the oil form a single phase. A low AP is indicative of
higher aromatics, while a high AP is indicative of lower aromatics content.

Figure 7.12: An aniline point kit. Figure 7.13: Electrical stability tester.
7.3.2.2 Electrical Stability:
Indicates the emulsion and oil–wetting qualities of the sample. The test is per-
formed by inserting the ES probe into a cup of 120 ◦ F (48.9 ◦ C) mud and push-
ing a test button. The ES meter automatically applies an increasing voltage
(from 0 to 2000 volts) across an electrode gap in the probe. Maximum voltage
that the mud will sustain across the gap before conducting current is displayed
as the ES voltage.
7.3.2.3 Chemical Analysis of Oil-Base Drilling Muds:
• Alkalinity (Pom) (VSAAPI)
• Salinity Chlorides
• Whole Mud Calcium Calculation
• Sulfides
7.4 Fluid Density and Viscosity Calculations
Additives are added to the drilling fluid in order to bring the fluid parameters to
the required values. Density and viscosity are the two most basic parameters
to control.
The drilling fluid technician or engineer should carry some calculations, and
laboratory measurements and tests to determine the correct additive and the
correct amount to be mixed to the fluid system. Fluid volumes are normally
measured in barrels. Useful conversion factors are:
1 bbl = 42 gal
1 gal = 231 in3
1 ft3 = 1728 in3
1 in3 = 2.543 cm3

1 lbm = 453.59 g
Powder and dry additives are normally measured in pounds, and liquid ad-
ditives are normally measured in gallons or barrels. Pilot tests are laboratory
(small scale) tests that aim to determine the amount of additive required to
bring some fluid parameters to determinate values. Small scale tests are fast
and cheap to perform. A handy conversion for is that of lbm/bbl to g/cm3:
1in3

lbm 453.59g 1bbl 1gal 1g
1 × × × 3
× 3 3
=
bbl 1lbm 42gal 231in 2.54 cm 350cm3
Therefore, in a pilot test with 350 ml of fluid, 1 gram of added additive cor-
responds to the addition of 1 lbm of dry additive to 1 barrel of fluid. A similar
conversion shows that 25 ml of liquid additive in 350 ml or fluid corresponds to
3 gallons of additive per barrel of fluid.
7.4.1 Density Calculations
It is frequently necessary to compute the density of a mixture from the amount

of the substances in the mixture. It is also important to be able to calculate
the amount to be added of a given substance in order to increase or decrease
the density of the mixture. The density and specific gravity of some common
substances used in drilling fluids are shown in the following table:
Substance Specific Gravity Density (lbm/gal)

water 1 8.33
Diesel oil 0.86 7.2
bentonite 2.6 21.7
attapulgite 2.89 24.1
sand 2.63 21.9
barite 4.2 35
drilling cuttings 2.6 21.7
cement 3.14 26.2
CaCl2 1.96 13.3
NaCl 2.16 18.0
The assumption that the mixture is ideal, that is, that the volume of the
mixture is equal to the volume of the components (not valid for highly soluble
substances like NaCl in water) facilitates the volume–density calculations. The
relations are: X
Vmix = Vi ,
where Vmix is the volume of the mixture and Vi is the volume of the component
i of the mixture, and
X X
Mmix = ρmix Vmix = Mi = ρi Vi ,

where M is mass and ρ is density. In general, the final density of a mixture of

substances (assuming ideal mixture) is:
P
ρi Vi
ρmix = P .
Vi
Example 28: Calculate the volume and density of a fluid composed of 25 lbm
of bentonite, 60 lbm of barite, and 1 bbl of fresh water.
Solution:
The volume and the mass of the mixture are:

42gal 25lbm 60lbm
Vmix = 1bbl × + + = 44.87gal
1bbl 21.7lbm/gal 35lbm/gal

42gal lbm
Mmix = 1bbl × × 8.33 + 25lbm + 60lbm = 434.9lbm
1bbl gal
434.9lbm
ρmix = = 9.69 lbm/gal
44.87gal
7.4.2 Density Treatment
The density control of a drilling fluid is obtained usually with the use of barium
sulfate (BaSO4) commonly called barite. The specific gravity of pure barite is
4.5, and the average specific gravity of API barite is 4.2 or 35 lbm/gal.
To keep the barite in suspension, a minimum gel strength of 3 lbf/100ft2 is
required and normally obtained with water–bentonite fluid. The bentonite itself
adds viscosity and density to the water.
The most common weight treatment is that of increasing the density of the
fluid by adding barite. Four basic different procedures exist and must be under-
stood. They are:
1. Increase fluid density by adding barite (no volume limit). In this case it is
not necessary to discard part of the original fluid.
2. Increase fluid density by adding barite (volume limit). In this case it is

necessary to discard part of the original fluid before adding barite to the
system. We assume that the final volume is equal to the original volume.
3. Increase fluid density by adding barite and water (no volume limit). In this
case, hydration water is added to avoid increasing the viscosity.

4. Increase fluid density by adding barite and water (volume limit). In this
case it is necessary to discard part of the original fluid before adding
barite and hydration water.
5. Reduce fluid density by adding water and bentonite (no volume limit).
6. Reduce fluid density by adding water and bentonite (volume limit).
7.4.2.1 Increase Density – No Volume Limit – No Hydration Water
Let V1 and ρ1 be respectively the volume and the density of the fluid before
the treatment. The required density of the fluid after treatment is ρ2 . Since
there is no limit for the final volume V2 , no discard of fluid is needed before the
treatment. Using volume and mass continuity we have:
V1 + VB = V2 ,
ρ1 V1 + ρB VB = ρ2 V2 ,
where VB and ρB are respectively the volume and density of the barite. Solving
for VB in terms of V1 we get:
ρ2 − ρ 1
VB = V1 . (7.1)
ρ B − ρ2
The barite is added to the fluid in mass quantity (usually in lbm), and since
mB = ρB VB we can write:
mB = ρB VB . (7.2)
This is the mass of barite needed to add to obtain a fluid with density ρ2 . The
final volume V2 is given by:
V2 = V1 + VB . (7.3)
7.4.2.2 Increase Density – Volume Limit – No Hydration Water
In this case, since the volume is limited (and assumed to be the initial volume
V1), it is necessary to discard a volume Vd before increasing the density. Using
volume and mass continuity we have:
V1 − Vd + VB = V1 → Vd = VB ,
ρ1 V1 − ρ1 Vd + ρB VB = ρ2 V1 .
Note that the discarded volume will be equal to the volume of barite added to
increase the density. Substituting Vd for VB in the second equation and factoring
out Vd we obtain:
ρ2 − ρ1
Vd = VB = V1 . (7.4)
ρB − ρ1
With VB , the mass of barite to be added is given by
mB = ρB VB . (7.5)

7.4.2.3 Increase Density – No Volume Limit – Hydration Water
If barite is added to the mud, a part of the free water in the mud will be adsorbed
by the particles of barite (particle sizes in the silt and fine sand range - 2 µm to
100 µm). The water will come from the fluid and, as consequence, an increase
of viscosity will occur. To avoid this increase in viscosity, a volume of water is
added along with the barite to serve as hydration water, and thus keeping the
viscosity under control. The amount of water added depends on the amount
of barite added. Normally, 2 to 3 gallons of water are required for 100 lbm of
barite.
Let vh be volume of hydration water per mass of barite, and Vw and ρw the
volume and density of the hydration water. Then we have:
V1 + VB + Vw = V2 ,
ρ1 V1 + ρB VB + ρw Vw = ρ2 V2 .
The volume of water and the volume of barite are related by the specific volume
vh :
Vw = mB vh = ρB VB vh .
Substituting this value in the system above we get:
V1 + (1 + ρB vh ) VB = V2 ,
ρ1 V1 + (1 + ρw vh ) ρB VB = ρ2 V2 .
Solving for VB in terms of V1 we get:
ρ2 − ρ1
VB = V1 . (7.6)
(1 + ρw vh ) ρB − (1 + ρB vh ) ρ2
With VB , the mass of barite, volume of water, and the final volume are given by:
mB = ρB VB , (7.7)
Vw = mB vh , (7.8)
V2 = V1 + VB + Vw . (7.9)
7.4.2.4 Increase Density – Volume Limit – Hydration Water
The final volume is V1 , and a volume Vd must be discarded before the treatment.
The continuity equations are:
V1 − Vd + VB + Vw = V1 → Vd = VB + Vw ,
ρ1 V1 − ρ1 Vd + ρB VB + ρw Vw = ρ2 V1 .
Using Vw = ρB VB vh and the first equation above gives:
Vd = (1 + ρB vh ) VB .

Substituting these two results in the second equation and solving for VB results
in:
ρ 2 − ρ1
VB = V1 . (7.10)
(1 + ρw vh ) ρB − (1 + ρB vh ) ρ1
With VB , the volume to discard, the mass of barite, and the volume of hydration
water are:
Vd = (1 + ρB vh ) VB , (7.11)
mB = ρB VB , (7.12)
Vw = mB vh . (7.13)
Example 29: It is required to increase the density of 300 bbl of a drilling mud
from 9.3 ppg to 10.5 ppg. Calculate the amount of barite and the suitable
procedure (discard, hydration water, etc) for the four cases above. (Assume
ρB = 35 ppg, vw = 2.4 gal/100 lbm of barite, and ρw = 8.34 ppg.)
Solution:
Case 1: No volume limit, no hydration water. Using Equations 7.1 to 7.3:
10.5 − 9.3
VB = × 300 bbl = 14.69 bbl
35 − 10.5

lbm 42 gal
mB = 35 × 14.69 bbl × = 21, 600 lbm
gal 1 bbl
V2 = 300 + 14.69 = 314.69 bbl ≈ 315 bbl
Case 2: Volume limit, no hydration water. Using Equations 7.4 and 7.5:
10.5 − 9.3
Vd = VB = × 300 = 14.01 bbl
35 − 9.3
mB = 35 × 14.01 × 42 = 20, 591 lbm
The final volume is equal to the original volume, i.e., 300 bbl.
Case 3: No volume limit, hydration water. Using Equations 7.6, to 7.9:
10.5 − 9.3
VB = 2.4
2.4
× 300 = 15.87 bbl
1 + 8.34 × 100
× 35 − 1 + 35 × 100
× 10.5
mB = 35 × 15.87 × (42) = 23, 328 lbm

2.4
Vw = 23, 328 × = 560 gal = 13.33 bbl
100
V2 = 300 + 15.87 + 13.33 = 329.2 bbl ≈ 329 bll
Note that the volume of barite is larger than in case 1 because its density is
reduced by the hydration water.

Case 4: Volume limit, hydration water. Using Equations 7.10 to 7.13:
10.5 − 9.3
VB = 2.4
2.4
× 300 = 14.46 bbl
1 + 8.34 × 100
× 35 − 1 + 35 × 100
× 9.3
2.4

Vd = 1 + 35 × 100
× 14.46 = 26.6 bbl
mB = 35 × 14.46 × (42) = 21, 258 lbm

2.4
Vw = 21, 258 × = 510 gal = 12.15 bbl
100
7.4.3 Initial Viscosity Treatment
Bentonite is a clay mineral that is composed principally of three–layer clays,

such as montmorillonite, and widely used as a mud additive for viscosity and
filtration control. Commercial bentonite ores vary widely in amount and quality
of the swelling clay, sodium montmorillonite. Ores of lower quality, those with
more calcium–type montmorillonite, are treated during grinding by adding one
or more of the following: sodium carbonate, long–chain synthetic polymers,
carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), starch, or polyphosphate. These help make
the final product meet quality specifications.
Clays, in general when ground to colloidal size (less than 2µm in diameter)
and, mixed with water, form a colloidal suspension that causes the increase
in viscosity and gel strength. Different clays produce different levels of viscos-
ity. The term yield is used to specify the quality of a clay according to the
number of barrels of 15 cP viscosity mud (measured at 600 RPM in a API stan-
dard rotational viscometer) that one ton of the clay would produce (sometimes
it is used 30 cP). Clays can be classified as high–, medium– or low–yield. A
bentonite produces at least 85 bbl of mud per ton. High–yield clays produced
30 to 50 bbl/ton, and low–yield clays produced 15 to 30 bbl/ton. The graph
in Figure 7.14 shows typical performances for different types of clay. We can
clearly see that bentonite can produce large viscosities with low densities. With
the right selection of clay and other additives (like barite) a wide range of vis-
cosity/density can be obtained. It is important to stress that viscosity is also
affected by other additives, and pilot tests are always required to obtain the
correct properties.
Example 30: It is required to produce 350 bbl of a water–base drilling fluid

with 15 cP and 9.4 ppg using premium clay and barite. Specify the amount of
material needed. Assume the same material properties of the Example 29.
Solution:

From the graph in Figure 7.14, we see that premium clay produces 15 cP
mud at the density of 8.94 ppg. We have 3 continuity equations and 1 relation-
ship to solve: Final mud volume and mass equations:
Vw + Vc + Vh + VB = Vm
ρw Vw + ρc Vc + ρw Vh + ρB VB = ρm Vm
Mass of the initial mud (water and premium clay):
ρi (Vw + Vc ) = ρw Vw + ρc Vc
Hydration water requirement:
Vh = ρB VB vh
With numbers (watch out for the units):
Vw + Vc + Vh + VB = 350
8.34 × Vw + 21.7 × Vc + 8.34 × Vh + 35 × VB = 9.4 × 350

Mass of the initial mud (water and premium clay):
8.94 × (Vw + Vc ) = 8.34 × Vw + 21.7 × Vc
Hydration water requirement:

2.4
Vh = 35 × VB ×
100
Solving the system we find:
Vw = 323.21 bbl
Vc = 15.2 bbl
Vh = 5.29 bbl
VB = 6.3 bbl
Therefore, the total water volume, and the mass of clay and barite are:
Vt = 323.21 + 5.29 = 328.5 bbl
mc = 15.2 × 21.7 × (42) = 13, 851 lbm

mB = 6.3 × 35 × (42) = 9, 261 lbm

Figure 7.14: Clay performance for viscosity.


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Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering

Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

Introduction to Drilling Fluids

7.1 Functions of Drilling Fluids

2. Create an overbalanced drilling condition to control the formation pres-

CHAPTER 7 Page 7–1

3. Reduce chemical and physical interactions with formation. This avoid or

7.2 Types of Drilling Fluid

CHAPTER 7 Page 7–2

penetrations and stable borehole conditions. Economics, additives (cost and

(a) Clear water and native muds

2. Oil–base fluids and Emulsion fluids

(a) Oil–in–water emulsion

(a) Gaseous fluids (air, nitrogen, CO2 , natural gas)

7.2.1 Water–Base Fluids

water: create initial viscosity,

CHAPTER 7 Page 7–3

7.2.1.1 Clear Water and Native Muds

7.2.1.2 Inhibitive Water–Base Muds – Calcium Muds

7.2.1.3 Dispersed Muds – Lignosulfonate Muds

• relative high mud weight (larger than 14 ppg),

Some of the disadvantages of dispersed muds are sloughing of shales and

• fresh or salty water,

CHAPTER 7 Page 7–4

7.2.1.4 Non–Dispersed Muds – KCL/Polymer Muds

• fresh water or brine,

• potassium chloride (KCl),

• stabilized starch or carboxymethyl cellulose,

7.2.1.5 Flocculated Muds

Flocculated muds generally causes a dynamic increase in filtration, viscosity,

7.2.1.6 Salt–Saturated Muds

CHAPTER 7 Page 7–5

used to drill salt formations. Saltwater systems have a chloride content of

7.2.2 Oil–Base Muds

1. Drilling sensitive production zones or troublesome shales,

2. Directional drilling and slim hole drilling,

3. Drilling of depleted reservoirs,

4. Drilling salt sections and formations that contain hydrogen sulfide,

5. High risk of pipe sticking problems,

6. Drilling formations with higher temperatures.

CHAPTER 7 Page 7–6

7.2.3 Synthetic Fluids

7.2.4 Aerated Fluids

3. Foam uses surfactants and possibly clays or polymers to form a high

7.3 Laboratory Tests

7.3.1 Water–Base Mud Tests

7.3.1.1 Density of Fluid (Mud Weight:)

CHAPTER 7 Page 7–7

Figure 7.1: A mud balance. Figure 7.2: A Marsh funnel.

7.3.1.2 Marsh Viscosity:

7.3.1.3 Dynamic Viscosity, Gel:

7.3.1.4 API Fluid Loss:

CHAPTER 7 Page 7–8

Figure 7.3: A rotational viscometer (rheometer).

7.3.1.5 HTHP Filtration:

CHAPTER 7 Page 7–9

Figure 7.6: Sand content sieve. Figure 7.7: Retort.

7.3.1.6 Filter–Cake Compressibility:

7.3.1.7 Solid Contents:

A retort is used to determine solid contents including dissolved ions.

7.3.1.8 Sand Content:

7.3.1.9 Methylene Blue Capacity:

Flocculant Efficiency Test:

CHAPTER 7 Page 7–10