1

INTRODUCTION TO DRILLING FLUIDS

Drilling operations success depends significantly on the performance of the fluid being
Circulated down the rotating drill pipe, through the bit, and up the annular space between
The pipe and the formation, the drilling fluid design, formulation and reactions with the
Subsurface formation is crucial. “Drilling mud” is a more widely accepted name for
Drilling fluids prepared by mixing water with natural formation clays or commercial
Bentonite, “Drill-in fluids” are special drilling fluids formulated without bentonite, barite
and any other insoluble materials. The absence of barite helps to ensure that the Drill-in
Fluids are less damaging to the pay zone natural permeability. A large number of the
Formation damage mechanisms can arise from the interaction between the reservoir
rocks, minerals and the induced fluids. Drilling fluids have solid and liquid components.
There is no such thing as a universal “non-damaging” drilling fluid? Each reservoir to be
Drilled should be taken on a case by case basis and the least impairing “Drill-in fluid”
Formulation can be selected. Laboratory methods of examining the residual damage
Caused by the different fluid formulations are available and should be carried out prior to
drilling the well.

1.0 FUNCTION OF DRILLING FLUIDS

Drilling mud has many functions in the drilling operations. At any one time in the
Operation, one function may be more important than the other functions for that
Drilled interval, which is why a mud program is essential in well planning.
Drilling Mud should provide:

 Control of subsurface pressures to overcome gas, oil, and water flows.

 Removal and suspension of drilled cuttings and weighting material.
 Proper borehole stability.
 Reliable geological and reservoir rock information.
 Lubrication and cooling of the bit and drill string.
 Minimum formation damage.
 Corrosion control.
 Some publications may list ten to fifteen different functions of a drilling fluid.
Many
 Of these are variations of the same function. This section will discuss:
 Generating hydrostatic pressure downhole.
 Removing cuttings a head of the bit and transporting them to the surface.
 Controlling invasion of filtrate into the formation.

1.1 Hydrostatic Pressure

Filling a hole with a fluid will inevitably generate a hydrostatic head or

pressure as illustrated in Figure 3A-1. This is calculated by the use of the
following equation:

Hydrostatic Head = (Conversion Constant) X (Mud Density) X True Vertical Depth

HH (psi) = 0.0695 X MW (lb/cu.ft.) X TVD (feet)

or HH (psi) 0.052 X MW (lb/gal) X TVD (feet)

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Down hole pressure needs to be controlled for two reasons:

• The drilled rock must be supported and stabilized.
• The pressure of gases and fluids in the rock must be exceeded so they
do not enter the wellbore. This is particularly important for safety.

As the mud density supports the rock, excessive down hole pressure can also
damage it by “fracturing” it in the manner that a hose pipe can be split by too
high a pressure.

A key to a successful operation is the knowledge of the formation stresses.

Formation strength, and pore pressures, so that the correct mud weight and
casing depths can be selected. Hopefully, the casing depths will isolate
section problems.

The pressure applied by the mud column will depend on whether the mud is static or
being pumped

Hydro static head

The additional pressure used to overcome frictional losses and viscosity
Effects generates additional pressure, and the sum is referred to as
Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD)

ECD = Hydrostatic Head + ΔP

1.2 Cuttings Transport

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One of the most important functions of the drilling fluid is to efficiently remove
the freshly drilled rock fragments from around the bit and transport them to
the surface, where they can be discarded. The ability to achieve this
objective is dependent on the annular velocity and the properties of the
fluid. The speed at which the fluid is pumped up the annulus should be
greater than the slip velocity [the rate at which the cuttings will settle through
the moving fluid. Annular velocities between 100 and 200 ft/min are
frequently used. The density of the fluid has a buoyant effect on the cutting
particle so that an increase in density will increase the fluid carrying capacity.
Also, the viscosity related characteristics considerably influence the fluid
carrying capacity.

Drilling progress can only be made if the cuttings are removed from the
Wellbore and separated and discarded at the surface Cuttings removal
involves four steps:

• Removing the cuttings away from the area of the bit where the cuttings
are generated
• Transporting the cuttings to the surface in the annular space between
the drill pipe and the wall of the hole
• Suspending the cuttings at the surface to allow separation
• Suspending the cuttings in the hole when the pump is off

Moving cuttings away from the bit is controlled by the pump rate and bit
hydraulics. The mud properties can only improve the mud lifting capability
and ensure cuttings and solids suspension. Enough volumetric flow is
needed to sweep the bit and move the cuttings out of the hole. Figure 3A-2
shows a typical chip removal from the face of the bit.

Fast drilling rates can overload the volumetric flow past the face of the bit,
resulting in re-grinding the chips cut by the bit. High drill rates, especially at
shallow depths, can load up the annulus, resulting in excessive hydrostatic
head. Annular flow rate, therefore, is critical for proper hole cleaning.

Transporting the cuttings up the annulus is also dependent on having the proper
rheological properties (viscosity) as well as flow rate. The flow
type, turbulence or laminar, is important for good hole cleaning.
In high angle and horizontal wells, maintaining both drilled cuttings and
weight material in suspension requires progressive gel strengths and high "low-shear
rate viscosity".

Drilling fluids should have the ability to form a reversible gel structure when
circulation is stopped (Thixotropic properties), so that the cuttings and
weighting material remain suspended. Upon resumption of circulation the
fluids revert to their initial flow properties

1.3 Filtration Control

 4

The fluid loss properties of mud may affect the penetration rate, hole
instability, formation damage, and differential sticking.
The total amount of fluid lost to the formation is dependent upon:
• Pressure difference between mud column and pore pressure (ΔP)
• Base fluid viscosity
• Formation permeability
• Filter cake permeability
• Temperature

Mud filtration is even more critical when drilling depleted zones and higher
permeability formations. Fluid invasion can also occur in fractured
formations, especially if the mud hydrostatic head is significantly higher than
the formation pressure.

Filtrate invasion into producing zones is one of the leading causes of

formation damage, resulting in reduced production. Not only the amount of
filtrate but the type is important. For this reason, an inhibitive fluid may be
used. Brine-based mud are often used to minimize damage.

The filter cake quality is essential in maintaining good fluid loss control. Poor
filter cakes and high fluid losses can lead to excess drag and differential
sticking. Figure 3A-3 shows the formation of the filter cake. The basis of
good filtration control in high temperature water-based mud is to have the
optimum concentration of high quality bentonite particles. Bentonite forms a
tight, low-permeability thin filter cake. High temperature fluid loss control
additives must be used to reach very low fluid loss levels. Also at high
temperatures, further additives may be needed to overcome temperature
degradation. If high concentration of poor quality bentonite is used in a high
temperature well, excessive mud thickening will develop, which can cause
dramatic increase in the surge pressures while moving the drill string in and
out of the hole. In gas wells, this causes well control problems and blowout.
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TYPES OF DRILLING FLUIDS

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Base Fluids

1.1.1 Air
1.1.2 Water
1.1.3 Oil

1.2 Common Additives

1.2.1 Weight Control Additives
1.2.2 Clay
1.2.3 Polymers

2.0 WATER–BASED DRILLING FLUIDS

2.1 Overview
2.2 Composition
2.3 Properties and common tests
2.4 Types of water- based mud
2.5 Contaminations

3.0 Tests You Should Know

3.1 High Temperature- High Pressure Test

3.2 Garrett Gas Train for H2S Determination
3.3 Pilot Test
3.4 Garrett Gas Train for CO2 Determination
3.5 Examination Problems
 6

INTRODUCTION:

Drilling mud are composed of a base fluid and additives. The additives perform certain
functions or adjust one or more of the mud’s properties.
Common Base Fluids: Air, Water, and Oil.
Common Additives: Weight Control Additives (barite, calcium carbonate…etc),
Viscosifiers (bentonite, polymers…etc),
Deflocculants or Thinners (fluid loss/filter cake controllers).

1.1 Base Fluids

1.1.1 Air
Air is used to lower the hydrostatic head to drill depleted and under pressured
formations. Fast drilling rates can be maintained with ultralow
densities. High volume air compressors are needed to maintain
the volumetric flow required for cleaning the hole.
If water is encountered in formations being drilled with air, the fluid
must be converted to mist by adding surfactants. Water flows are
best handled by converting the fluid to foam with foaming agents and
a stabilizer. Foam stabilizers are usually drilling fluid polymers such
as xanthan gum or hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC). Air is not currently
used in Saudi Aramco's fields, but nitrogen is frequently used in well
completion operations.

1.1.2 Water
By far, most of the mud in the world use water as the base fluid.
Usually it is fresh water, but brackish and salt waters are often used
for supply or economic reasons. A chloride content of about 5000
ppm is the upper limit for mud to be considered fresh water mud. The
hydration and dispersion of bentonite is inhibited above that chloride
level, therfore freshwater should be made available to prehydrate
bentonite. In Shaybah field, over saturated brine "Sabkha water" was
used as the makeup water for a polymer system instead of bentonite to drill the water
supply wells.

Dissolved chemicals can modify the properties of water.

• Salt: Sometimes the available supply of water for making a drilling

fluid is not fresh water. In offshore drilling, for example, you may have
to use seawater. At other times you may want to add soluble salts,
such as sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium chloride (KCl), or calcium
chloride (CaCl2). In addition to these chloride salts, drilling
carbonates or sulfates (gypsum or anhydrite) can add soluble ions to
the water phase. In some cases, these soluble materials cause mud
instability and are considered as contaminants.
 7

• Alkali: The pH of the mud systems is usually run in the alkaline

range by the addition of alkali materials. Lime [calcium hydroxide or
Ca(OH)2] and caustic soda [sodium hydroxide or NaOH] are the most
commonly used alkalis. Caustic potash [potassium hydroxide or KOH]
is used in KCl inhibitive mud Lime is used in CaCl2 brine-based
fluids and in oil-based mud.

• Polymers: Several water-soluble polymers are used to change

the properties of water and suspended solids. They can be used to
derive the essential properties of viscosity, viscosity reduction, and
fluid loss control.

• Surfactants: Surfactants change the wet ability of water and

solids through adsorption. They are used to prevent foaming or to
emulsify oil. Other surfactants will adsorb onto steel and act as
lubricants.

1.1.3 Oil

Oil is used as the continuous phase in invert emulsions or oil-based

drilling fluids. Considerations of safety, low viscosity, and availability
has made diesel oil the most common base oil. Where environmental
concerns are high, special oils such as the SAFRA OIL have been
prepared through the removal of aromatic fractions. Other
environmentally acceptable oils are mineral oils and esters/ethers.
These oils are very expensive and require expensive modifications of
the drilling rigs, new handling and recovery procedures, and special
transportation and storage facilities.

Oil soluble and oil dispersible components are essential chemicals

used to stabilize the water or brine-in-oil emulsions. The emulsified
water adds to the viscous properties of the mud and the fluid loss
control properties.

1.2 Common Additives

1.2.1 Weight Control Additives (High Density Solids)

The most common weight material for drilling fluids is barite (BaSO4).
It has a relatively high density, is not abrasive, and is available.
Ground marble fine (CaCO3,CaMgCO3) processed as weighting
material has an average particle size of 10 microns

Weighting materials characteristics, and maximum practical density

achievable by each for a drilling fluid. High concentrations of
weighting material in a mud system have a significant influence on the
properties of the mud, and is a major cost element.
 8

1.2.2 Clay

The primary viscosifier for water-based mud is sodium bentonite,SaudiAramco's

specifications for bentonite were developed for nontreated and good commercial quality.
The specifications make certain that high yielding sodium montmorillonite clay is
provided. A derivative of bentonite is used in oil-based mud for viscosity control.
Bentonitereacted with cationic surfactants so that it can disperse in oil (becomes
organophilic clay).

Clay Dispersion and Aggregation:

A unique feature of the clays is their sheet-like structure that

resembles a book. Dispersion describes a process in which the
number of particles is increased by breaking off sheets of clay from
the book.

High shear mixing, perhaps at high clay solids content, tears the
sheets apart. Chemical conditions that encourage hydration of the
sheets are fresh water, sodium-based systems, and high pH
conditions. Often, a combination of both mechanical and chemical
forces is used to disperse bentonite. Time and temperature are
additional factors

Aggregation describes a process when the number of particles

decreases. An example of this is face-to-face flocculation.
Aggregation is the result of chemical changes such as conversion of
sodium montmorillonite to calcium montmorillonite or the addition of
sodium chloride to a fresh-water dispersion of sodium montmorillonite.

Clay Flocculation and Deflocculation:

The terms flocculation and deflocculation refer to the energy of interaction of particles
rather than the number of particles. Flocculation describes the situation when the
particles are attracted to each other.

Deflocculation describes the situation where the net forces are repulsive.

The major attractive forces are short-range electrostatic forces called

Van der Waals forces. These short-range forces are important in
holding sheets of clay crystals together. The forces are weak and only
operate over short distances. However, they can be significant for
relatively large surfaces such as clay platelets. These forces are
independent of salt content and pH.

The attraction between clay platelets can also be increased by

polyvalent cations such as calcium or aluminum. The cations cannot
associate with more than one charge on a single sheet. If the ions
carry more than one charge, they will form a bridge between the
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particles, increasing the level of structure. Edge-to-edge and edge-to face

associations may be formed quickly. Face-to-face association
will be a more stable form of association but will take time and may
require higher levels of calcium.

Long chain polymers may also form bridges between the clay
platelets. This increases the degree of interaction between the clay
platelets, resulting in higher viscosity.

Repulsive Forces

Forces repelling two clay crystals apart are due to the fact that they
are both negatively charged, rather in the way the north poles of a
magnet repel each other. The repulsion force will be increased if the
negative character of the clays is increased. The force gets bigger as
the particles are brought closer together. The negative charge can be
increased by raising the pH or by adsorption of low molecular weight
polymers

The charges on broken edges of clays are influenced by the pH. The
clays are more negative at higher pH values. Thus high pH conditions
will encourage dispersion of clays. Caustic addition to the make-up
water is essential to ensure the maximum yield of bentonite.
Alternatively, lower pH conditions create less dispersive or more
inhibitive conditions.

The negative charges of the particle and, hence, the repulsion can be
increased by the adsorption of negatively charged, low molecular
weight molecules or polymers. These negatively charged molecules
are termed “deflocculants” as they increase the repulsive forces
between the particles. The decrease in interparticle forces will also
decrease the viscosity so these molecules are also called thinners.
This repulsion energy, however, can be reduced through the addition
of salt. The charges are “shielded” by the salt, and the particles can
come closer together before they repel each other.

The overall reaction will be the summation of the attractive and

repulsive forces. The situation is quite complicated because of the
large number of factors involved. They are summarized in the
following .
Summary of Conditions That Lead to Flocculation or Deflocculation

Environment Flocculated Deflocculated

Salt Concentration Over 2000 mg/l below 200 mg/l
Fast at 20,000 mg/l

pH Below 6 Above 9

Cation Calcium and Aluminum Sodium

Polymer High molecular weight low molecular weight, anionic

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cationic, anionic, non-ionic

This close look at the forces that bring particles together or cause
them to repel each other gives an explanation to many important
features of bentonite-based mud.

􀂾 Sodium bentonite (as a mud additive or a drilled rock mineral)

will swell and disperse in fresh water with a “cloud” of closely
associated water around the clay sheets. The large surface
area and the large volume of tied-up water generate the
viscous properties.

􀂾 Addition of salt to sodium bentonite causes the clay to

flocculate and so prevents dispersion and development of
viscosity. Bentonite should be mixed in fresh water with up to
about 0.035% sodium chloride (200 mg/l chlorides). At higher
levels, the dispersion is hindered, and the viscosity is
decreased.

􀂾 Seawater with about 10 lb/bbl (3%) sodium chloride totally

prevents the hydration of bentonite. This result
demonstrates the use of high salt levels as the basis of
the design of inhibitive drilling fluids.

􀂾 Sodium bentonite mud are sensitive to contaminants, such as

cement and anhydrite (calcium sulfate), that dissolve in water
to release the calcium ion. The calcium ion exchanges with the
sodium ion and initially causes rapid flocculation and
thickening of the mud. Given time, the calcium exchange
continues, and the clay platelets rearrange to form face-to-face
aggregates. This arrangement reduces the surface area and
number of particles so the viscosity decreases.

􀂾 Calcium contaminated mud can be converted back to the

sodium form by treatment with sodium carbonate or
bicarbonate or converted to a calcium mud.

1.2.3 Polymers

Many of the “specialty” products used in formulating water-based

mud can be described as “water soluble polymers”, a special group
of chemicals that owe their properties to their relatively large size.
Through their association with water and with the small colloidal clay
particles, relatively small quantities of material can significantly alter
the physical properties of the mud. These include viscosity, fluid loss,
and inhibitive character.

The large size of the molecule makes the polymers difficult to define
with absolute precision, but enough is known to characterize them
and describe them in general terms. There is also a very close
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relationship between the structure and performance of the polymer.

Sufficient detail of the structure can be given; however, to explain how
they perform and show the relationship between structure and their
influence on mud properties. This understanding will allow for a better
appreciation of their application and limitations.

General Structure

Polymers are made by chemically joining simple molecules

(monomers) to form a chain. The “join” is in the form of a chemical
bond. The chemical character of the monomer and the number of
units joined will also be important characteristics of the polymer.

The polymers used in drilling mud come in two groups: natural and
synthetic. Natural polymers are derived from nature where the
monomer is a sugar-like molecule. These molecules tend to be large
and have a complicated structure and are generally described as
polysaccharides. The linkage is susceptible to both being broken
down at temperatures above 300°F and biological degradation.

In synthetic polymers, the monomer group is a small molecule based

on different vinyl monomers. The molecules are built up from a small
molecule to a larger one. A range of structures is possible through
the use of different monomers. The bond between the monomer units
is a carbon-carbon bond that is stable to higher temperatures than the
polysaccharide polymers. They are also resistant to biological
degradation

Molecular Weight

Polymer molecules are quite large. This property makes them

special. Their size approaches the size of the clay sheets. The
molecular weight or size of the molecule is related to the number of
the monomer groups joined together. The number of units ranges
from about 25 to hundreds of thousands.

Molecular weight, obviously a very important feature of the polymer,

influence properties and the way the polymer reacts in the mud
system. For example, very high molecular weight molecules are
longer than the clay particles. They can bridge or bond more than
one particle to another one. This reaction increases the bonding
between the particles so it would be classified as flocculation. Shorter
molecules will not be able to bridge between the platelets. If the
molecules are negatively charged, then their adsorption on the clay
will make the clay more negative. Thus, the repulsion between the
molecules increases, or the system deflocculates

Chemical Character

The chemical character of the polymer will be due to the chemical

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character of the individual monomer groups on the chain. The groups

may have all the same character or more than one.
Three categories of groups may be in the chain.
• Non-ionized groups such as hydroxide (–OH) or amide
(–C=O•NH2)
• Negatively charged or anionic groups such as carboxylic acid
(–C=O•O-Na+)

Positively charged groups such as quaternary nitrogen

(–N+(CH3)3Cl-)

For example; the structure of a synthetic polymer “polyacrylate”, has

only anionic or negatively charged groups, and the Partially
Hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide (PHPA), has both negative and non-ionic
Groups

Polymers Used in Drilling Mud

Polymer Chemical Character Function

Carboxymethyl Cellulose
(CMC)
High Viscosity CMC
Low Viscosity CMC
Cellulose derivative linear No gels or viscosity at low
polymer. Anionic COO-groups. shear rates
High molecular weight Fluid loss control
Different degrees of purity

Polyanionic Cellulose (PAC) Cellulose derivative similar to Better stability than CMC
High Viscosity PAC CMC but with more anionic towards calcium salt and
High Viscosity PAC groups. Always sold in pure, temperature . Viscosifier, and
salt-free form fluid loss control agent

Hydroxy Ethyl Cellulose Polysaccharide, linear Viscosifier, particularly for

polymer. Non-ionic ether Brines . No gels or viscosity at
(HEC) group, High MW low shear rates

Carboxy Methyl, Hydroxy Cellulose derivative with Fluid loss and viscosity,
Ethyl, Cellulose (CMHEC) nonionic particularly at high
and anionic groups temperature
and high calcium

Non-Fermenting Potato Polysaccharide, Highly Fluid loss in salt solutions

Starch Branched . Normally non-ionic
or anionic
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Xanthan Gum [XC-Polymer] Branched complex Viscosifier, particularly in salt

(fermentation products) polysaccharide. High MW water and brines and where
suspension properties are
required

Composition

Drilled solids
Drilled Solids

Barite
Polymer
Hydrated clay Free water

Bound water
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Properties

Mud Weight (density):

Provides hydrostatic pressure to maintain borehole stability and control of

formation pore pressure

Weight per unit volume of drilling fluid

Pounds per gallon, ppg

Pounds per cubic foot, pcf

Specific gravity, sg

Hydrostatic pressure gradient, psi/ft

Pressure exerted by a column of fluid due to its vertical length and density
HP = 0.052 (MW) (TVD)

HP hydrostatic pressure, psi

MW mud weight, ppg
TVD vertical

Viscosity:

Shear stress is the internal resistance of a fluid to flow at a shear rate

Shear rate is related to flow rate

 15

Yield Point:

Shear stress required to initiate fluid flow

Directly related to fluid carrying capacity

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YP is Related to interparticle forces and ability of clay solids to associate with

several layers of bound water

Shear Rate:

Approximate values in circulating system

 Pits
 0 to 6 rpm
 Annulus
 6 to 300 rpm
 Drill String
 300 to more than 600 rpm
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Plastic Viscosity:

PV is the rate of change of shear stress as a function of shear rate between

300 and 600 rpm in centipoise

Gel Strength:

Measure of the rigid or semi-rigid gel structure developed during

periods of no flow

Maximum measured shear stress at three rpm

 Ten second gel

 After remaining static ten seconds
 Ten minute gel
 After remaining static ten minutes


Low gel strength : causes

1- settling of cutting and barite in static’s conditions

2- building up of cuttings beds in deviated wells
 18

High gel strength : causes

1- increasing pressure in break circulation to break down gel( may
break down formation and causes mud losses )
2- Increasing applied pressure to the formation while running in
hole.
(Might break down formation, causes mud losses)
3- Swabbing while pull out of hole.
4- Poor cement jobs( as gel are hard to break, so that causes
channeling of cement)

Solids Analysis:
Total Solids
 Percent Solids by Volume
 Measured with a retort

Types Measured:

Low Gravity

Drilled Solids (2.4 - 2.8)

Commercial clays (2.6 sg)

High Gravity
Barite (4.2 sg)
Hematite (5.0 sg)

Average Specific Gravity of Solids

 2.4 to 4.2

Low Gravity Solids

 % by volume
 pounds per barrel

High Gravity Solids

 % by volume
pounds per barrel
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Average Specific Gravity:

ASGs = (Vm SGm - Vw SGw - Vo SGo )/Vs

 ASG = average specific gravity

 V = volume, ml or %
 SG = specific gravity
 m = mud
 w = water
 o = oil
s = solid

Example:

Calculate the ASG of the solids in a 14 ppg mud with the following
retort analysis:
 6.5 ml water
 0.5 ml oil with an SG = 0.83
 3.0 ml of solids

ASGs = (10(1.68) - 6.5(1.0) - 0.5(0.83 ))/3.0

ASGs = 3.30

Low Gravity Solids (LGS)

% LGS = (SGwt mtl - ASGs)(%ud sol)/(SGwt mtl - SGLGS)

SGwt mtl = specific gravity of weight material, 4.2

ASGs = average specific gravity of solids

% ud sol = percent by volume undissolved solids

SGLGS = specific gravity of low gravity solids, 2.6

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PPB LGS = % LGS (SGLGS)(3.505)

Example:

Calculate percent by volume of low gravity solids and the

pounds per barrel low gravity solids given a 4.2 SG of weight
material, a 3.30 ASGs, and a 2.60 SG of low gravity solids for 30%
undissolved solid in mud

% LGS = ((4.2 - 3.3)(30))/(4.2 - 2.6)

% LGS = 16.9%

PPB LGS = (16.9)(2.6)(3.505)

PPB LGS = 154 PPB

High Gravity Solids (HGS):

Percent by volume high gravity solids

 % HGS = % ud sol - % LGS
Pounds per barrel high gravity solids
HGS PPB = % HGS (SG HGS) (3.505)

Example:
Calculate the % HGS and PPB HGS for a mud with 30 percent
undissolved solids 16.9% low gravity solids. Use a specific
gravity of 4.2 for high gravity solids.

% HGS = 30 - 16.9

% HGS = 13.1 %

PPB HGS = (13.1)(4.2) (3.505)

PPB HGS = 193 ppb

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Equivalent Bentonite Content:

 Bent Equiv = 5 (CEC)

 CEC = ml of methylene blue solution

Test MBT:
1. Add 1 ml of mud + 10 ml of deionized H2O + 15 ml of 3 % hydrogen peroxide +
0.5 ml of sulfuric acid 5 N.
2. Boil gently for 10 min.
3. Dilute to about 50 ml with distilled water.
4. Add Methylene blue solution about 0.2 ml and steer for about 30 sec.
5. While the solids are still suspended, remove one drop of liquid and place on a
filter paper.
6. The end point is reached when the dye appears as a blue ring surrounding the
dyed solids.
7. Shake or steer for two minutes and place another drop on the filter paper. If
the blue ring is again evident, the end point is reached. If not, continue as
before until a drop taken after shaking two minutes shows the blue dye.

8. Methylene blue capacity = ML of Methylene blue

.
ML of mud

9. Where :
Bentonite equivalent (lb./bbl mud) = 5 X Methylene blue capacity.

(Kg/m3 mud) = 14.25 X Methylene blue capacity.

NB: drilling mud frequently contains substances in addition to bentonite that

adsorb Methylene blue; treatment with hydrogen peroxide is intended to remove
the effect of organic materials such as CMC, Polyacrylates, Lignosulfonate and
Lignite.

Example
Calculate the equivalent bentonite (clay content) for a drilling
fluid with a 5.5 CEC.

 Bent Equiv = 5(5.5)

Bent Equiv = 27.5 ppb

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Bentonite, % by volume

Bentonite % by volume = (MBT — % by volume LGS) / 8 

Bentonite, lb/bbl = bentonite, % by vol x 9.1 

Example

Calculate bentonite % for a drilling fluid with MBT= 7.5 ppb and

LGS%= 3.4

Bentonite % V= (7.5 – 3.4)/8 =0.5125 %

Bentonite ppb = 0.5125 x 9.1 = 4.66    ppb

Drill Solids

Drill Solids = LGS ppb - Bent Equiv ppb

Example:

Calculate the pounds per barrel drill solids for a mud that
has a 154 ppb LGS and an equivalent bentonite content of
27.5 ppb.
Drill Solids = 154 ppb - 27.5 ppb

Drill Solids = 126.5 ppb

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ALKALINITY and PH:

Alkalinity is defined as the availability of H+ in solution.

PH is a function of dissociation of water

PH number are a function of H+ ions concentration in gram

Ionic weight /liter mud.

PH = 16 PH = 7.0 PH = 814

ACIDIC NEUTRAL ALKALINE

IN GENERAL ALKALINE MEDIA IS THE BEST ENVIRONMENT FOR ALL

CHEMICAL PRODUCTS TO PERFORM GOOD WHILE DRILLING

PH EXPRESSED AS LOG SCALE (BASE 10)

Example:

PH OF 9.0 indicates an alkalinity ten times as greater as that of PH of 8.0.

PH value depending on the concentration of OH group and or CO3 , HCO3

and CO2 in mud As:

IF
 PH =12.0 or higher ======= Mud contaminate with OH group

 PH =10.0 ======= Mud contaminate with OH & CO3

 PH =9.0 – 10.0 ======= Mud contaminate with CO3 group only

 PH =9.3 - 8.3 ======= Mud contaminate with CO3 & HCO3

 PH =8.3 – 6.0 ======= Mud contaminate with HCO3 only

 PH = 6.0 – 4.3 ======= Mud contaminate with HCO3 & CO2

 PH = 4.3 or lower ======= Mud contaminate with CO2 only.

 24

NB: Using PhPh indicator to test PH value as follows

 No color ========= PH less than 8.3

 Light pink color ==== PH 8.3 =9.0
 Pink color ======= PH 9.0 =10.0
 Violet color ======= PH more than 10.0

NB: PhPh end point is at PH = 8.3

ALKALINITY OF MUD TEST: (Pm)

1- Prepare 1 ml of mud + 5 ml distilled water + 3 drop PhPh (red pink color)

2- Titrate with H2SO4 acid (N/50)===== end point == colorless indication
3- Pm = Volume of H2SO4 used.

ALKALINITY OF FILTRATE: (Pf & Mf test)

1- Prepare 1 ml of filtrate + 2 drop PhPh (red pink color)

2- Titrate with H2SO4 acid (N/50)===== end point == colorless indication
3- Pf = Volume of H2SO4 used
4- Add 2 drops of methyl orange indicator (yellowish orange color)
5- Continue titrate with H2SO4 (N/50)===end point ==pale red color
6- Mf = total volume of H2SO4 used.

RELATION BETWEEN Pf & Mf:

If Mf = Pf or little higher :

That means mud contaminate with OH ions only

Expected to get Ca++ ions contaminate in mud, whenever no CO3 group to
precipitate Ca++.

If Mf less than twice of Pf:

Most of ions CO3 and OH

If Mf = Twice Pf:
 25

Most of ions are CO3

High pH related to CO3 not OH which may causes a problem in
lignosulphonate mud Leads no response for rheological properties

If Mf higher than twice of Pf:

Most of ions are CO3 and HCO3

If Pf = 0 and Mf very high:

Most of ions are HCO3 only

The relation between Pf& Mf is according to the following:

Mf is a matter of measuring CO3, HCO3 & CO2

Pf is a matter of measuring CO3 & OH group.

Pf end point is at PH = 8.3

Mf end point is at PH = 4.3

The chemical reactions

When adding phph the reaction proceeds as follows in PH= 8.3

H2SO4 + CO3¯ ¯ HCO3¯ + HSO4¯

OH¯ + H2 SO4 H2O + SO4¯ ¯

So if “Pf “is high the co3 and OH are large amount

When adding methyl orange the reaction proceeds as follows in PH= 4.3

HCO3¯ + H2SO4 CO2 + H2O + HSO4¯

 26

IN Mf most HCO3¯ Convert to co2

Example:

PH = 9.0 Pf = 0.8 Mf = 1.6

That means high consumption of H+ ions of H2SO4 acid, take the same
quantity of Pf to utilize the filtrate to reach PH = 4.3, so all alkalinity in Pf
was from CO3 group

Total carbonate = 1220 (Mf – Pf)

 Carbonate contamination treated as follows:

- HCO3 value X 0.00021 == PPB of Lime (treatment value)

- CO3 value X 0.00043 == PPB of Lime

- HCO3 value X 0.002 ==== PPB of NaOH

- CO3 value X 0.001==== PPB of Gypsum

 27

Rules of thumb:
 CO2 AND H2S are acidic gases

 At high PH you have free OH ions in mud

 At high PH we minimize bacterial degradation

 Don’t treat carbonate to zero so as to have some carbonate to react

with excess Ca ions in mud

 Accepted carbonate in mud is between 500 – 2000 mg/L

 A solids problem may look like a CO3 problem.

 In case of CO2 treat with lime CO2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCO3 + H2O

 In lime mud the influx of CO2& H2S, which are acidic gases gives
incorrect Pm/Pf ratio

 Solubility of Ca increase with low pH, causing flocculation of mud

 Clay or shale becomes highly sensitive to mud in highly pH over 9.0,

causing flocculation of mud as the attraction forces between ions
increases.

 Mf value sometimes tend to be higher than actual (false value),this is

because some chemicals added to mud,
(Such as, lignosulphonates, unical, resinex), buffer the pH of the fluid
(fix it) so it takes more amount of H2SO4 to reach pH 4.3.

 High pH more than 11.0 may deactivate some polymers, best media pH
is between (8.5-10.0)

 Low pH less than 7.0 causes breakdown (burn) of polymers

 Ligosulphonate becomes less affective and may cause severe foaming

at pH below 8.0,so add caustic

 Soda to adjust PH
 28

 In lime mud or excess lime Pm becomes higher than Pf as lime

increases.

 To adjust Pm/Pf ratio add lime or caustic soda.

Types of Water-base Drilling Fluids

Dispersed - Non Inhibited

Dispersed – Inhibited

Non Dispersed - Non Inhibited

Non Dispersed – Inhibited

I - Dispersed Non-Inhibited Systems

Typically used to drill upper hole sections.

Usually formulated with fresh water and many of their properties are
derived from dispersed drilled solids or bentonite.

Flow properties are controlled by a, thinner, or deflocculating

Fluid loss is controlled by the addition of bentonite and low viscosity

polymers

Solids
 29

Excessive concentrations of solids can produce unacceptably high

viscosities and gel strengths, leading to an excessive consumption of
chemicals.

Solids level is controlled by solids control equipment and, or, dilution with
water.

Viscosity

Plastic viscosity, if to high may indicate a solids problem. Water can be

added or solids control equipment used to reduce undesirable solids
content.
Yield point and gel strengths are decreased by the addition of thinners and
increased by bentonite and, or, polymer additions.

Fluid Loss Control

• Proper dispersion of the bentonite will give a API fluid loss of

approximately 10cc's at lower temperatures
• Polymers may be added to lower the amount of fluid loss
– STARCHES
– CMC
– PAC

Advantages:

Make maximum use of drilled solids and may reduce overall material
consumption.
Can tolerate fairly high levels of drilled solids at the lower mud weights.

Can be converted to a dispersed inhibitive type fluid if necessary

 30

Disadvantages:

Rapid buildup of formation solids

Unacceptably high viscosities and gel strengths

Excessively high dilution volumes that increase the need for treating
chemicals and weighting materials, such as barites, often limiting
dispersed non-inhibited fluids to densities below 12 lb/gal(1.44 sg)

Severe hole erosion caused by dispersion of the clays may cause problems
in directional drilling and cementation of casing.

Hydration or swelling, of water sensitive shale may cause heaving or

sloughing conditions, balling of the bit, or the formation of "mud rings."
Dispersion or mobilization of clays in sandstone formations can impair the
production of condensate from formation pores.
Soluble calcium and salt can cause flocculation with deterioration of flow
properties and high levels of fluid loss.

Lignosulfonate systems have largely overcome these difficulties .

Dispersed Non-Inhibited fluid Formulation

Ingredient Quantity

Fresh water 1 bbl 1 m3

Bentonite 15-30 lbs 42.8-85.9 kg

Caustic soda 1-2 lbs 2.85-5.71 kg

Deflocculant Dependent on deflocculant

Low Viscosity CM C Dependent on deflocculant

Baroid Dependent upon desired M ud weight (9-22 lb/gal)

 31

II - Dispersed Inhibited Systems

Dispersed inhibitive fluids attempt to combine dispersed clays and deflocculants

used for controlling viscosity and fluid loss with a base fluid or special additives
that will limit or inhibit the hydration of the formation and cuttings.

Salt Systems

The hydration of clays can be decreased by an increase in the salt

level.

 Sodium chloride
 Calcium Chloride
 Potassium Chloride
 Sea water
 Brackish water or formation water which has more than 1% salt
or 6,000 mg/l chloride ion

Calcium Systems

Calcium ions can exchange with the sodium ions to inhibit hydratable
formation clays by producing a hydrated but non-expanding complex with
a much reduced entrained water volume.

Calcium ions in relatively low concentrations (500-2000 mg/l) will compete

with sodium ions.

Calcium is maintained in solution by either adding lime (calcium hydroxide)

or gypsum (hydrated Calcium Sulphate.)

Alkalinity controls the solubility of lime and is adjusted by caustic soda

additions.

– Ca(OH)2 Ca2 + 2OH- lime

– NaOH Na+ + OH-
 32

Polymer Treated Systems

Use a polymer in sufficient concentration to envelop the cuttings and form

a viscous layer on the surface of solids, this reduces the water migration
to hydratable clays.

Polymer Treated Systems are programmed in the same manner as a

dispersed system.

A non-dispersed inhibitive system should be used if the formations is

sensitive to dispersive action

III - Non-Dispersed Non-Inhibited Systems

In non-dispersed systems,

No reagents are added to deflocculate the solids (formation clays or added

bentonite) in the fluid.

A chemically non-dispersive environment and the absence of thinners

provides a level of inhibition.

This systems main feature exploits the characteristics of a flocculated

system, higher viscosities and the higher yield point to plastic viscosity
ratio.

Advantages:

Lower solids requirements

Permit lower densities to be used, reducing the chances of lost circulation

and increasing penetration rates in low pressured formations.

Altered flow properties provide better hole cleaning, permitting lower

annular circulating rates, which helps prevent bore hole washouts.

The higher degree of shear thinning provides for lower bit viscosity,
permitting more effective use of hydraulic horsepower, resulting in faster
ROP’s
 33

Extended Bentonite System

In an extended bentonite system, the flow properties of the bentonite are

supplemented by a high molecular weight synthetic polymer.

Bentonite Extender is a dual function polymer that also flocculates

formation solids

Advantages:

Low solids - low weight mud

Higher penetration rates are achieved

Risk of lost circulation is reduced

Shear thinning with moderate to high yield point/plastic viscosity ratios.

Effective hole cleaning at lower annular velocities

Lower equivalent circulating density

Efficient use of available hydraulic horsepower.

 34

Non-Dispersed Non-Inhibited fluid Formulation

Fresh water 1 Barrel 1 m3

Bentonite Extender 0.05 lb 0.14 kg

Bentonite 11 lbs 31.38 kg I

V -
Soda Ash 0.25 – 0.5 lbs 0.71 – 1.4 kgs

Caustic Soda pH 8.5 – 9.0

Non-Dispersed Inhibited Systems

Non-dispersed character reinforced with a base fluid or special additives

that inhibits the hydration of the formation clays and cuttings

 Calcium ions, lime or gypsum

 Salt-Sodium Chloride or Potassium Chloride

Polymer such as:

 Polysaccharide Xantham Gum

 Polyanionic Cellulose
 Hydrolyzed Polyacrylamide

PHPA Polymer - Potassium Chloride

Bentonite formulated in the PHPA Polymer-Potassium Chloride system

(made up with fresh water) is used to drill older formations in the Rocky
Mountains

The properties and the management of the system are related more closely
to the polymers than to the bentonite
 35

Anionic high molecular weight partially hydrolyzed

polyacrylamide/polyacrylate copolymer (PHPA)

 Absorbs onto cuttings and clays from the wellbore by ionic

attraction and hydrogen bonding.

 Prevents or slows down hydration and dispersion of drill solids.

 Protects against sloughing and erosion of shales .

Advantages:

Excellent clay and shale hydration inhibitor.

Rapid drilling through shale with minimal erosion.

With a 20% NaCl base fluid, aids inhibition to reduce sloughing and
erosion.
Tolerance for low gravity solids to > 6% by volume

Bottom hole temperature 250 °F to 275 °F

Fresh water 1 bbl 1 m3

Potassium Chloride 10-15 lb 28.53-42.80 kg

Prehydrated bentonite 6-10 lb 17.12-28.53 kg

Xantham gum 0.5-1.5 lb 1.43-4.28 kg

PHPA Non dispersed Inhibited 0.5-1.5

mud Formulation
lb 1.43-2.85 kg

PAC-LTM 0.5-1.5 lb 1.43-4.28 kg

Starch to adjust fluid loss 2-4 lb 5.71-11.41 kg

Caustic soda or KOH to pH 9.5-10

Barite to desired density 0-728lb

 36

Contaminants

Na Cl :

Source:

 Salt domes.
 37

 Rock salt beds.

 Evaporate formations.
 Salt H2O flow.
 Salty make up water.

Effects:

 Increase apparent viscosity.

 Increase yield point.
 Decrease pH.
 Cl- ion will increase in filtration and will decrease Pf.
 Flocculation followed by aggregation of mud.
 Wash of hole.
 Chemical foam.

Treatment:

 Dilution.
 Add thinner to reduce apparent viscosity, YP, Gel strength.
 Add caustic soda (Na OH) to increase and adjust pH.
 Add organic thinner to reduce filtration.
 Analyze salty make up water before adding to system
otherwise it will act as if we get a salt water flow.
 To make sure that there is no increase in mud weight.
 To convert to salt saturated mud.
 Any treatment should be done as soon as possible otherwise
getting a hole wash or untreated mud may cause lose control
which might result in moving in salt body into hole getting a
pipe stuck.
 In case of foams, add defoamer (aluminum stearate defoamer ).

Ca SO4 :

Source:
 Gypsum (Ca SO4 2H2O)
 Anhydrite (Ca SO4).
 Cap rock of a salt dome.
 Make up water.

Effects:
 38

 Cause flocculation and aggregation.

 Increase apparent viscosity.
 Increase YP & gel strength.
 Increase filtrate.
 Increase Ca++ ion in mud which cause flocculation. Also
increase SO4—content in filtrate which increase hardness.
 Increase thickening of mud.

Treatment:

 Add soda ash (Na CO3) with low pH or Anhydrox (Ba CO3) or
Na HCO3 with high pH.
Na2 CO3 + Ca SO4 Ca CO3 + Na2 SO4 .
 Add thinner to reduce viscosity and gel strength.
 Work on thickening and filtration by adding either CMC,
Lignosulfonate.
 If large amounts of soda ash is added, the soluble sodium
sulfate tends to build up and cause (ash gels) which are
indicated by High Progressive Gel Strength.

Also if High pH is maintained this too may result in ash gels due to formation of
Na2SO4

So it is required to:

 Dilute with H2O.

 Add lime for alkalinity.
 Prepare pretreated mud with caustic soda.
 Convert to gypsum mud so as Ca SO4 will have no effect on mud

Ca (OH)2 Cement :
Source:
 Cement squeezes operation.
 Poor casing cement job.
 Drilling out cement.
 Wet (green) cement has a greater contamination effect than hard cement
because of increased solubility.

NB: (Salinity + gas + oil) prevent cement to get hard. (Weak cement job).
 39

Effects:
 Increase apparent viscosity.
 Increase YP & gel strength.
 Increase pH.
 Increase filtrate.
 Increase Pf and hardness content of filtrate.

Treatment:
 Reduce pH by adding sodium bicarbonate, this Na HCO 3 will also treat the
thickness of mud. Caused from the presence of Ca ++ ions and retain the
dispersed – deflocculated condition of mud.

NB: 100 lb. Of bicarbonate of soda / 2 cubic feet of hard cement

100 lb. Of bicarbonate of soda / 1 cubic feet of soft cement
This is done to prevent flocculation of clays.

 If contamination is slight, Barafos is sometimes used as it will remove

calcium ion and reduce pH.

NB: Be careful of bottom hole temperature

 Add organic thinner with little or no caustic soda to reduce the thickening
of contaminated mud.
Other Divalent ions:
Source:
 Magnesium chloride.
 Calcium chloride.
 Magnesium sulfate.
1-In formation water
2-Sea water.
3-Evaporate formation.
Mg++ ion acts like Ca++ ion contamination.

NB: The magnesium can be precipitated from solution as magnesium

hydroxide (Mg (OH)2) at a pH above 10

H2S Gas :

Source:

 In formation fluids as a result of bacterial action or from sulfur

compounds commonly found in the drilling fluid.
 40

 Thermal degradation of sulfur containing drilling fluid additives. (EG:

Lignosulfonate).
 Chemical reaction with tool joint thread lubricants that contain sulfur.
Effects:

 Toxic gas.
 Corrosion of drill string.
 Decrease pH .

H2S 2H+ + S-

 H+ acidic ion cause corrosion , react with OH- ion in mud causing
dehydration of mud and thus flocculation of bentonite and by turn
decrease pH and get polymer back to its acidic form and thus do not
work .

 S- Cause flocculation of mud and might react with any H + ion left to give
back H2S .

Treatment:
Add caustic soda to keep pH above 10.5.
Add zinc oxide , zinc carbonate
Zn O + H2S ZnS + H2O .
1. Add lime.
 At pH 10.5 all but 50 ppm of magnesium has been reacted.
 Zinc oxide has less effect on rheological properties in non dispersed
systems.

 CO2 flocculate mud in case of bentonite mud as it will take OH - ion to

give HCO3, also decrease pH.

 To get rid of CO2 add lime

Ca (OH)2 Ca++ + 2OH- .

HCO3 + OH- H2O + CO3 .

Ca++ + CO3-- CaCO3 .

Chemicals Required to Remove Ionic Contamination

 41

Contaminant Treating Chemical

(Mg/L) X Factor = (lb./bbl)

Ca X 0.00093 = Na2CO3 (soda ash)

Ca X 0.00074 = NaHCO3(Bicarb.)

Ca X 0.00097 = Na2H2P2O7 (SAAP)

Mg X 0.00093 = Na2CO3 (soda ash)

Mg X 0.00116 = NaOH

CO3 X 0.00043 = Ca(OH)2 (Lime)

CO3 X 0.001 = CaSO42H2O (Gyps)

HCO3 X 0.00021 = Ca(OH)2

HCO3 X 0.002 = NaOH

PO4 X 0.00041 = Ca(OH)2

GEL – POLYMER MUD

Effects of Different drilled Formations:
 42

Drilling clay or shale :

Effect:

 Increase MBT.
 Cause flocculation followed by aggregation. Thus increase viscosity at
beginning then viscosity will decrease.
 Increase weight.

Treatment:

 Dump and dilution with fresh water.

 Add water loss reducer.
 Solid removal.
 Add dispersants if necessary.

Drilling sand + silt :

Effect:

 Increase weight.
 Increase viscosity + PV.
 Increase W.L.

Treatment:
 Remove solids by solid control equipments.
 Dilute by mean of fresh mud.
 Add W.L. reducer and dispersants if necessary.

Drilling Cement :
Effect:
 Increase hardness.
 Increase alkalinity pH, Pf, Mf, Pm.
 Increase W.L.
 Increase viscosity.
 Decrease YP.

Treatments:

 Treat with NaHCO3 in case of high pH, soda ash Na2CO3 in case of low
pH.
 Add W.L. reducer (RESINEX, POLYSAL, and OR PAC- LV).
 Add thinner (SPERSENE).
 Add viscosifier to retain YP if necessary
 43

 Dump highly contaminated mud and add fresh water.

Drilling Anhydrite

Effect:

 Increase Ca+2content.
 Increase viscosity and water loss.

Treatment:

 Add soda ash.

 Thinner.
 W.L. reducer.
 Consider conversion to gypsum mud.

Drilling Salts

Effect:

 Decrease pH.
 Increase then decreases viscosity.
 Increase weight.
 Increase W.L.
 Foaming due to chloride increase.

Treatment:

 Add thinner.
 Dilution and dump sand trap every 4 connections.
 Correct W.L.
 Add defoamer [no foam, or AL Stearate (1kg/gallon diesel to be sprayed
on surface of foamed mud in pits)].
 Use solid control equipments.
 Consider converting to salt saturated mud

CARBON DIOXIE
Effect:

 Causes CO3 gelatin.

 Decrease pH.
 Decrease alkalinity of mud.
 44

 Increase viscosity.
 Increase W.L.

Treatment:

 If pH is not too low add caustic soda.

 If pH is too low add lime.
 If pH ok add thinner (Lignosulfonate + caustic soda).

KCL POLYMER MUD

 45

The effect and treatment of KCL polymer mud when drilling

different formation

Formation M.wt Vis WL MBT pH Alk CL Ca K Treatment

Clay + Shale + ++ + ++ - - -- Add K CL & polymer, dumb old
partly, solid removal.
Sand + Silt + + + + Solid removal, dumb and replace
by fresh mud.
Chalky L.
ST.
Cement + ++ ++ ++ Pretreated with NaHCO3, restore
fluid loss and polymer content,
dumb contaminated mud.
Anhydrite + Soda ash.
Salt ++ Consider conversion to salt
saturated mud.
H2S / CO2 -- -- Add C. soda & suitable
scavenger
Zn CO3 for (H2S)
Lime for (CO2).
Formation ++ - -- -- ++ ++ -- Increase Mud wt, treat Ca with
soda ash, pH with C. soda
Brine Correct fluid loss, restore
polymer, and consider
conversion to salt saturated
mud.

Tests You Should Know

 46

Filtration: High-Temp/High-Pressure Test

Procedure: Temperatures < 300°F (149°C):

 Connect the heating jacket to the correct voltage. Place a thermometer in

the thermometer well. Preheat the heating jacket to 10°F above selected
test temperature.

 Stir the fluid sample for 10 minutes.

 Load the cell with the fluid sample, taking care not to fill the cell closer than
½ in. (1.3 cm) from the top. Place the filter paper and close the cell.

 Place the cell into the heating jacket with both top and bottom valves
closed. Transfer the thermometer into the thermometer well.

 Place the pressure units on the valves and lock in place Apply 100 psi (690
kPa) to both pressure units with valves closed. Open the top valve and
apply pressure to the fluid while heating to the selected temperature.

 When the sample reaches temperature, increase the pressure of the top
pressure unit to 600 psi (4137 kPa).

 Open the bottom valve. During the test, release the pressure by drawing off
the filtrate. Record the total volume.

 If the filter area is 3.5 in2 (22.6 cm2), double the filtrate volume and report.

 At the end of the test, close both valves, back theT-screw off, and bleed
pressure from both regulators.
!

Note:
Filter cell will still contain approximately 500 psi (3448 kPa). Maintain cell in
upright position and cool to room temperature, Bleed pressure by opening and
closing valves slowly and carefully until all the pressure release.

GARRETT GAS TRAIN For H2S Determination

Apparatus:
 47

Sample Entry Point

Rubber Hose
Flow-meter

Dräger tube Hole

CO2 Barrel

Dispersion tube Chamber 2 Chamber 3

Chamber 1

Nylon Tube Holder

Procedure:

 Be sure the gas train is clean and dry.

 48

 Place the gas train on a level surface. Remove the top.

 Add 20 mL of de-ionized water and 5 drops of defoamer to chamber 1

 Place the flow-meter tube into the designated hole between chambers 2
and 3. Make sure the word “Top” or “T” on the tube is pointing upward
and that the o-ring seals around the tube.

 Place the dispersion tube into chamber 1. Place an o-ring into the hole
in the lid above chamber 1. Screw the nylon tube holder into the lid just
 enough to hold the o-ring in place. Carefully place the lid onto the
body, making sure the dispersion tube goes into the hole above chamber
When the lid is in place, tighten the nylon tube holder. Leave
about ¼" empty space below the bottom of the dispersion tube. Make
sure the o-ring seals around the tube.

 Evenly hand-tighten all screws to seal the o-rings.

 use CO2 cartridge to apply pressure

 Connect the regulator to the dispersion tube with one of the provided
Rubber hoses Connect the other rubber hose to the nylon fitting on
Chamber 3

 9. Gently apply pressure for 15 sec to get rid of bubbles then bleed the
pressure.

 10.Using the table below, determine the sample volume and type of Dräger
Tube required for your test.

Sulfide Range Sample Volume Dräger Tube Tube Factor

(mg/L) (mL) Identification (Used
in Equation)
1.2 to 24 10.0 H2S 100/a 0.12
2.4 to 48 5.0 H2S 100/a 0.12
4.8 to 96 2.5 H2S 100/a 0.12
60 to 1,020 10.0 H2S 0.2%/A 1500
120 to 2,040 5.0 H2S 0.2%/A 1500
240 to 4,080 2.5 H2S 0.2%/A 1500

 Break the tip from each end of the Dräger tube and place it in the designated hole
next to chamber 3. Make sure the arrow on the tube is pointing downward and that
the o-ring seals around the tube.
 49

 Connect the rubber hose from chamber 3 to the Dräger tube.

 Inject 10 ML Filtrate with the syringe in the sample entry point

(Volume of filtrate depends on above table)

 Slowly inject 10 ML of 5N sulfuric acid solution into chamber 1 through the rubber
septum using the syringe and needle.

 Immediately start the CO2 gas flow. Adjust the rate such that the ball in
The flow-meter stays between the two lines. One CO2 bulb should provide about
15 to 20 minutes of flow at this rate.

 Watch for changes in the appearance of the Dräger tube. Before the
Front starts to smear, note and record the maximum darkened length in
Units marked on the tube.

Calculations

 Using the sample volume, the Dräger tube’s maximum darkened length
and the factors, calculate the sulfides in the sample:

Sulfides (mg/l) = Darkened length x tube factor

ML of sample volume

Field Pilot Testing

 50

Before you run pilot test you must know

Test Liquid Volumes

1 gal = 8.33 lbm

1 lbm » 1 g

1 g = 1 cm3

8.33 ml = 8.33 g » 1 gal

1 g/350 ml = 1lbm/bbl

Pilot Testing Treating Solutions

1 cm3 of 10% solution in 175 cm3 fluid = 0.2 lb m/bbl

1 cm3 of 10% solution in 350 cm3 fluid = 0.1 lb m/bbl

1 cm3 of 5% solution in 175 cm3 fluid = 0.1 lb m/bbl

1 cm3 of 5% solution in 350 cm3 fluid = 0.05 lb m/bbl

Where
An oilfield barrel has a volume of 42 U.S. gal. It would hold 350 pounds of fresh
water. Three hundred and fifty g of water would occupy a volume of 350 ml in the
metric system. Thus, 350 ml can represent the 42 U.S. gal, or oilfield barrel. If 1 g
of a material is added to this barrel equivalent, this would be the same as adding
1 lb of material to an oilfield barrel. If a liquid is added to the final barrel, then
The specific gravity of the fluid must be taken into account. For example, if a fluid
has a specific gravity of1.2, then only 0.83 ml will be needed for1 g or 1 lb/bbl. The
specific gravities of most materials are contained either in Product Bulletins or
the Material Safety Data Sheet.
 51

Garrett Gas Train For CO2 Determination

 The concentration of soluble carbonates in a drilling fluid filtrate can be

Determined using the Garrett Gas Train Total soluble carbonates
includeCO2 as well as the carbonate (CO3¯²) and bicarbonate (HCO3¯) ions.

 Mud filtrate is acidified in the gas train, converting all carbonates to CO2,
which is then evolved by bubbling nitrous oxide gas through the sample.

 The gas train separates the gas from the liquid which is collected in a 1-
liter gas bag to allow the CO2 to mix uniformly, and is subsequently drawn
through a Dräger tube at a fixed flow rate.

 The Dräger tube will respond to CO2 by progressively staining purple along
its length.
 A reaction between CO2 and a hydrazine chemical causes a crystal violet
indicator to turn purple. The stain length is proportional to the total
carbonate concentration in the filtrate.

Apparatus:

Check the gas bag for leaks. To do this, collapse the bag and then
Connect the bag and stopcock to the hand pump, using a discarded
Dräger tube as the connection, fully depress and release the hand
Pump. When the bag is completely empty and free of leaks, the pump
Will remain depressed for several minutes, if a leak is detected, check
the pump and all connections.

To check the pump alone, insert a sealed Dräger tube into the pump opening and
depress the bellows. It will remain depressed if the pump does not leak.

Procedure

PLEASE LOOK AT THE FIGURE (1) AND CONNECT THE TRAIN AS SHOWN
 52

Gas Bag (1)

Stopcock

Dräger Tube (2) Dräger Hand Pump

Dräger Tube

1. With the bag now fully collapsed, close the stopcock and connect the
Rubber tubing from chamber 3 to the closed stopcock
 53

2. Using the table below, determine the sample volume and type of Dräger
Tube required for your test.

Carbonate Range Sample Volume Dräger Tube Tube Factor (Used

(mg/L) (ML) Identification in Equation)

25 TO 750 10.0 CO2 100/A 2.5

50 TO 1,500 5.0 CO2 100/A 2.5

100 TO 3,000 2.5 CO2 100/A 2.5

250 TO 7,500 10.0 CO2 100/A 2.5

3. Inject 10 ml of filtrate on entry point above chamber 1

Volume of filtrate depends on above table

4. Slowly inject 10 ML of 5N sulfuric acid solution into chamber 1 through

The rubber septum using the hypodermic syringe and needle

5. Loosen the nylon tube holder and lower the dispersion tube to about ¼"
From the bottom of the chamber (above bottom of chamber ½ cm)

6. Open the stopcock on the gas bag. Restart the flow of N2O by tightening
The regulator T-screw, allow the gas bag to fill slowly and steadily
For ten minutes. When the bag is firm to the touch, shut off the flow of
Gas by unscrewing the regulator T-screw, close the stopcock to seal
Off the bag

PLEASE LOOK AT FIGURE (2) TO COMPLETE YOUR TEST

7. Immediately break the tip off each end of the Dräger tube. Remove the
Rubber hose from the chamber 3 connection and connect the end of the
Hose to the upstream end of the Dräger tube. An arrow on the Dräger
Tube indicates the gas flow direction. Connect the hand pump to the
Other end of the Dräger tube, the arrow on the Dräger tube should
Point from the bag toward the hand pump

8. Open the stopcock on the gas bag. With steady hand pressure, fully
Depress the hand pump. Release the pump so that gas flows out of the
Bag and through the Dräger tube. Operate the pump and count the
Strokes required emptying the bag. If it takes more than ten strokes to
Empty the bag there is probably a leak in the system and the test will
 54

Be invalidated.

9. If CO2 is present in the gas bag, the Dräger tube will turn purple.
Record the stain length in units marked on the Dräger tube and include
Any faint blue tinge color that may develop as part of the total stain
Reading. For more accurate results, the darkened length should fill
More than half of the total length of the tube, Therefore, the filtrate
Sample volume must be carefully selected.

10. Using the measured sample volume, the Dräger tube stain length, and
The tube factor of 2.5 (from the table) calculate the total soluble
Carbonates (CO2 + CO3¯ ² + HCO3¯) in the filtrate sample using the
Following equation:

Carbonate (mg/L) = 2.5 (Darkened Stain Length)

Sample Volume (ML)

EXAMINATION PROBLEMS
 55

EXPLAIN:

 Why High Ph encourages dispersion of clays.

 Why Salt makes clay flocculate and prevent dispersion of clay.

 Why Ca++ increase viscosity.

 Why Ca++ increase water loss.

 Why we use XC-Polymer to increase viscosity.

 Why H2S effects on polymer.

 Why cement effects on water loss.

 What kind of polymer can make deflocculation?

 How can you treat your system if you got a test of alkalinity

Pf / Mf = 0.4 / 0.8 and Ph = 8.5

 Why CO2 flocculate bentonite mud and how can you treat it.

 Why CO2 decrease Ph explain with equations.

 Why KCL Polymer Mud consider being non-dispersed inhibited mud.

 How cans molecular weight of polymer can affect on clay.

 What is the chemical composition of Anhydrite and how can you

treat it.

 Name one example of the following:

1. Dispersed non inhibited mud.

2. Dispersed inhibited mud.
3. Non- dispersed inhibited mud.
 56

4. Non –dispersed non inhibited mud.

 What is the purpose of adding H2SO4 in Garrett Gas Train Test?

CALCULATE:

A dispersed non- inhibited mud weighted to 105 PCF by Barite gave these
results in retort test:

6.5 ml Water
0.5 ml Oil (0.8 sg)
3 ml Solids
5 ml of methylene blue

Calculate:

Bentonite PPB mixed.

HGS%

Drilled solids PPB