1.

1) IP
1.2) 3 + STP 802.1d ( )
1.3) AIMD
1.4) TCP/IP:
- CSMA/CD
- IP (MTU)
- TCP
- Jacobson-Karels (Estimated RTT)
- TCP
2.1) GSM
2.2) :
-
- decibel
-
3.0)
3.1) , //1, /G/1
3.2) , Erlang-
3.3)
3.3) :
- , ,
-
4.1) :
- Prim
- Kruskal
-
4.2) :
- Dijkstra ( )
- Bellman-Ford ( )
- Floyd-Warshall
4.3) :
- Bin Packing (First Fit, Best Fit, Worst Fit)
- Ford-Fulkerson
-
- (CMST Capacitated Minimum Spanning Tree)
- (COM Center Of Mass)

(1)

(2)

(8 bit )
Bit Y
23
8.388.608
22
4.194.304
21
2.097.152
20
1.048.576
19
524.288
18
262.144
17
131.072
16
65.536
15
32.768
14
16.384
13
8.192
12
4.096
11
2.048
10
1.024
9
512
8
256
7
128
6
64
5
32
4
16
3
8
2
4
1
2
0
1 ()

(3)

(4)

(16 bit )
Bit Y
15
32.768
14
16.384
13
8.192
12
4.096
11
2.048
10
1.024
9
512
8
256
7
128
6
64
5
32
4
16
3
8
2
4
1
2
0
1 ()

(5)

(6)

(24 bit )
Bit Y
7
128
6
64
5
32
4
16
3
8
2
4
1
2
0
1 ()

(7)

(8)

(9)

Bit

Bit

31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

21 = 2
22 = 4
23 = 8
24 = 16
25 = 32
26 = 64
27 = 128
28 = 256
29 = 512
210 = 1.024
211 = 2.048
212 = 4.096
213 = 8.192
214 = 16.384
215 = 32.768
216 = 65.536
217 = 131.072
218 = 262.144
219 = 524.288
220 = 1.048.576
221 = 2.097.152
222 = 4.194.304
223 = 8.388.608
224 = 16.777.216
225 = 33.554.432
226 = 67.108.864
227 = 134.217.728
228 = 268.435.456
229 = 536.870.912
230 = 1.073.741.824
231 = 2.147.483.648

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

(10)

(11)

/31
/30
/29
/28
/27
/26
/25
/24
/23
/22
/21
/20
/19
/18
/17
/16
/15
/14
/13
/12
/11
/10
/9
/8
/7
/6
/5
/4
/3
/2
/1

255.255.255.254
255.255.255.252
255.255.255.248
255.255.255.240
255.255.255.224
255.255.255.192
255.255.255.128
255.255.255.0
255.255.254.0
255.255.252.0
255.255.248.0
255.255.240.0
255.255.224.0
255.255.192.0
255.255.128.0
255.255.0.0
255.254.0.0
255.252.0.0
255.248.0.0
255.240.0.0
255.224.0.0
255.192.0.0
255.128.0.0
255.0.0.0
254.0.0.0
252.0.0.0
248.0.0.0
240.0.0.0
224.0.0.0
192.0.0.0
128.0.0.0

= + /
= +
: bit (n) bit (s) bit (h). : bit (n) bit (h).
1

(12)

(13)

/
0.0.0.1
0.0.0.3
0.0.0.7
0.0.0.15
0.0.0.31
0.0.0.63
0.0.0.127
0.0.0.255
0.0.1.255
0.0.3.255
0.0.7.255
0.0.15.255
0.0.31.255
0.0.63.255
0.0.127.255
0.0.255.255
0.1.255.255
0.3.255.255
0.7.255.255
0.15.255.255
0.31.255.255
0.63.255.255
0.127.255.255
0.255.255.255
1.255.255.255
3.255.255.255
7.255.255.255
15.255.255.255
31.255.255.255
63.255.255.255
127.255.255.255

0.0.0.2
0.0.0.4
0.0.0.8
0.0.0.16
0.0.0.32
0.0.0.64
0.0.0.128
0.0.1.0
0.0.2.0
0.0.4.0
0.0.8.0
0.0.16.0
0.0.32.0
0.0.64.0
0.0.128.0
0.1.0.0
0.2.0.0
0.4.0.0
0.8.0.0
0.16.0.0
0.32.0.0
0.64.0.0
0.128.0.0
1.0.0.0
2.0.0.0
4.0.0.0
8.0.0.0
16.0.0.0
32.0.0.0
64.0.0.0
128.0.0.0

 IP

TCP - IP 1.1

/ : / / /
, .
/ : 1
/ / .
/ : / / .
: / , / .
/ /: / / / ,
/. , / / / .
CIDR - Classless Interdomain Routing, :
1: ,
(
).
2:
( 8).
3: /
, a.b.c.d.
a.b.c.d + / ( 12)
4: /
, ...
a.b.c.d + / ( 12) + 1
a.b.c.d + ( 13)

:
IP
26.98.192.0.
, , 2000, 7000 8000 .
, - / .
(, , )
, 8192 /
0.0.31.255, ,
2048 /
0.0.7.255.
/
:
26. 98. 192.
0
+
0.
0. 31. 255
26. 98. 223. 255

/ , 26.98.223.255 + 1 = 26.98.224.0
:
26. 98. 224.
0
+
0.
0. 31. 255
26. 98. 255. 255

/ , 26.98.255.255 + 1 = 26.99.0.0
:
26. 99.
0.
0
+
0.
0.
7. 255
26. 99.
7. 255
:
: 213 = 8192 > 8000, bits = 13, bits = 19
1 - : 26.98.192.0/19 - 26.98.223.255/19
: 213 = 8192 > 7000, bits = 13, bits = 19
1 - : 26.98.224.0/19 - 26.98.255.255/19
: 211 = 2048 > 2000, bits = 11, bits = 21
1 - : 26.99.0.0/21 - 26.99.7.255/21

 () , B, C, D, E:
Class

C
D
E

1.0.0.0
128.0.0.0
192.0.0.0
224.0.0.0
240.0.0.0

126.0.0.0
191.255.0.0
223.255.255.0
239.255.255.255
254.255.255.255

TCP - IP 1.1

8 bits
8 bits
8 bits
8 bits
/
0 . . . a.0.0.0
10 . . . a.b.0.0
110 . . . a.b.c.0

/
a.255.255.255
a.b.255.255
a.b.c.255

MSBs ( bits) /

1:
,
/ /, ,
1, 2 8, 9
3, 4 8, 9
, 5, 6 8, 9.
/ :
Bit = 8, Bit / = 1, Bit = 9
/ :
Bit = 16, Bit / = 3, Bit = 9
/ :
Bit = 24, Bit / = 5, Bit = 9
/ 11 (
10).
2: / / / ,
a.b.c.d.
3: / /
( ), CIDR.
a.b.c.d + / ( 12)
4: /
, /

, CIDR.
a.b.c.d + / ( 12) + 1,
:
/ i = / i-1 + ( 13)
5: /, / 2Bit /,
/ / .

1:
28.0.0.0
3 .
/ /.
,
2 bits ,
4 . /
222=4.194.304 .
/ 8-2-22 ( - - ),
. :
: 255.192.0.0
1 - 1: 28.0.0.0 - 28.63.255.255
1 - 2: 28.64.0.0 - 28.127.255.255
1 - 3: 28.128.0.0 - 28.191.255.255
1 - 4: 28.192.0.0 - 28.255.255.255
2:
128.10.0.0,
/ 16000 . /
; / /.

14 bits ,
16.384 .
22=4 .
/ 16-2-14 ( - - ),
. :
: 255.255.192.0.
1 - 1: 128.10.0.0 - 128.10.63.255
1 - 2: 128.10.64.0 - 128.10.127.255
1 - 3: 128.10.128.0 - 128.10. 191.255
1 - 4: 128.10.192.0 - 128.10. 255.255

/:
:
/
(
bits)
. .

:
195.23.10.0/24
195.23.11.0/24.
195.23.10.0/24 11000011.00010111.0000101 0.00000000
195.23.11.0/24 11000011.00010111.0000101 1.00000000
(23 bits)
195.23.10.0/23


TCP - IP 1.1

/ :

/

CIDR, ( ).

:
A

L1
L2

0: ,
,
.
/
/

a.0.0.0
a.255.255.255
B
a.b.0.0
a.b.255.255

a.b.c.0
a.b.c.255
/x
a.b.c.d/x

1: / (
).
2: / /,
CIDR, / /
/ ( 0).
/ / = /
3: /,
:
( ,
8) 2
( ).
= / 2
4: /,
, :
1)
/
( 8), ( 10)
2) / ( 2)
/
/.
3) /
/ /
/ /.
, /
/ / /
/.
/ .
5: /
/
/ .
/
.

L3

L5
L4
L6

/ / :
/ 214.97.254.0/23. /
, B, C 240 (L1), 112
(L5) 124 (L6) , / L2, L3, L4
6, 2 2 .
/ ,
,
/ / .
214.97.254.0/23: 214.97.254.0 - 214.97.255.255
/ / /
L1
240
256 (/24)
256-240-2=14 (-8=6)
L6
124
128 (/25)
128-124-2=2
L5
112
128 (/25)
128-112-2=14 (-4=10)(-4=6)
L2
6
8 (/29)
0
L3
2
4 (/30)
0
L4
2
4 (/30)
0
/ L5
( ).
L2 L1 L5 ( L1), 8
14 14-8=6.
/ L1.
L3 L1 L5 ( L5),
414 14-4=10.
/ L5.
L4 L1 L5 ( L5),
4.10 10-4=6.
, L3 , /
/ L3 +1, 214.97.255.3 +1 =214.97.255.4.
:
/
L1
L6
L5
L2
L3
L4

/ /
(1 /)
214.97.254.0
214.97.255.0
214.97.255.128
214.97.254.0
214.97.255.0
214.97.255.4

(. /)
214.97.254.255 /24
/ L2
214.97.255.127 /25
214.97.255.255 /25 / L3, L4
214.97.254.7
/29
214.97.255.3
/30
214.97.255.7
/30

:
/ L1: 214.97.254.0/24 ( 214.97.254.1-214.97.254.7)
/ L5: 214.97.255.0/25 ( 214.97.255.1-214.97.255.7)
/ L6: 214.97.255.128/25
/ L2: 214.97.254.0/29
/ L3: 214.97.255.0/30
/ L4: 214.97.255.4/30


TCP - IP 1.2

- ( )
1:
.

2: (1).

()
()
()
() .
()
, ().
, ,

( ).
()

3: (2).

()
()
() .
()

, (1).
, ,
(
).
:
1. , .
2.
, (2).
, ,
(1).

:
3
.
L1

L3

L2

L4
L5
L6

L7

1: .
2:

0 ()
1
1
2
2

3:

L1
L2
L3
L4
L5
L6
L7

B.L1-A.L1
.L2-A.L2
.L4-.L4-B.L1-A.L1 (<)
.L6-.L6-.L2-A.L2

(<)

(<)

:
.
,
3.

, 2
L1

L3

L2

L4
L5
L6

L7

:
) hops: .
hops. hops
) :
.
) :
, .


TCP - IP 1.2

STP 802.1d
:
: + .
: ().
x, x
.
: Br,R,d
Br (bridge) ,
R (root) Br ,
d (distance) Br R.
0 (/ 0):
r,r,0
1 ( i):

.
, .
2 ():
( ), :
1) (),
2) ,
3) ()
3 ():
2
( ) :
1) ( ) ,
2) ,
d + 1 < d .
4 ( i, i > 0 + ):
3 (
) :
-
Root port (Rp)
-
(r) ,
(R) 1 d
:

:

Designated port (Dp)

Blocked port (Bp).
1.
:
1. Dp, .
2. Dp
,
Rp .
2

:


STP802.1d
:

L1

L3

.L1
A.L2
B.L1
B.L3
B.L4
.L2
.L3
.L5
.L6
.L4
.L5
.L7
.L6
.L7

L4
L5

L7

L6

L2

0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0

0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0
,,0

,,1
,,1
,,1
,,1
,,1
,,1
,,1
,,1

Dp
Dp
Rp
,,1
Dp
Dp
Rp
,,1
Bp
,,1
Dp
Dp
,,1
Rp
,,1 ,,2 ,,1 Bp
,,1 ,,2 ,,2 Dp
,,1
Rp
,,1 ,,2 ,,2 Bp

:
, . ( 2)
:
. ( 3)
:
,
. . ( 4)
:

Dp.

Dp.
(
) ,
Rp.
Dp

Dp

Dp

L1 Rp
Dp L3

Bp Dp

L2 Rp Dp

Rp

L4
L5
L6

Dp
Bp
Rp

L7


TCP - IP 1.2

, i , STP 802.1d:

.
: , , 0

,
:
1) (R),
2) (d), ,
3) (Br)

(R<X);

( i);

:
1) (R),
2) (d), ,
3) (Br)

:
1)
.
2)
: , R, d+1
(),

(R), +1
(d+1).
3) Root port (Rp)

( );

Designated port (Dp)

Blocked port (Bp)


TCP - IP 1.3

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) - - AIMD

/
(Additive Increase / Multiplicative Decrease
IMD)
.
(congestion
window)
(threshold). bytes ( ).
1: , ..
MSS (Maximum Segment Size
TCP).
TCP.
..[i=1] = MSS, i=1 .
=
MSS
.

:

TCP [1]
[25].
Timeout

Timeout

4
2

:
2: 1) TCP (MSS).
, 2)
.
( ):
. < ..[i+1] = 2* ..[i], i 3)
;
.
4)
.
.
3:
, MSS
( ):
. ..[i+1] = ..[i] + MSS,
i .

.*

1) MSS = 1 Kbyte
..
MSS, 1 Kbyte.

2) : [1 3], [15 18] [25]

.
.

: [10 14].
4:
.
i
.
) (timeout)
..
3) 3 : [9]
.. MSS. 2.

3 .
= ..[i]/2

..
..[i+1] = MSS
) 3 ( ) .
.. [14] [24]
.
.. . 3.
.. MSS.
= ..[i]/2
..[i+1] =
* ( 3) 4) 1: [1-9] ,
( 4.) . 1 = 4 .
2: [9-14], .. [9] = 10 ,
2 = 10/2 = 5

..[i]

3: [14-24], .. [14] = 9 ,
i=1
..=

3 = 9/2 = 4,5
(ACKed) data
data
4: [24-25], .. [24] = 14 ,
Throughput =
=
4 = 14/2 = 7
v RTT
i = , = ( )
1


TCP - IP 1.4

CSMA/CD - Carrier Sense Media Access / Collision Detection

:
Ethernet ( ) 140 sec
.
- CSMA/CD
40 sec.
.
1) t=0, .
- n sec t=,
( - propagation) . .
n sec 2) t=0
, ;
( ).
jam signal,
-
(jam signal) ;
.
1)
- , .
2n sec,
,
(transportation) <140 sec.
2) .
2n sec.
140/2=70sec.
70 +70=140sec.
jam signal 40sec.
jam signal 140sec.
140+40=180sec .

.

IP - (MTU)

,

.
(MTU)
.
To IP MTU
:
-identification
.
-flags: (-) 0 (
), (DF dont fragment)
0 (MF more fragments), 1
, 0 .
-offset:
.
8 bytes.
x bytes
(payload) v MTU m 1 ,
m 2 , , m v bytes .
0: MTU
IP ( 20 bytes), m i -20.
1

:
3000 bytes
MTU 500 bytes.
(identification)
422. ;
, ;
3000 bytes
( 20 bytes + 2980 bytes
):

id
flags
off
422 0 0 0
0

2980 bytes
MTU 500 bytes,
480 bytes ,
6480+1100 bytes, 7 :
(1)
id
flags
off
422 0 0 1
0

480 bytes

(2)
id
flags
off
422 0 0 1
60

480 bytes


TCP - IP 1.4

1:
id.
bytes p =B/( m 1 -20) .

, id. ,
1) id: 1, flags: 0,0,0, offset: 0, bytes: m 1 -20
2) id: 2, flags: 0,0,0, offset: 0, bytes: m 1 -20

p) id: p, flags: 0,0,0, offset: 0, bytes: .

2 ( 2 ):
id: i, flags: 0,0,f, offset: o,
bytes: b, ,
t = b/(m i -20) , :
1) id: i, flags: 0,0,1, offset: o + 0, bytes: m i -20
2) id: i, flags: 0,0,1, offset: o + 1((m i -20)/8), bytes: m i -20

t) id: i, flags: 0,0,f, offset: o + (t-1)((m i -20)/8), bytes:

.

(3)
id
flags
off
422 0 0 1
120

480 bytes

(4)
id
flags
off
422 0 0 1
180

480 bytes

(5)
id
flags
off
422 0 0 1
240

480 bytes

(6)
id
flags
off
422 0 0 1
300

480 bytes

(7)
id
flags
off
422 0 0 0
360

100 bytes

- - BGP - border gateway protocol

:
2

1
3
4

.
3 2
5 4 3

2
( )
(..).
2
3

1
4
3
4 2

,
1
3
4

..,
.
,

hops
hops
,
1
3
4
1
3
3
.
1
3
5
2
3
2
2
3
4
3
3
1
BGP
2
3
3
3
,
2
3
2
3
3
1

2
3
3
4
3
2
.
3
3
1
:
()
3
1.

3
3
1
, .
hops /.
4
3
3
2.
()
4
3
2
) ,
.. hops
4
3
3
) ,
/.
4
3
4
) ,
4
3
4
)
(MED),
hops (3)
) eBGP iBGP
. .. 34, 3-3-4-4-4,
) IP .
4 3.
4 34 3-3-4 2
3.
2


TCP - IP 1.4

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) -

:


buffer.

.

.

:
2900 bytes .
2B. ,
(sequence) 0
(ACK) 1.

: 1) , 1024 bytes
2) 512 bytes
3) ACK 1025
4) O A 512 bytes
5) O A 512 bytes
6) ACK 2049
7)
8) ACK 2901

Jacobson Karels :
Difference = Sample RTT() - Estimate RTT()
Estimate RTT = Estimate RTT + Difference
Deviation = Deviation + (|Difference|- Deviation)
Time out = Estimate RTT + Deviation
=1, =4 (), 0<<1 ( )
Estimate RTT Deviation
RTT .
.. 55msec 10 (Estimate = 55, Deviation = 10).
Sample RTT RT.
,
,
.
:

T =

1,22 MSS
,

p RTT

MSS: maximum size segment bytes

RTT: round trip time = Trans pack +Trans ack +2Prop,
Trans pack :
( link)
Trans ack :
( link)
Prop:
p:

:

TCP 62 msec 12 msec 2
45
84 msec ,
.
= 0,8 , = 1 = 4.
1
Difference = 45-62= -17 ms
Estimate RTT = 62+0,8(-17)= 48,4 ms
Deviation = 12+0,8(17-12)= 16 ms
2
Difference = 84-48,4= 35,6 ms
Estimate RTT = 48,4+0,835,6= 76,88 ms
Deviation = 16+0,8(35,6-16)= 31,68 ms
TimeOut = 176,88+431,68 =203,6 ms


- 2.1

GSM (P-GSM-900)

:

10 30 GSM
1720 1745 MHz () 1815 1840
MHz ()
100 KHz .

(MHz): 890-915 (up, BTS), 935-960

(down, BTS ) 124 200 KHz .
(TDMA): 8
(RFCN Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number):
(MobileT x ) F up = (u+0,2)+0,2(n-1) MHz, u=890
(BaseT x ) F down = (d+0,2)+0,2(n-1) MHz, d=935
F up + 45 MHz ( d-u: 935-890=45), n=

1 up-down: 1720,2MHz - 1815,2MHz.

: 1815-1720 = 95 MHz
: (1745-1720-0,2)/0,2 = 124
10:
F 10 u =1720,2+(10-1)0,2 MHz= 1722 MHz
F 10 d =1815,2+(10-1)0,2 MHz=1817 MHz ( 1722+95=1817)
30:
F 30 u =1720,2+(30-1)0,2 MHz= 1726 MHz
F 30 d =1815,2+(30-1)0,2 MHz=1821 MHz ( 1722+95=1821)

(Channel Allocation, CA) -

1 - () :
= 1 + 1 .
.
()
GSM, x. x124
) ()
() ) GSM
100 KHz 2 .
F
-F
- 0,2

, ) max up min up
MHz
, )
0,2

2 - ( ):
.

.
, / .

.

.
,
3 3 ()2 / 2
! .
3 - (cluster size N) :
.
R
D.
D / R = 3 D2 / 3R2
C/I dB.
N
1

C/I 2
10

(6 10 )
.
3

1:
GSM
900 Hz (
)
19,2 MHz
. ,
200 kHz. 74
Km2, 2 Km2.

.
1) ()
;
2) ;
3)
1 5;
1) 19,2 MHz / 200 KHz = 96
.

2) 74 Km2/2 Km2 = 37 .
D = 6R,
6R/R = 3 3N = 62 N = 36/3 = 12
96/12 = 8 .
3) 900 Hz
1
Ch.1 F up = (900 + 0,2) + 0,2(1-1) MHz = 900,2 MHz.
10

Ch.10 F down = (900 + 0,2) + 0,2(10-1) + 45 MHz = 947 MHz.


- 2.1

4 - (SOS!):
() ( 1)
N (cluster size) ( 3)

5 - :
5.1:
.
.
1 .
5.2: (
) .

.

.

( - BTS)
(cluster).
, , ,
: = i2+ij+j2, i,j=0,1,2,3,...
i j
. , 3, 4, 7, 9, 12, 16,
, .

x:
1)
i
2) ( )
3) j

,
x.
N=3
i=1, j=1

2
6

1
2

4
3

2
6

N=7
i=2, j=1
N=12
i=2, j=2

N=4
i=2, j=0

3
7

4
5

3
8

6
10

4
3

5
1

11

12

1
N=9
i=3, j=0

2:
GSM
1,
37 ,
=12, 96
( 1).

1) ( )
;
2)
;
3)
;
4)

;
5)
ACI.
6) =4,
(C/I
dB) .
1
96/12 = 8 .
1) 37 ,

37 (96/12) = 296 . ( - 1)
2) GSM TDMA
8 .

8 (96/12) = 64 . ( - 2)
3) 296 8
= 2368 64 37 = 2368. ( - 3)
4)
96

. ,
2368/96 =
24,6 /. ( - 4)


- 2.1

5.3: :

1
2
1
1, 2, 3, ,
1, +1, 2+1,

1 :
.
1 CCI ,
ACI .
CCI (co-channel interference, ):

.
(clusters).
2 :
.
2 ACI
. N.
ACI (adjacent channel interference, ):

.

*:
1:
;
1: / (2) / (4)
2:
;
2: / (4) / ()
3:
;
3: / (1) / ()
/ (2) / (2)
4:
;
/ (3) / (1)
* !
:

D /R
= 3 N , D ,
R N cluster size (N=3,4,7,9).
3 3 2
S=
R .
2
C/I (Carrier Interference Ratio, ):

1 D
1
= 10log = 10log
I
x
x R

3N

x: CCI , :
, D: , R:
N cluster size (N=3,4,7,9).
(
),
, x 6 (x=6).
3

5) :
6

12
4
5
10

9
8

11
3

10
2

7
12

9
8

11
3

12
4

10
2

8
11

9
8

10
2

7
12

():
1
2
1,13,25,37,49,61,73,85
1 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8
2,14,26,38,50,62,74,86
2 9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16
3 17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24 3,15,27,39,51,63,75,87
4 25,26,27,28,29,30,31,32 4,16,28,40,52,64,76,88
5 33,34,35,36,37,38,39,40 5,17,29,41,53,65,77,89
6 41,42,43,44,45,46,47,48 6,18,30,42,54,66,78,90
7 49,50,51,52,53,54,55,56 7,19,31,43,55,67,79,91
8 57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64 8,20,32,44,56,68,80,92
9 65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72 9,21,33,45,57,69,81,93
10 73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80 10,22,34,46,58,70,82,94
11 81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88 11,23,35,47,59,71,83,95
12 89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96 12,24,36,48,60,72,84,96
,
ACI.
ACI.
,
/ ,


.
.. 111 , / =
111/12 = 9+3/12 (3 ). / =
8(111/12)= 74. / = 378(111/12) =2738.
6) =4, x=3, =12.
4
C
1
= 10log
3 12 = 26,35dB
I
3

,
()
.
CCI
x.
12 ( ) 3
( ).


- 2.2

n = c /v

.
Snell

.
sin1 v1 n2
= =
sin2 v 2 n1
c: 3108m/s, v:
.

( ) .

,
(Hz nm)
(bps).

:
f = fmax - fmin = c/(nmin) c/(nmax)
:
f = fmax - fmin = c/min c/max
= / .
=
/ .

:
1500-1600 nm.

HDTV 130
Mb/s video streaming
1,8 Mb/s. WDM.
f
f=100 GHz
Rb=0,6 Gb/s.
.
HDTV video
streaming .
fmax = 3108/(1,510-6) = 21014 Hz
fmin = 3108/(1,610-6) = 1,8751014 Hz
B = fmax fmin = 21014 - 1,8751014 = 1,251013 Hz
: /f = (1,251013 Hz) / (1011 Hz)
= 125
O 125/2 = 62,5 (
), 62 .
HDTV : 0,6 Gb/s / 130
Mb/s = 4,6 ( 4).
HDTV : 462=248.
video : 0,6 Gb/s / 1,8
Mb/s = 333.
video : 33362=20646

decibel

.
.
:
P
V

()

Watt (W)
milliWatt (mW)
Volt (V)

dBWatt (dBW)
dBmilliWatt (dBm)
dBVolt (dBV)

dB

x
10y/10

10log10(x)
y
L[dB] = Pout[dBm] - Pin[dBm]
L = Pout/Pin = PTx/PRx
= PTx[dBm] - PRx[dBm]
L>1
L>0
L<1
L<0
G[dB] = Pin[dB] - Pout[dB]
G = Pin/Pout=PRx/PTx
= PRx[dBm] PTx[dBm]

G>1
G>0
G<1
G<0
PRx, Pin:
Px, Pout:

:

(Tx), 100 km,
EDFA (Rx).
2 mW.
0,2 dB/km
17 dB
.
EDFA; ;
;

EDFA:
GEDFA [dB] = 17 dB GEDFA = 10 17/10 = 50
:
L [dB] = = 0,2100 = 20dB L= 10 20/10 =100
:
L[dB] = L [dB] - GEDFA [dB] =20-17=3 db
L = 10 3/10 = 2
L = L / GEDFA = 100/50 = 2
L = Ptx/Prx Prx = Ptx / L = 2/2 = 1 mW

- 2.2

( - ):
1) :
L
PTX

PRX
d

P RX = P TX d-
L = (P TX /P RX ) = d

P RX[dBm] = P TX[dBm] -10log 10 (d)
L [dB] = 10log(d)

2) ( Friis):
L
PTX, F

PRX

d
( )

c/f
PRX = PTX

4d

c/f
PRX[dBm] = PTX[dBm] + 20log

4d

P
4d
L = TX =

PRX c / f

4d
L[dB] = 20log

c/f

3)
d 0 :
L
PTX

PRX
d
d0
d1
Pfs






P RX = P fs (d/d 0 )-
P RX[dBm] = P fs (d 0 ) [dBm] -10log(d/d 0 )

L= L(d 0 )(d/d 0 )
L [dB] = L(d 0 ) [dBm] + 10log(d/d 0 )
To P fs Friis.

P RX :
P TX :
P fs :
( )
d:
d 0 :
( ).
: (,
, .), 2 5 (2 ).
F:
c: = 3 108 m/sec

:
1,8 GHz
20 dBm.
, 150 m
=4.
,
:
P r (d)= P fs (d 0 ) 10log(d/d 0 ) P fs (d 0 ) ( dBm).
1) k
150 m
P r = k 10log(d).
2) d

-90 dBm.
1) dBm :
c/f
3 108 / 1,8 109
Pr = Pt + 20log
=
20
+
20log

=
4150

4d0
= -61,07 dBm.
P fs = -61,07 dBm.
P r (d)= Pfs(d 0 ) 10log(d/d 0 ) =
= P fs (d 0 ) (10log(d) 10log(d 0 )) =
= P fs (d 0 ) 10log(d) + 10log(d 0 ).
P r = k 10log(d),

150 m, , :
k 10log(d) = P fs (d 0 ) 10log(d) + 10log(d 0 )
k = P fs (d 0 ) + 10log (d 0 ) = -61,07 + 104log (150) =
= -61,07 + 87,04 = 25,97dBm.
2) P r = k 10log(d) 10log(d) = (k P r )/
d = 10(k Pr)/(10) . d max =10(25,97+90)/40= 793 m.
():

Kilo (K)
103
Mega (M)
106
Giga (G)
109
Tera (T)
1012

+30
+60
+90
+120

():

-3
milli (m)
10
-30
micro ()
10-6
-60
-9
nano (n)
10
-90
pico (p)
10-12
-120


3.0

pk

p0

BR

aG

TsS

TwW

TT

bits|bytes|char2
bps3|

bytes char
|
sec
sec

sec|min|h4

5
msg
|
|
|
.
. . .

msg6

3.13.2, 2char=character(), 3bps=bitpersecond(bits

),4h=hour(),5.=(secminh),6msg=message()
1

.3.1

Ts
;
(Ts =Ts;)

//1

/G/1

(+)
+P-Kformula

.3.2

>1;
0
;

/M/1/c

2:
1
c-1

/M/1/1
c=1m=1

1:
1
0

/M/m/m

3:
m
0

3.1

,
,
.
//1:
:
M/M/1.


.


.
:

0
1
2
3
D
D
D

...

:
A p k = D p k+1
:
1 , ,
,
.
(
M/M/1!!!):
( ):
1)
(utilization): U = A/D = A Ts
U 1,

.
(= ):
2) : = 1/Ta
3) (time arrival): a G = 1/A
4) : D = 1/Ts= B/L
5) (time serve):
Ts S = 1/D = L/B
L (length) ,
(bandwidth)
6)
:
Ts
1
=
= Tw + Ts =
1-U D- A
U Ts
7) (time wait): w = N Ts =
1-U
1

1:
200
sec.
//1,
300 Kbps.
125 bytes.
byte 8 bits. :
1) o
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

7)
8)
9)

10) 3
11) 3

12)
5 .
13) .
1) Ts = L/B =
= 125(bytes)8(bits)/300(Kbps) = 1/300 sec
2) D = 1/ Ts = 1 / 1/300 =
= 300(./sec)
3) U = A/D = 200/300 = 2/3
4) N =
= U/(1-U) = (2/3)/(1-2/3) = (2/3)/(1/3) = 2
5) Q = U2/(1-U) =
= (2/3)2/(1-2/3) = (4/9)/(1/3) = 4/3
6) T = N/A = 2/200 = 1/100 sec
7) Tw = N Ts = 2 1/300 =
= 2/300 sec
8)
0, p 0 = 1 2/3 = 1/3


3.1

- :
8) (,
, ) (
+ ):
U
N=AT=Q+U=
1-U
9)
:
Q = A Tw =

U2
1-U

= NU

:
10) k
k :
p k = (1 U) Uk
11) 0
:
p0 = 1 U
//1:


:
1 ():
p
1

1-p

2
2 = 1 p 3 = 1 (1-p)

2 ():
2

2
1

1 = 2 + 3

!

.
D.
:
1: )
, ) , )
.
1: ) p 0 , ) 1p 0 U , ) p .
2:
( );
A2:
+1
, , p v+1 =(1-U)Uv+1.
3:
.
A3: ,
p k = (1 U) Uk ( k).
2

9)
,
0, 1 p 0 = 1 1/3
= 2/3. U.

10) 3 , p 3 =
= (1 U) U3 = (1 2/3) (2/3)3 = (1/3) (8/27) = 8/81
11) 3

4 , p 4 = (1 U) U4 = (1/3) (2/3)4 = 16/243
12)
5 s = 5 (1/300) = 1/60 sec
13) //1
,

. Ts = Ts = 1/300 sec.
2:
M/M/1
. (
, + ).
1=4
2=5
1/2
1
2
1=2
1/2

3=3

3
4=1
1)
.
2) .
3)
1-2 1-3.
4) ( %)

3;
5) ( %)

1;
6)
1 2,
2 4
;
1) 2 = (1/2) 1 = (1/2)2 = 1.
3 = (1/2) 1 + 4 = (1/4)2 + 1 = 2
U 1 = 1 / 1 = 2/4 = 1/2
U 2 = 2 / 2 = 1/5
U 3 = 3 / 3 = 2/3
1: p k = (1-1/2)(1/2)k = (1/2)k+1
2: p k = (1-1/5)(1/5)k = (4/5)(1/5)k
3: p k = (1-2/3)(2/3)k = (1/3)(2/3)k


3.1

4:
, ;
A4: s.
5:

x ;
A5:
/Ts .
y=x+A/Ts. x y.
6:

) -
,
) - ,
) - .
U2
6: ) Q =
U2 + ( Q)U - ( Q) = 0
1 - U

-( Q) ( Q)2 + 4( Q)
*
2
U
N
) N =
U =
1 - U
N + 1
U =

U
U
( %). ,

: 1

) w = s w , U =
As, ().
, 1 -

- 2 - 4
.
2
7: ;
A7: ,
, = s.
8:
) () (Q),
) x
(p x ) -
y (p y ), x<y.
U
U2
1
U=
8: ) N = Q
=
1-U
1-U

* x2+x+=0 x=

1 y-x
) px = py (1 - U) U = (1 - U) U U =

2) 1 = U 1 /(1-U 1 ) = 1/2 / 1/2 = 1

2 = U 2 /(1-U 2 ) = 1/5 / 4/5 = 1/4
3 = U 3 /(1-U 3 ) = 2/3 / 1/3 = 2
3) 1 = 1/( 1 - 1 ) = 1/(4-2) = 1/2
2 = 1/( 2 - 2 ) = 1/(5-1) = 1/4
3 = 1/( 3 - 3 ) = 1/(3-2) = 1
1-2
1-2 = 1 + 2 = 1/2 + 1/4 = 3/4.
1-3
1-3 = 1 + 3 = 1/2 + 1 = 3/2.
4) (6).
U
N3
22
4
N3 = 3 U3 =
=
U3 =

1 - U3
N3 + 1
22 + 1 5

U
4/5 2
20%
1- 3 = 1=
U3
2 / 3 10
5) (6).
U2
Q 1 = 1 U12 + ( Q 1 )U - ( Q 1 ) = 0
1 - U1
1 1
Q 1 = N1 - U1 = 1 - = . , :
2 2
1
1

U12 + 4 U - 4 = 0 U12 + 2 U - 2 = 0
2 2

-2 22 + 4 2
U1 = -1 + 3 - 1 - 3
2
1 3 U 0.

U
0,732
1- 1 = 1= 0,464 46,4%
U1
0,5
U1 =

6) (8).
U
U2
1
N2 = 4 Q 2 2 = 4 2 U2 = .
1 - U2
1 - U2
4
U 2 = 2 / 2 2 = p 1 p
, :
p 1
1 2 p
5
=
p = =0,625
U2 =
2
4
5
8


3.1

/G/1:

:
M/G/1.


.


.

1:
10
min.
4 sec,
5,5 sec .
1)
;
2) ;

!
//1, .

1) ,
()
, = 4 sec Ts = 5,5 sec. ,

, .

:
1 , ,
, ,
.
:
1) P-K Formula (Pollaczek-Khinchine): Tw =

A E[Ts2 ]

2 (1 - U)

:
2

L
) [Ts2]= Ts 2+Ts2 = L +
B B
TS:
L:
) [Ts2]=

L
i Ts2i pi = i Bi pi

2) = 10/60 = 1/6, D = 1/5,5.

U = A/D = (1/6)/(2/11) = 11/12
E(Ts2) = 2 + Ts2 = 42+5,52 = 46,25.
A E[Ts2 ] 1 / 6 46,25
Tw =
=
= 46,25
2 (1 -U) 2 (1 / 12)
2:
10
min. 30%
5 sec, 50%
5,5 sec 20% 6 sec.
1)
;
2) ;

2) Little: N = AT Q = ATw
.

1) ,
.

3) : N=p 0 0+p 1 1++ p n n+

2) = 10/60 = 1/6

[Ts] = i Tsi pi = Ts1 p1 + Ts2 p2 + Ts3 p3 =
= 50,3 + 5,50,5 + 60,2 = 5,45 sec.
U = ATs =1/6 5,45 = 109/120 =0,9083

[Ts2]= i Ts2i pi = Ts12 p1 + Ts22 p2 + Ts23 p3 =
= 520,3 + 5,520,5 + 620,2 = 29,825
A E[Ts2 ] 1 / 6 29,825
Tw =
=
= 2,736 sec
2 (1 -U) 2 (109 / 120)

 Erlang-B

3.2

, Erlang-B.

, . , .

:
U

Erlangs.
GoS p b (,m),

, erlangs m .

.

1:

24 .
5 .


,
,
.

(
M/M/1/1). :
:

24
E = 24
5 min =
5 min = 2 erlangs
h
60 min
:
(,1) = p b = p 1 =2/(1+2) = 2/3
:
p 0 = 1/(1+E) = 1/(1+2) = 1/3 (= 1-)

1 (//1/1):
:

0
1
D
:
A p0 = D p1

:
1) p 0 = 1/(1+E)
2) p 1 = E/(1+E)
3) (,1) = p b = p 1 =/(1+)

A1=5/sec
A2=5/sec
A3=5/sec
A4=5/sec

2 (//1/c):

( M/M/1/c). :
= 45=20 ./sec, D = 32 ./sec, C = 3(buffer) + 1(server) =
4 E=A/D=20/32=0,625.
EC+1 (E C - C - 1) + E 0,6255 (0,625 4 - 4 - 1) + 0,625
=
=
=
(1 - EC+1 ) (1 - E)
(1 - 0,6255 ) (1 - 0,625)
= 1,13956 .
1-E
0,6254 (1 - 0,625)
C
PB = E
=
= 0, 0632527 6,325%.
1 - EC+1
1 - 0.6255
N
1,13956
=
=
= 0, 060825 sec = 60,82 ms
A (1 - PB ) 20 (1 - 0, 06325)

...
0
1
C-1
D
D
D
D

:
1 ,
C-1,
.
C , C-1
1 C+1 .
1

MUX

:
1 ,
,
.
. ,
.

2:
, 4
5 ,

32 .
(buffer)
3 .
.
D=32 /sec


3.2
:
1) p 0 = (1 )/(1 C+1)
2) p k = k(1 )/(1 C+1), k C
3) (,1) = p b = p C = C(1 )/(1 C+1)
E
(C + 1) EC+1
4) N =

1-E
1 - EC+1
Little .
5) T = /(1-) = /(1-p C )
6) Q = - (1-)
3 (//m/m):
:

0
1
2
3
D

2D

3D

...

m-1

mD

:
A p k-1 = k D p k , k=1,2,,m
:
m ,
,
. m

m+1 .

,
.
:
1) p 0 = 1 /
2) p k =

Ei

i=0 i!
m

Ek m Ei
/
k! i=0 i!

Em m Ei
3) (,m) = p b = p m =
/
m! i=0 i!
2 3
E B ( E,k - 1 )
.
B(E,k)=
E B ( E,k - 1 ) + k
B(E,0)=1.


:
= (m)
/ =
/ = (A)
= (Ts)
= erlang (E )
erlang = erlang ()

3:


5 min.
1) ;
2)

1%, .
3) 2
,
;
.
GoS (%)
1
2
5
10
20
1
0,0101 0,0204 0,0526 0,1111 0,2500
2
0,1526 0,2235 0,3813 0,5954 1,000
4
0,8694 1,092
1,525
2,045
2,945
5
1,361
1,657
2,219
2,881
4,010
8
3,128
3,627
4,543
5,597
7,369
10
4,461
5,084
6,216
7,511
9,685


(
M/M/m/m).
1) E = 3(call/user)5(min/call)/60 min = 0,25 erlang
2) ,
5
1%, 1,361 erlang.
, = E 1,361 = 0,25 x x = 5,4.
5 .
3) 2 ,
10,
= E = 10 0,25 = 2,5 erlang.
:
E5
2,55
(,5) =

5! =
2,5i

i=0

i!

1 + 2,5 +

2,52
2

5!
2,53
3!

2,54
4!

= 0,069.
7%.

2,55
5!


3.2
Erlang-B,

1:

(cluster)
. ,
2.1 (
). , (cluster size)
,
()
cluster .

2:
(
GoS Grade of Service).
3:

( )
( GoS).
1 2
m ( (cluster)
)
B. (
) :
erlangs
GOS (%)

m
E

!
(cluster)
, m.
4:
,
1) E = cluster clusters
2) E =
3) E =
4) E = s
5) = A s

Em m Ei
6) (,m)=
/
m! i=0 i!
7) = (1-)
: ,
(,m): GoS, :
(/ ), s:
, m: ()

4:
330 km2
= 9. 2057m,
45 MHz
50 KHz.
Erlang-B GS = 1/20.
2 3 .
1)
.
2)
GoS, .

erlang.
3) .

100
120
125
130
150

(%)
1
2
5
84,050
87,950
95,200
102,950
107,400
115,750
107,700
112,300
120,900
112,450
117,150
126,050
131,550
136,800
146,700

=
=

3 3
()2 =
2

3 3 (2,057Km)2
11Km2.
2

330Km2/11Km2= 30 .
: /
= 45Hz/60KHz = 45106Hz/60103Hz = 900.
=9,
900/9 = 100 .
/ = 100, /cluster = 900,
/ ( ) 30100=3000.
1) GoS = 1/20 = 5%
(100),
95,2 erlangs.
95,2erl./30 = 2856 erlangs
2) =
A s = 2 call/h 3 min = 2/60 call/min 3 min =
0,1 erlangs.
E = 2856 erlangs,
, 2856/0,1 = 28560.

= 95,2 erlangs,
, 95,2/0,1 = 952.
3) = (1-) =
= 95,2 (1-0,05) = 90,44 erlangs.

3.3

1:
,

x y. ,

.
.
()
, .. ,
.
ax + by = m.
2:

. ()

..
,
()
x y .


.
:
1 2 3 1x+1y 1
x
1 2 3 2x+2y 2
y
1 2 3 3x+3y 3
3:
,
x y (
xx)
y x (
yy).

,

. O
.
4: (
)
. x
y

.

.

.

:


. 25
10 .
10
4 .
4
3 .
7 ,
40 .

30 .
,
.
x y
. :
10x + 4y 40,
x + y 7,
10y 30 ( -10y -30),


m = 254x + 103y.

m = 100x + 30y
,
( ),
-10/3. m

.
10x + 4y = 40
10y = 30. ,
y = 3 x=2,8. M
M = 1002,8 + 303 = 370 .


3.4

X
x
x (CDF
cumulative distribution function).
F(x) = P(X x), < x <
CDF
(PDF)
(PMF) .
:
( )
E[X], X
PDF f(x), :
E[X] =

x f(x)dx , - E[X v ] = x v f(x)dx

x 1 , x 2 , ...,
p 1 , p 2 , ..., :
E[X] = i x i pi , - E[X ] = i x i pi

:
1)
1000

200 ;
2)
100 300 ;

:
1)
1000 :
P(X>1000) = 1 P(X100) = 1 -

1000

x
1
e 200 =
200

1000

x
200 - 200

=1-
e
200
0

= 1 - (1 - e-5 ) = 0,0067

(=2)
.

2)
100 300 :

:
,
[]. -
:

P(100X 300) =

(x-E[X]) f(x)dx
E[(X-E[X]) ] = (x -E[X])x p

E[(X-E[X]) ] =

(variance).

, = var var = 2.
x

= E { x 2 } E { x}2 .
,
.
:
PDF: f(x) =

(x-)

, x , .
:
x
1
PDF: f(x) = e L
L
L , x .

300

300

100

x
1
e 200 =
200

x
200 - 200

=
e = (e-0,5 - e-1,5 ) = 0,383
200
100


3.4

:
( D)




. 0, p0,
,
1 2

n
0

:

.
.
, p 0 = p 0 . :
P 1 = U 1 ( 1 ) P 0 (U , )
P2 = U2 P1 = U1 U2 P0
...
P n = U n P n-1 = U 1 U 2 ... U n P 0
U ( )
,

.
, P 0 + P 1 + ... + P n = 1
n
i=0

Pi = 1 , P 0

U
.

( , , )

( 3.1 M/G/1).

(n m + 1) (n + m)
n (n + 1)
n
n
, i=0
1)
i=
i=
i=m
i=0
2
2
n+1
n
1x
1
i
2)
, n=
,
x =
xi =
i=0
i=0
1x
1x
n
x x n+1
i
x
i
i=1

n=
=
x
=
x
i=1
i=1
1x
1x
n
n+1
n
x (1 x ) n x
(n x n 1) x n+1 + x
i
3)

=
i x=
i= 0
(1 x)2
1x
(1 x)2

x
n=
, x < 1.
i xi =
i=0
(1 x)2

p 0 ( 1 + 2 ++ n ) = 1 p 1 + 2 p 2 + + m p m

1:

,
.
1)
2)
k, p k , k=0,1,2

1) 0: p 0 = p 1 +p 2 ,
1: ( +)p 1 = p 0 ,
2: p 2 = p 1
2) p 0 +p 1 +p 2 =1,
:
p 0 = /(+), p 1 = ()/(+)2, p 2 = 2/(+)2
2:

//1,
D U = A/D.
//1, p K =
Dp K+1 p K+1 = (/D)p K p K+1 = Up K


:
p 1 = Up 0
p 2 = Up 1 = UUp 0 = U2p 0
p 3 = Up 2 = UU2p 0 = U3p 0
...
p k-1 = Up k-2 = UUk-2p 0 = Uk-1p 0
p k = Up k-1 = U Uk-1p 0 = Ukp 0
p k p 0
k. p 0 ,
1.
p 0 +p 1 +p 2 +=1 i=0 pi =1 i=0 Ui p0 =1
n

1
1
p0 i=0 U =1 p0
= 1 p0 =
= 1 -U
1 -U
1 -U
p k = (1-U)Uk
n

N=

pi i = i=0 (1 -U) Ui i = (1 -U) i=0 Ui i =

i=0

= (1 -U)

U
U
=
(1 -U)2 1 -U

Little
.


4.1

(MST - Minimum Spanning Tree) - Kruskal, Prim,

Kruskal

0:
( ).

.
:
,
.
:
:
) ,
.
) ,

.
)

.

:
Minimum Spanning Tree (MST)
) Kruskal, ) Prim. ) A

.
MST;
MST L 2 hops;

4 2

4
5

)
:

(,)
(,)
(,)
(,)
(,)
(,)
(,)

1
2
2
3
4
4
5

4 2

3
4
1
5
1 - (,)
4 2

3
4
1
5
4 - (,)

4 2

4 2

3
3
2 4
4
1
1
5
5
2 - (,) 3 - (,)
4 2 MST:

1+2+2+4 = 9.

3
4
1
5
5 - (,)

: (,), (,), (,), (,).

Prim
0: ,
.
:


:
.

) , :

4 2

1 4
(,)
3
2 4
2 4
1
5
5
4 2 3 4
(,)
3
2 4
2 4
1
5
5

2
3

2
3

2
(,)

4
(,)

1 MST:

2+4+1+2 = 9.
: (,), (,), (,), (,).

(flooding)
ST:

, MST.
TTL (Time To Leave):
, TTL.
:
.
:
,

.
1

) ST,

MST ( ) = 9
ST :
TTL 21
TTL 10

: 4+4+2+1+3+5+3+2+5 = 29

3
2
5


4.2

(Dijkstra, Bellman-Ford, Floyd-Warshall)

Dijkstra - OSPF - open shortest path first

:
1
2
...
n
M
B0
{0}
B1
{0, 1}
B2
{0, 1, n}
...
{0, 1, n, ...}
Bn-1
{0, 1, n, ...,2}
0: . 1 - n: .

( )

.
n , B0
n-1.
Dijkstra
( = ).
0:
- .
-
, 0 ( ) + .
- .
- ().
1 n-2: :
-
.
-
.
-
, +
,
.
-
.
.

n-1:

.
.

:
Dijkstra
v1.
v5
2
v2
1
4
1 2
6 v6
3
v3
1
2
4
v1
7
v4
v2 v3 v4 v5
B0 1,v1 4,v1 7,v1

M
{v1}

v1. : v2 (0+1=1), v3 (0+4=4)

v4 (0+7=7). : v1. .

B1 1,v1 3,v2 7,v1 3,v2 5,v2

{v1, v2}

: v2, . : v3
(1+2=3 < 4), v4 (1+6=7 7 ), v5 (1+2=3 < )
v6 (1+4=5 < ) .
: v2. .

B2

3,v2 5,v3 3,v2 5,v2

B3

5,v3 3,v2 4,v5

B4

5,v3

B5

5,v3

{v1, v2, v3}

: v3, . : v4
(3+2=5 < 7). : v3.
.

{v1, v2, v3, v5}

: v5, . : v4
(3+3=6 5 ) v6 (3+1=4 < 5) .
: v4.
.

4,v5

{v1, v2, v3, v5, v6}

: v6, . : v4
(4+1=5 5 ). v4 .

{v1, v2, v3, v5, v6, v4}

v4

: ,
:
:
: v1, v2 v1, v3
v2, v5 v2, v6
v5 v4 v3.
0

1
v2
1

v1

( ):

.
.
:
.

v6

v1
4
v2
v1

1 2

v3

v1

2
3
v2
2
v2
1
2
1 2
v3
v3 v1

v1

5 ( )
v5
v2
2
1
1 2
v6
v3
2
v4

v5

v6

v5


4.2

Bellman-Ford - RIP - routing information protocol

:
0
1
2
...
n
B0 (h=0)
B1 (h=1)
B2 (h=2)
...
0: . 1 - n: .

( ).
n (
n-1),
.
x h = x.
Bellman-Ford
( =
).
( )
0:
- 0
.
- ().
1 n-1 :
-
. .. 3 (h=3)

, 3.
- ,
.
-

.
-
, n-1 .
( )
0:
- , s, 0.
- ().
1 n-1 ( x):
- x
x
+ .
- , ,
.
-
, .
h
h-1
C
}, x s
x s = min{w x y + C y s

-
, n-1 .
2

:
Bellman-Ford
v1.
v5
2
v2
1
4
1 2
6 v6
3
v3
1
2
4
v1
7
v4
B0 (h=0)

V1
0

v2

v3

v4

v5

v6

B1 (h=1)

1, v1

4, v1

7, v1

B2 (h=2)

1, v1

3, v2

6, v3

3, v2

5, v2

B3 (h=3)

1, v1

3, v2

5, v3

3, v2

4, v5

B4 (h=4)

1, v1

3, v2

5, v3

3, v2

4, v5

v1 0, .

1. v2 1,
v1. v3 4,
v1. v4 7, v1.
, .

2.
:
. h=2
2,
2 , v2. v3 2+1=3 < 4,
v2. v4 2+4=6 < 7,
v3. v5 2+1=3 < , v2.
v6 4+1=5 < , v2.
3. h=3
4,
4 , v3 v5. v4
2+2+1=5 < 6, v3. v6
1+2+1=4 < 5, v5.
4. h=4
6,
6 . ,

:
v2
v1, v3 v2, v4 v3, v5
v2 v6 v5.
2

v2
1 2
v1

v3

v6
2

v4

v5


4.2

,

.
.
1: .

. ,
.
:
, .

()
.
:
, n-1
, n .
:
-
.
-
. ( )

.
-
,

( ).
- () ,
, .
():
, ,
, ,
.
:
.

:
Bellman Ford
, :

1
B

D
3
C

1 ( )
h=1 A B
C D
A
0 1,A
B 0 6,B
C 0 3,C
D 5,D 1,D 0
2

3
0
0

5
5
5
5
5

D
D
D
D
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
1
6
6
6
6
B
C
B
C
B
C
B
C
1

0
6

0
1

: B=min{1+0 A ,1+ D }, C=min{6+1 B }, D=min{3+ C }

B: A=min{5+ D }, C=min{6+0 B }, D=min{3+6 C }
C: A=min{5+3 D }, B=min{1+ A ,1+3 D }, D=min{3+0 C }
D: A=min{5+0 D }, B=min{1+5 A ,1+0 D }, C=min{6+1 B }
h=2 A B
C D
A
0 1,A 7,B
B 0 6,B 9,C
C 8,D 4,D 0 3,C
D 5,D 1,D 7,B 0
3

9
3
0
0

8
5
5
5
5
5

D
D
D
D
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
3
1
1
1
1
6
6
6
6
B
C
B
C
B
C
B
C
1
7
0
6
4
0
1
7
: B=min{1+0 A ,1+ D }, C=min{6+1 B }, D=min{3+7 C }
B: A=min{5+9 D }, C=min{6+0 B }, D=min{3+6 C }
C: A=min{5+3 D }, B=min{1+8 A ,1+3 D }, D=min{3+0 C }
D: A=min{5+0 D }, B=min{1+5 A ,1+0 D }, C=min{6+1 B }
h=3 A
B
C
D
A
0 1,A 7,B 10,C
B 14,D 0 6,B 9,C
C 8,D 4,D 0 3,C
D 5,D 1,D 7,B 0
.


4.2

Floyd-Warshall
, ,
(A.)
(..), .
0:
. ,

. (
). .
.., ..
( .),
, . ..:
B0

0
i

i
-

1 ( i) :
- i
. i ..

( i-1).
- (x,y),


. (x,y) i = min{(x,i)+(i,y),(x,y)} i-1
-
,
..
. (x,y) i = (i,y) i-1
,
( i-1).
Bi y

0
i

i
-

:
i (),
.. i
( ).

( ).
)
)
i
i
i

:
Floyd-Warshall

. .
1

-1
2
-4
7
B

0 A B
A B
A 0 2
A
B -4 0
B 1 -1 0
3 7 0

0.
.
1 A B
A B
A 0 2
A
B -4 0 -2
B
1 -1 0 3
-
3 7 0

1.
.
2 A B
A B
A 0 2
A
B -4 0 -2
B
-5 -1 0 -3
-
-1 3 7 0
2.
.
3 A B
A B
A 0 2
A
B -4 0 -2
B
-5 -1 0 -3
-
-1 3 7 0
3.
.
.
4 A B
A B
A 0 5 9 2
A -
B -4 0 5 -2
B -
-5 -1 0 -3
-
-1 3 7 0
, , .
1

-1
2
-4
7
B


4.3

bin packing - First fit, Best fit, Worst fit

bin packing
,
(bins) ,
.
(packing)
.
, ()
,
,
.
0:
() ,
.
1:
First Fit:
() .
Best Fit:

.
Worst Fit:

.

:
9
: 7 - 2 - 6 - 5 - 2 - 6 - 1 - 9 - 3.
First Fit, Best Fit Worst Fit

20
.

: 9, 7, 6, 6, 5, 3, 2, 2, 1.
First Fit
Best Fit
Worst Fit

1 9 1 ,7 2 ,3 6 ,1 9
1 9 1 ,7 2 ,2 7 ,2 8
1 9 1 ,7 2 ,3 6 ,1 9
2 6 3 ,6 4 ,5 5 ,2 7
2 6 3 ,6 4 ,5 5 ,3 6
2 6 3 ,6 4 ,5 5 ,2 7
3
28
3
19
3
2 8 ,1 9

9 .

.
-

2 , k ( k=2)
r.
c1
r
s
t
ck
1:
:
=x 1 f(x 1 , c 1 ) + x 2 f(x 2 , c 2 ) + + x k f(x k , c k ).
k>2 k-1
f(x,c)
, c 1 =c 2 ==c k-1 ,
, x 1 =x 2 ==x k-1 .
2: (k)
r(k-1)x 1 .
,
:
=x 1 f(x 1 , c 1 ) + x 2 f(x 2 , c 2 ) + + (r-(k-1)x 1 )f(r-(k-1)x 1 ,c k ).
3:
,
, d/dx=0.
x.
: f(x) = axb f'(x) = abxb-1
1

:
,
2 3.
s d 1.
t(f, c) = (f/c)2,
f
.
.
c1=2
r=1
s
t
c2=3
:
= f 1 t(f 1 ,c 1 ) + f 2 t(f 2 ,c 2 ). f 2 = 1-f 1 ,
= f 1 t(f 1 ,c 1 ) + (1-f 1 )t(1-f 1 ,c 2 ) = f 1 (f 1 /c 1 )2 + (1-f 1 )((1f 1 )/c 2 )2= = f 1 (f 1 /2)2 + (1-f 1 )((1-f 1 )/3)2 = f 1 3/4 + (1-f 1 )3/9 =
= f 1 3/4 + (-f 1 3+3f 1 2-3 f 1 +1)/9
: = [f 1 3/4 + (-f 1 3+3f 1 2-3 f 1 +1)/9] =
= 3f 1 2/4 + (-3f 1 2+6f 1 -3)/9 = (27f 1 2 -12f 1 2+24f 1 -12)/36 =
= (15f 1 2+24f 1 -12)/36.
T=0 f 1 =2/5=0,4.
0,4 40%
0,6 60% .


4.3

- Ford-Fulkerson

( )
1. , x.
(-,)
2. , , y,
, xy f xy < c xy .

x
.
x ( ) y ( ):
f/c
e(x) x
y KAI f<c
(x+, min{e(x), c xy f xy }).
x, + xy,


.
3. x
yx f yx > 0,

0,
x ( ) y ( ):
f/c
e(x) x
y KAI f>0
(x-, min{e(x), f yx }).
x,
yx,
x .
4. t,
.
5. , x
1.
6. ,
t , .
.
( ):
1. , z.
t (=z),
(w,e(t)).
e(t)
.
B2. wz f wz + e(t) (
+), zw (
) f zw e(t).
w-z:
f+e(t)/c
w
z (w+,e(z))

f-e(t)/c

z (w-,e(z))

3. w, z
1, .
4. .

:

. FordFulkerson s
d.
1/1

0/1

1/1

s
0/2

t
1/2

1 ( )
-, 1/1 1-,1

0/2

s+,2

0/1

1/1

1 ( )
t

1/2

s+,1

0/1

1/1

0/1
1/1

s
1/2

1/2

s: 1, s1 f s-1 <c s-1 .

(1)=min(, 2-0)=2.
(s+, 2)
1: 0, 10 f 0-1 >0.
(0)=min(2, 1)=1.
(1-, 1)
t, 1t f 1-t <c 1-t .
(t)=min(2, 2-1)=1.
(1+, 1).
2 ( )
-, 1/1 1-,1

1/1

1+,1

t
2/2

:
1t = f(1, t)+ (t)=1+1=2
s1= f(s, 1)+ (t)=0+1=1

2 ( )
1/1

0+,1

t
2/2

s: 1, s1 f s-1 <c s-1 .

(1)=min(, 2-1)=1.
(s+, 1)
1: 0, 10 f 0-1 >0.
(0)=min(2, 1)=1.
(1-, 1)
0: t, 0t f 0-t <c 0-t .
(t)=min(1, 1-0)=1.
(0+, 1).
3 ( )


t

2+1=3

1/1

0/1

s
2/2

t
2/2

:
0t = f(0, t) + (t)=0+1=1
10 = f(0, 1) - (t)=1-1=0
s1= f(s, 1) + (t)= 1+1=2


4.3

(CMST Capacitated Minimum Spanning Tree)

Kruskal,
.
MST ( 0)
(
)
W.
0:
( ).

.
:
,
) )

W
0 .

:
CMST ,
,
1
2 (W2).

4
3

)
:
(,)
(,)
(,)
(,) (,) (,) (,)
1
2
2
3
4
4
4

w=1

w=1

4
4

w=2

w=2

4 - (,)

4
4

6 - (,)

w=2

w=2

w=2

5 - (,)

2 - (A,E)

w=3>2

w=2

3 - (,) w>W

w=2

1 - (,)

:
.
,
,
.
.

4 1

w=2

ST: 1+2+3+4 = 10.

: (,), (,), (,), (,).
(COM Center Of Mass)

()
(..
).
(COM) ()
, .
:
W ax ( ):
W M
W min ( ):

Wm
D ( ):

D.
N ( ):
3

:
,
, 5
.
:

1
2
3
4
5
x
20
10
20
40
50
y
20
50
40
30
30
(x, y)

(COM),
) ,
.
) ,
.
.


4.3

( ).

0: ,
, .
1:

dij = (x i - x j )2 + (y i - y j )2
( ).
2*:
, , :

i j
k
w y + w jy j
w x + w jx j
yk = i i
xk = i i
wi + w j
wi + w j
3: i j
k k.
, w i +w j .
1.
:
,
1, 2, , n, w 1 , w 2 , , w n ,
.
:
w y + w 2 y 2 + + wn y n
w x + w 2 x 2 + + wn x n
, yk = 1 1
xk = 1 1
w1 + w 2 + + wn
w1 + w 2 + + wn
*

( )
.
,
(.. W Max = 5 W min =10).

) :
w20 + w10 + w20 + w40 + w50 140
= = 28
xk =
w+w+w+w+w
5
w20 + w50 + w40 + w30 + w30 170
yk =
= = 34
w+w+w+w+w
5
) 1 :
}
{ 1(x,y)=(20,20)
,2(x,y)=(10,50)
,3(x,y)=(20,40)
,4(x,y)=(40,30)
,5(x,y)=(50,30)
w1 =w
w2 =w
w3 =w
w 4 =w
w 5 =w

1-2:

(20 - 10)2 + (20 - 50)2 = 1000

4-5

1-3:

(20 - 20)2 + (20 - 40)2 = 400

2-3

1-4:

(20 - 40)2 + (20 - 30)2 = 500

1-3

1-5:

(20 - 50)2 + (20 - 30)2 = 1000

1-4

2-3:

(10 - 20)2 + (50 - 40)2 = 200

3-4

2-4:

(10 - 40)2 + (50 - 30)2 = 1300

1-2

2-5:

(10 - 50)2 + (50 - 30)2 = 2000

1-5

3-4:

(20 - 40)2 + (40 - 30)2 = 500

3-5

3-5:

(20 - 50)2 + (40 - 30)2 = 1000

2-4

2-5
4-5: (40 - 50)2 + (30 - 30)2 = 100
{4,5}: 45 x 45 =(40+50)/2=45, y 45 =(30+30)/2=30
2 :
{ 1(x,y)=(20,20)
}
,2(x,y)=(10,50)
,3(x,y)=(20,40)
,45(x,y)=(45,30)
w1 =w
w2 =w
w3 =w
w 45 =2w

1-2:

(20 - 10) + (20 - 50) = 1000

2-3

1-3:

(20 - 20)2 + (20 - 40)2 = 400

1-3

1-45:
2-3:
2-45:

(20 - 45)2 + (20 - 30)2 = 725

(10 - 20)2 + (50 - 40)2 = 200

(10 - 45)2 + (50 - 30)2 = 1625

1-45
3-45
1-2

2-45
3-45: (20 - 45)2 + (40 - 30)2 = 725
{2,3}: 23 x 23 =(10+20)/2=15, y 23 =(50+40)/2=45
3 :
}
{ 1(x,y)=(20,20)
,23(x,y)=(15,45)
,45(x,y)=(45,30)
w 45 =2w
w1 =w
w23 =2w

1-23:

(20 - 15)2 + (20 - 45)2 = 650

1-23

1-45:

(20 - 45)2 + (20 - 30)2 = 725

1-45

23-45
23-45: (15 - 45)2 + (45 - 30)2 = 1125
{1,2,3}: 123 x 123 =(20+215)/(2+1)=16,67 ,
y 123 =(20+245)/(2+1)=36,67
,36,67)
}
{ 123(x,y)=(16,67
,45(x,y)=(45,30)
w123 =3w
w 45 =2w
2
{1,2,3} {4,5} .
4