Contents

introduction ............................................................................................................ iii

Section 1: General information .............................................................................1
1.1

Fraction, Decimal, and Metric Equivalents..............................................................................3

1.2

Conversions.......................................................................................................................... .4

1.3

Aircraft Nomenclature .......................................................................................................... 13

Axes of an Airplane.........................................................................................................13
Forces Acting on an Aircraft in Flight..............................................................................13
Types of Aircraft Structure ..............................................................................................14
Truss .........................................................................................................................14
Monocoque ...............................................................................................................14
Semimonocoque ........................................................................................................15

1.4

ATA-100 System of Identification......................................................................................... .16

1.5

Aircraft Nationality Identification.............................................................................................21

1.6

Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations......................................................................... .24

1.7

Standard Taxi Signals...........................................................................................................27

1.8

Cylinder Color Code Identifiers ............................................................................................ 28

Section 2: Physical and Chemical .......................................................................29

Periodic Table of Elements ................................................................................................. 30

2 .1

Temperature Conversion ......................................................................................................... ..31

2.2

ICAO Standard Atmosphere ..................................................................................................... ...37

Absolute Temperature .................................................................................................. 36

2.3

Distribution of Electrons in the

2.4

Density of Various Solids and Liquids ............................................................................. ..41

Chemical Elements .........................................................................................................38

Density of Various Gases ........................................................................................ ..41

2.5
2.6

Hydraulic Relationships.......................................................................................................... ..42

Quantity of Liquid in a Drum ................................................................................................. ..44

Estimating Quantity of Liquid in a Standard 55-Gallon Drum ..........................................................44

Section 3: Mathematics

45

3.1

Measurement Systems
The International System of Units (SI)
The Metric System
U.S. - Metric Conversion
Length
Weight
Volume

47
47
48
48
48
48
49

3.2

Mathematical Constants

50

3.3

Mathematical Symbols

51

3.4

Squares, Square Roots, Cubes, Cube Roots of Numbers

52

3.5

Diameter, Circumference and Area of a Circle

55

3.6

Geometric Formulas
Triangle
Square
Rectangle
Parallelogram
Trapezoid
Regular Pentagon
Regular Hexagon
Regular Octagon
Circle
Ellipse
Sphere
Cube
Rectangular Solid
Cone
Cylinder

58
58
58
58
58
58
59
59
59
59
59
60
60
60
60
60

3.7

Trigonometric Functions

61

3.8

Powers of Ten

65

3.9

Number Systems
68
Binary Equivalent of Decimal
68
Octal Equivalent of Decimal
68
Binary Equivalent of Octal
68
Hexadecimal Number System
68
Binary Coded Decimal Equivalent of Decimal
69
The Gray Code
69
American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) ... 69
Special Control Functions Used in ASCII:
71

vi

Section 4: Aircraft Drawings

73

4.1

Types of Aircraft Drawings

Sketches
Detail Drawings
Assembly Drawings
Installation Drawings
Sectional Drawings
Cutaway Drawing
Exploded-View Drawing
Schematic Diagram
Block Diagram
Repair Drawings
Wiring Diagrams
Pictorial Diagrams
Orthographic Projections

75
75
75
75
75
75
75
75
76
76
76
76
76
76

4.2

Meaning of Lines

77

4.3

Material Symbols

78

4.4

Location Identification
Fuselage Stations
Water Lines
Butt Lines
Wing and Horizontal Stabilizer Stations

79
79
79
79
79

Section 5: Aircraft Electrical Systems

81

5.1

Electrical Symbols

83

5.2

Alternating Current Terms and Values

91

5.3

Ohm's Law Relationships

92

5.4

Electrical Formulas
Formulas Involving Resistance
Formulas Involving Capacitance
Formulas Involving Inductance
Formulas Involving Both Capacitance and Inductance
Resonant Frequency
Total Reactance
Impedance

94
94
95
97
100
100
100
100

5.5

Electrical System Installation

Selection of Wire Size
Notes on Wire Installation
Switch Derating Factors
Wire and Circuit Protectors
MS Electrical Connectors
Resistor Color Code
Aircraft Storage Batteries
Lead-Acid Batteries
Nickel-Cadmium Batteries

101
101
106
108
109
110
114
116
116
117

Section 6: Aircraft Materials

119

6.1

Composition of Wrought Aluminum Alloys

121

6.2

Four-Digit Designation System for Wrought Aluminum Alloys

122

6.3

Mechanical Properties of Aluminum Alloys

123

6.4

Temper Designations for Aluminum Alloys

Heat-Treatable Alloys

124
124

6.5

Temperatures for Heat Treatment of Aluminum Alloys

125

6.6

Bearing Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum Alloy Sheet

126

6.7

Shear Strength of Aluminum Alloy Rivets

127
Single-Shear Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum-Alloy Rivets ... 127
Double-Shear Strength (in pounds) of Aluminum-Alloy Rivets .. 127

6.8

SAE Classification of Steel

128

6.9

Strength of Steel Related to its Hardness

129

6.10

Color of Steel for Various Temperatures

130

6.11

Color of Oxides on Steel at Various Tempering Temperatures

131

Non-Heat-Treatable Alloys

124

Section 7: Tools for Aircraft Maintenance

133

7.1

135
135
135
135
136
136
136
136
136
136

viii

Measuring and Layout Tools

Steel Rule
Hook Rule
Combination Set
Vernier Calipers
Dividers
Outside Calipers
Inside Calipers
Hermaphrodite Calipers
Scriber

How to Read the Vernier Scale

Micrometer Caliper
Dial Indicator
Feeler Gages
Small-Hole Gages
Telescoping Gages

137
138
140
140
140
140

7.2

Holding Tools
Vises
Bench Vise
Drill Press Vise
Pliers
Combination/Slip Joint Pliers
Water Pump Pliers
Vise-Grip Pliers
Needle-Nose Pliers

141
141
141
141
141
141
142
142
142

7.3

Safety Wiring Tools

Diagonal Cutting Pliers
Duckbill Pliers
Safety Wire Twisting Tool

143
143
143
143

7.4

Bending and Forming Tools

Tools for Making Straight Bends and Curves
Cornice Brake
Box Brake
Press Brake
Slip Roll Former
Forming Compound Curves in Sheet Metal
English Wheel

144
144
144
144
144
145
145
145

7.5

Cutting Tools
Shears
Throatless Shears
Squaring Shears
Scroll Shears
Hand Shears
Tin Snips
Compound Shears
Saws
Band Saw
Hacksaw
W o o d Saws
Crosscut Saw
Ripsaw
Compass, or Keyhole Saw
Backsaw

145
145
145
146
146
146
146
147
147
147
148
148
148
148
148
149

ix

Chisels
Flat Chisel
Cape Chisel
Diamond Point Chisel
Round Nose Chisel
Files

149
149
149
149
149
150

7.6

Hole Cutting Tools

Twist Drills
Twist Drill Sizes
Drill Gage
Twist Drill Sharpening
Drill Point Gage
Large Hole Cutters
Hole Saws
Fly Cutter
Countersink
Reamers
Drills for Wood and Composite Materials
Auger Bits
Forstner Bits
Flat Wood-Boring Bits
Brad-Point Drills
Spade Drill

151
151
151
154
154
155
156
156
156
156
157
157
157
158
158
158
158

7.7

Threads and Threading Tools

Unified and American Standard Thread Form
Thread-Cutting Tools
Body and Tap Drill Sizes
Taps
Screw Pitch Gage

159
159
159
160
160
161

7.8

Torque and Torque Wrenches

Click-Type Torque Wrench
Deflecting-Beam Torque Wrench
Torque Conversions
Recommended Torque Values

162
162
162
164
164

7.9

Pounding Tools
Carpenter's Claw Hammer
Ball Peen Hammer
Metalworking Hammers
Straight Peen and Cross Peen Hammers
Body, or Planishing Hammer
Mallets and Soft-Face Hammers
Sledge Hammers

166
166
166
166
166
166
167
167

7.10

Punches.................................................................................................................................167
Prick Punch.................................................................................................................. 167
Center Punch .............................................................................................................. 167
Drift, or Starting Punch................................................................................................ 167
Pin Punch ................................................................................................................... 168
Transfer Punch.............................................................................................................168
Automatic Center Punch ..............................................................................................168

7.11

Wrenches .......................................................................................................................... 169

Open End Wrench .......................................................................................................169
Adjustable Open End Wrench ................................................................................169
Ratcheting Open End Wrench................................................................................ 169
Box End Wrench.......................................................................................................... 170
Ratcheting Box Wrench ......................................................................................... 170
Combination Wrench ................................................................................................... 170
Flare Nut Wrench ........................................................................................................ 170
Socket Wrenches ........................................................................................................ 171
Socket Wrench Handles......................................................................................... 171
Hand Impact Tool .................................................................................................. 171
Typical Socket Wrenches....................................................................................... 172
Extension and Adapters......................................................................................... 172
Allen Wrenches ........................................................................................................... 172

7.12

Screwdrivers ....................................................................................................................... .173

Slot Screwdrivers ........................................................................................................ 173
Offset Screwdriver....................................................................................................... 173
Recessed-Head Screwdrivers .....................................................................................173
Screw Heads for Special Structural Screws.................................................................174

S e c t i o n 8 : A i r c r a f t H a r d w a r e ...................................................................................... ..1 7 5
8.1

Standards.............................................................................................................................177

8.2

Threaded Fasteners .............................................................................................................177

Bolts ............................................................................................................ .......................177
Hex-Head Bolts...................................................................................................... 178
Flush-Head Bolts ................................................................................................... 179
Drilled-Head Bolts.................................................................................................. 179
Twelve-Point, Washer-Head Bolts ......................................................................... 179
Internal Wrenching Bolts ....................................................................................... 179
Clevis Bolts ............................................................................................................ 180
Eye Bolts ............................................................................................................... 180
B o l t Installation......................................................................................................... 180
Bolt Fits....................................................................................................................... 181

xi

Screws
Aircraft Screw Heads
Set Screws
Self-Tapping Sheet-Metal Screws
Nuts
Nonlocking Nuts
Self-Locking Nuts
Low-temperature locking nuts
High-temperature locking nuts
Wing Nuts
Anchor Nuts
Channel Nuts
Pressed-Steel Nuts
Instrument Nuts
Rivnuts
Threaded Fastener Safetying
Locking Washers
Cotter Pins
Safety Wire and Safety Wire Twisting

181
182
183
183
184
184
185
185
186
186
186
187
187
188
188
189
189
189
190

8.3

Washers

193

8.4

Special Rivets
Blind Rivets
Friction-Lock Rivets
Mechanical-Lock Rivets
CherryMax Rivets, Olympic-Lok Rivets, Huck Rivets
High-Strength Pin Rivets
Hi-Shear Rivet
Hi-Lok Fasteners
Hi-Tigue Fasteners

195
195
196
197
198
198
198
200
201

8.5

Cowling Fasteners

202

8.6

Thread Repair Hardware

Helicoil Insert
Acres Sleeves

203
203
204

Section 9: Metal Aircraft Fabrication

205

9.1

Sheet Metal Layout and Forming

Definitions
Layout Procedure
Example
Forming

207
207
208
208
210

9.2

Minimum Bend Radii for 90 Bends in Aluminum Alloys

211

xii

S e c t i o n 1 2 : N o n d e s t r u c t i v e I n s p e c t i o n .................................................2 4 5
12.1

Visual Inspection............................................................................................................... ..247

NDI...............................................................................................................................247
Visual Inspection ..........................................................................................................247
Surface Visual Inspection ...................................................................................... ..247
Internal Visual Inspection ........................................................................................247

12.2

Tap Test............................................................................................................................ ..248

12.3

Penetrant Inspection ........................................................................................................ ...249

12.4

Magnetic Particle Inspection ............................................................................................ ...250

12.5

Eddy Current Inspection ......................................................................................................251

How it works ............................................................................................................... .25 1
What it is suited for........................................................................................................252
Method ...................................................................................................................... ...252
Detection of corrosion...................................................................................................252

12.6

Ultrasonic Inspection............................................................................................................253

12.7

Radiography. ..................................................................................................................... ..253

X-Rays..........................................................................................................................253
Gamma Rays ...............................................................................................................254
InspectionSteps .........................................................................................................254
Considerations .............................................................................................................255
Safety .......................................................................................................................... 255

S e c t i o n 1 3 : A i r c r a f t C o n t r o l S y s t e m s ....................................................2 5 7
13.1

Types of Control Systems....................................................................................................259

Torque Tubes.............................................................................................................. 259
Push-Pull Rods.......................................................................................................... ..259

13.2

Control Cables .....................................................................................................................260

13.3

Control Cable Terminals ......................................................................................................261

13.4

Turnbuckles ..................................................................................................................... ....262

Turnbuckle Safetying ................................................................................................. ..262

13.5

Control Cable Tension ..................................................................................................... ....264

Clip-Locking Turnbuckles .......................................................................................... ..263

S e c t i o n 1 4 : A i r c r a f t F l u i d L i n e s ................................................................2 6 7
14.1

Rigid Fluid Lines............................................................................................................... ..269

Materials recommended for rigid fluid lines.................................................................269

14.2

Flexible Fluid Lines .............................................................................................................271

Types of Flexible Fluid Lines .......................................................................................271

xiv

14.3

Installation of Flexible Hose

273

14.4

Fluid Line Identification

274

Section 15: Oxygen System Servicing

277

15.1

279
279

Oxygen System Servicing

Filling Pressure for 1,850 PSI Oxygen Cylinders

Section 16: Aircraft Weight and Balance

281

16.1

Locating the Center of Gravity

283

16.2

Datum Forward of the A i r p l a n e N o s e Wheel Landing Gear

284

16.3

Datum Aft of the Main Wheels Nose Wheel Landing Gear

285

16.4

Datum Forward of the Main W h e e l s T a i l Wheel Landing Gear... 286

16.5

Datum Aft of the Main Wheels T a i l Wheel Landing Gear

16.6

Location of CG with Respect to the Mean Aerodynamic Chord .... 288

287

Section 17: Composites

291

17.1

Resin S y s t e m s T y p i c a l Properties

293

17.2

Resin Mix Ratios

294

17.3

Fiber/Resin Ratio Formulas

295

17.4

Reinforcing Fibers

296

17.5

Textile and Fiber Terminology

297

17.6

Yarn Part Numbering Systems

298

17.7

Fabric Weave Styles

299

17.8

Common Weave Style Numbers and Features

301

17.9

Ply Orientation Conventions

302

1 7 . 1 0 Damage R e m o v a l S c a r f i n g and Stepping

302

1 7 . 1 1 Core Materials

304

1 7 . 1 2 Bleeder Schedules

305

Appendices

307

1: Hydraulic Fittings

309

2: Engines

313

3: Aircraft Lead Acid Battery Theory

315

4: Aircraft Tires

335

Index

347

xvi