Building Ion PDF

BUILDING
REABILITATION
Editors:
M. Budescu
N. Taranu
I. Lungu
Matei-Teiu Botez Academic Society Publishing House
BUILDING
REABILITATION
Editors:
M. Budescu
N. Taranu
I. Lungu
Matei-Teiu Botez Academic Society Publishing House
Editors:
Mihai Budescu, Nicolae Taranu, Irina Lungu
Authors:
Chapter 1: Mihai Budescu, Ioan Ciongradi
Chapter 2: Ioan Ciongradi, Mihai Budescu
Chapter 4: Nicolae Taranu
Chapter 5: Irina Lungu, Mihai Budescu
Chapter 8: Mihai Budescu, Anca-Mihaela Ciupala
Chapter 9: Dorina Isopescu, Gabriel Oprisan
Chapter 10: Dorina Isopescu
Chapter 11: Ioan Gavrilas
Translater: Roxana Craciun
Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naionale a Romniei

Building rehabilitation / ed.: M. Budescu, N. ranu. - Iai :
Editura Societii Academice "Matei-Teiu Botez", 2003
Bibliogr.
ISBN 973-7962-26-5
I. Budescu, Mihai (ed.)
II. ranu, Nicolae (ed.)
624
1
GENERALITIES
1.1 CONSTRUCTION REHABILITATION
Construction rehabilitation means building up some of its functions, which were
damaged during its service, and making them active again.
Construction rehabilitation is a permanent concern for civil engineers due to the
inevitable decay caused by material aging, which occurs in time and the effects of
some accidental events. Thus, earthquakes, winds, slumps, fires, floods,
explosions, chemical agents and fabrication processes are only some of the factors
causing damages. Another cause occurring even more frequently is related to the
dynamics of possible functional alterations.
Very frequently, construction decay is caused by material aging in its various
forms: its life time exceedence, fatigue, creep, yield, multiple load cycles or the
action of the chemical agents.
In many cases construction damages occur as a result of the degradation of the
foundation soil caused by the rise of groundwater level, the lack of safety measures
when dealing with collapsible or active soils, the infiltration of rain and industrial
water or water infiltration caused by the defective maintenance of the water supply
and sewing systems.
Design errors should not be neglected either. There are cases when the designing
engineer allows improper structural systems created by architects or when the
beneficiary changes the destination of the building at a later stage engendering
loading underestimation.
Sometimes the designing process may be accompanied by conceptual errors
referring to structure, modelling and calculus.
Construction errors are also very frequent when using low quality materials or not
complying with the project or technologies.
page 1
Building Rehabilitation
Shortcomings may occur when structural elements are stressed before reaching the
appropriate strength of materials or when works are performed in cold weather
conditions and without taking proper measures.
Indirectly, buildings may also be damaged by a series of external factors such as:
traffic expansion or the appearance of new buildings in the area and the
degradation of infrastructure systems like pipe drains and water supply systems.
In industry, various technological procedures accompanied by the release of
aggressive chemical substances (e.g. chlorine, sulfur etc.) may hasten the
degradation process particularly in the case of excessive humidity and the absence
of any ventilation systems. Sometimes, technological alterations may lead to a rise
in chemical aggressiveness or vibration level. There have also been detected many
cases when degradation was caused by damaged equipment and industrial
installations.
However one of the most important causes of construction degradation is
earthquake and the most vulnerable to its action are the old buildings where
specific protection measures have not been taken. Sometimes the great number of
earthquakes during the lifetime of a building lead to the loss of the bearing capacity
due to material fatigue. Moreover, extraordinary unexpected seismic actions, which
are unusual for the area, can cause the mass destruction of the building.
One should not ignore the concept of ductile design, the basis of all modern design
codes in seismic conditions, which admits the occurrence of structure degradation
in certain areas in case of powerful earthquakes.
Function alteration or changing the destination of the building, even when there
are no damages, imposes structural rehabilitation so that the building service is
preserved within safety limits.
Structural rehabilitation may be achieved by:
i.
changing the destination of the building;
ii.
replacing or partially altering the building;
iii.
local strengthening of structural elements;
iv.
altering the structural system.
All these ways of rehabilitation are strictly related to the condition of the building
and the technical and economic possibilities of intervention.
Changing the destination of the building is possible only when the structure is not
seriously affected and safety requirements can be complied with by passing to a
lower category of importance.
page 2
Generalities
Replacing or partially altering the building may mean permanently eliminating

(one) part of the building (for example reducing the number of floors, keeping the
facade only etc) or thoroughly recovering some parts of the damaged building if
structure allows it.
Consolidation or local strengthening (iii) may have good results when only some
structural elements are damaged and require ordinary intervention measures. In this
way, the structural system is not altered and the intervention is restricted only to
build up the bearing capacity of the damaged elements.
Structural system alteration may have several meanings, such as:
introducing some adjacent construction elements which, together with the
existing structure, make another structural system;
changing the structural concept through other devices that can result in
increasing the safety during service, like base isolation for structures, in
seismic areas.
Structural rehabilitation consists of several stages:
i.
the building appraisement, consisting of:
- an evaluation of the condition of the structural system;
- the diagnosis of the condition of the materials used;
- the experimental diagnosis;
- the analytic diagnoses of the structure
ii.
establishing and designing the intervention measures
iii.
performing the structure rehabilitation (consolidation)
iv.
the experimental diagnosis of the rehabilitated system
Some of these stages are not always compulsory, depending on the condition of the
building, its importance, and interventions established by the experts.
1.2. CASE STUDIES

Although technical literature describes various damaged buildings and
interventions adopted for their rehabilitation, the authors will only discuss some
representative examples they have encountered in their work. Concrete subjection
to high temperature for a long period of time leads to its hastened aging and,
consequently, the material becomes much more brittle. A very relevant example of
this kind is the building of a board factory where furnaces were placed too close to
the central column and no measures of thermal insulation were taken (fig.1.1).
When a strong earthquake stroke, the columns broke down [1.1].
page 3
Currently, there are various types of industrial equipment producing vibrations and
the lack of local isolation measures may weaken the joints between structural
elements.
An example that can be given for this case is the building of a chemical plant
producing plastics [1.2]. For technological reasons, the recipient for the plastic
barbotage was placed on the first floor of the building, fig.1.2.a. About 15 years
later, the joints between the prefabricated elements weakened and, consequently,
the vibration level in the structure increased, endangering the building. By using a
scaffolding to support the recipient, whose foundation was separate from that of the
structure, vibrations were completely eliminated. Adding some flexible bearings
increased the equipment efficiency (fig.1.2.b).
FURNACES
DAMAGED COLUMNS
Fig.1.1 Concrete aging as a result of its subjection to high

temperatures for a long period of time
BARBOTAGE
RECIPIENT
SCAFFOLDING
a.
FLEXIBLE
BEARINGS
b.
Fig.1.2 Aging as a result of the subjection to vibrations over a long period of time
a.
initial state
b.
solution adopted to eliminate the source of vibrations
page 4
Generalities
Serious building damages are encountered in industry, particularly in chemical

industry. Gas release in a humid environment generates acids which, in contact
with unprotected building elements, lead to their fast decay.
However, from the construction viewpoint, the most serious effect is that produced
by the loss or leachate of chemical substances in the sewing systems, which spread
finally into the ground-water tables and begin attacking the structure from its
foundation, fig.1.3 [1.3].
FOUNDATION AND COLUMN

DAMAGED BY THE AGGRESSIVE
GROUNDWATER
Fig.1.3 The effects of groundwater aggressiveness on the platform

of a pulp and paper plant
In some thermoelectric power stations built up in Romania between the 1950s and
1960s, the boiler room was designed in such a manner so that the structure of the
boilers supports the hall roof as well. When the first series of bins were made, the
magnitude of the seismic action was ignored so that, after the 1977 earthquake, a
bracing lost its stability in one of the stations, fig.1.4. As a result, the truss was
pulled by the boiler and the most important effect was the failure of the joints with
the intermediate section of the building. [1.4].
Most of the times, design errors become obvious when extraordinary actions occur.
Though the hall in fig.1.5, whose destination was a paper factory, was well built, an
earthquake weakened it. Since the contiguous components supporting the roof had
very different degrees of stiffness, the joints of the caissons weakened and the
movement made them collapse. Part of the caissons fell over the rolling girder;
others broke and fell over the paper machine. The building has been rehabilitated
by replacing the concrete roof by a braced metallic structure, which tied the
independent columns to the rest of the structure.
Cases when water leakage from the water-supply network systems decreases the
bearing capacity of the foundation soil are very frequent. A relevant example is a
block of flats in Iasi, fig.1.6.a, which leant because of the water leakage from one
page 5
of the ducts. The building has a frame structure on a network of foundation beams
and the soil failed and damaged the basement floor fig.1.6.b.
BOILER
INTERMEDIATE SECTION - MACHINERY HALL
JOINT FAILURE
STABILITY FAILURE
FOR A BRACING
Fig.1.4 The bracing failure into a boiler in the thermoelectric station
CAISSONS FROM THE ROOF

FLEXIBLE COLUMN
PAPER MACHINE
RIGID BUILDING
CAISSONS FALLEN ON
THE ROLLING GIRDER
CAISSONS FALLEN ON
THE PAPER MACHINE
DEFORMED AND FISSURED COLUMNS
Fig. 1.5 The collapse of the roof caissons of a hall after an earthquake because of the
different stiffness of contiguous structures
The building has been rehabilitated by eliminating the water leakage, thus
preventing a future soil failure, and digging in the opposite area. After bringing the
page 6
Generalities
structure back to its vertical position, a mat foundation including the existing beam
network was built, fig.1.6.c.
SEWERAGE
a.
SOIL FAILURE
b.
EXCAVATION SOIL
IMPROVEMENT
c.
Fig.1.6 Failure of foundation soil due to sewage water infiltration

a. initial stage, b. soil failure, c. rehabilitated structure
The most serious execution errors, which are also difficult to assess, belong to the
hidden works in the infrastructures.
Among the many examples of this kind encountered it is worth mentioning a
particular building in Iasi, which has a reinforced concrete frame structure and
spread foundations. During the construction of the building, the beneficiary
requested the partial introduction of an additional floor. In order to do this, the
designer increased the footing dimensions of some of the foundations. When
digging to consolidate the foundations, they noticed that these had been made
through mechanized digging exclusively and the contact area between the soil and
the foundation block had not been manually rectified, fig.1.7.
Footings above frost depth may cause foundation up-lifting and local failure of the
building. A frost that lasted several days at below -20C destroyed many shop
windows situated on groundfloor of some buildings whose supports had some
footings that did not comply with the required frost depth, fig.1.8. The same
happens to the access staircase foundations at the entrance of some blocks of flats.
page 7
MECHANIZED DIGGING WITHOUT

BEING MANUALLY RECTIFIED
CONSOLIDATION SOLUTION
Fig.1.7 Foundations made exclusively by mechanized digging

FAILURE OF THE SHOP WINDOWS
FOUNDATION LIFTING
DUE TO THE SOIL FROST
CONTINUOUS FOOTING
ABOVE THE FROST DEPTH
Fig.1.8
Foundations built over the frost level
Many times, on urban slopes, establishments require retaining walls. Tree roots
produce further earth pressure leading, in most cases, to local wall failure when
made of stone or brick (rigid structures), fig.1.9 (Sheffield, England).
RETAINING WALL FAILURE

DUE TO THE EARTH PRESSURE
INCREASE INDUCED BY TREE ROOTS
Fig.1.9 Retaininging stone wall failure caused by the additional pressure

page 8
Generalities
Of all the causes of building damages, earthquake remains the most important.
Buildings made of stone and brick conceived without any protection measures
against earthquakes are the most vulnerable to seismic actions, particularly if they
have experienced several earthquakes during their lifetime. Many of them are
historical monuments; therefore their rehabilitation requires a special approach so
that the measures would not diminish their artistic (patrimony) value [1.7].
An example of this kind is Lecompte du Nouys intervention on several Romanian
churches, such as Trei Ierarhi, Sf. Nicolae Domnesc and Curtea de Arges. Their
rehabilitation performed by construction dismantling and re-building may be
regarded as a remarkable procedure; however the alteration of the architecture is
being regarded as negative.
Most frequently, the damage caused by earthquakes on the walls of tall and
massive old buildings consists of embrassure disconnection due to the absence of
clutching elements to ensure that the vertical elements work together, fig.1.10 [1.8].
EMBRASSURE DISCONNECTION
Fig.1.10 Typical damages of old structures made of brick masonry caused by earthquakes
The analysis of the buildings performed on modern designing and technological

norms and affected by the earthquake on 4th March 1977 has revealed a variety of
causes that generated the decay and even the collapse of some construction [1.5].
Excluding the fact that the applied seismic design load had not covered the total
spectrum of dynamic characteristics, other causes for structural damages have been
detected, most of them ranging within design errors. Among them, the lack of
measures to obtain proper ductility for structural elements in particular needs to be
mentioned.
Although there are much more example, we focus on the block of flats made of
reinforced concrete in Valea Calugareasca, fig.1.11. The groundfloor was
conceived for commercial purposes and the other three floors for flats. Lacking
stirrups, the groundfloor columns failed and the building shrank by one floor.
page 9
STRUCTURAL FAILURE
FLEXIBLE GROUNDFLOOR WITH

COLUMNS LACKING STIRRUPS
FAILURE OF COLUMNS
Fig.1.11 Failure of insufficiently reinforced columns of a block of flats

during an earthquake
1.3 NEW DEVICES USED IN STRUCTURAL REHABILITATION

The measures regarding the structural rehabilitation currently in use are aimed at
increasing the bearing capacity of the elements or the energy dissipating capacity
for the structures situated in seismic areas.
One way of decreasing the amount of energy induced by the earthquake into the
structure is to increase the energy dissipating capacity, which is different from that
based on structural inelastic displacements by means of special equipment, fig.1.12.
This device is most often used to rehabilitate the buildings in seismic areas.
Another way of decreasing the amount of energy induced in the structure consists
of adjusting its stiffness. This can be done by dettaching some joints/ties, fig.1.13,
or by making some elements effective, fig.1.14, both actions leading to a change in
the stiffness of structure.
Fig.1.12 The behaviour of a structure with supplementary damping [1.11]

page 10
Generalities
Element dettaching is accompanied by energy consumption and the result is a

structure whose dynamic characteristics, behaviour under seismic actions and,
consequently, energy absorbing capacity are different from those of the initial
structure.
Fig.1.13 A structure with dettaching elements [11]
Fig.1.14 A structure with temporary stiffening elements [1.11]
By making some elements effective, structural stiffness continuously changes with

respect to a certain displacement imposed to the connecting elements. Thus, the
amount of induced energy is different, depending on the stiffness and the dynamic
characteristics of the structure. Moreover, as a result of the dettaching capacity of
some joints/ties, energy dissipation occurs as an additional measure of increasing
safety during service.
The dissipation of the energy induced by the earthquake into the structure may also
be obtained by means of some inert systems. An example of inert systems is shown
in fig.1.15, where the role of the additional mass is to restrict value of
displacements. It is used for tall buildings in order to decrease lateral
displacements.
The mass is placed on a rolling system which allows its free movement and which
is at the same time connected to the structure by means of springs. If the structure
page 11
moves, the mass stays still, generating structure restoring forces with the help of
the springs.
Fig.1.15 An additional mass tied to the structure [1.11]
The mass is placed on a rolling system which allows its free movement and which
is at the same time connected to the structure by means of springs. If the structure
moves, the mass stays still, generating structure restoring forces with the help of
the springs.
Over the last decades, in order to increase the safety of some monuments situated
in seismic areas, seismic base isolation has been recommended [1.9], [1.10]. This
device creates a sliding joint type, fig.1.16, which enables the infrastructure to
move freely and the superstructure to remain still during the seismic action [1.11].
Nowadays, the most frequently used bearings are the elastomeric supports, but
there are also other systems, such as rolling systems, ellipsoid systems, pendulum
systems etc.
a.
b.
Fig.1.16 The principle of seismic base isolation

a. the effects of seismic action onto a building
b. a seismically isolated building behaviour
page 12
Generalities
Lately, construction rehabilitation has been enriched with solutions using

composite materials based on polymeric matrices [1.12], which have a series of
advantages compared to the traditional systems. The most important advantages
are:
consolidation is not accompanied by the increase of the building mass;
resistance to corrosion;
high mechanical resistance with respect to the unit weight;
simple application, without any difficulty, in limited spaces;
consolidation works take a shorter time.
1.4 HYGROTHERMAL REHABILITATION

The separation of the working space of a building from the environment to create a
microclimate in accordance with the specific needs of activities or processes
developing within this space is achieved by means of closing elements, which
define the envelope of the building [1.15].
The hygrothermal rehabilitation of a building consists of a series of technical
measures applied to the envelopes elements that have some inadequacies affecting
the quality of the internal microclimate. These measures are aimed at increasing the
performances related to their behaviour to heat transfer in accordance with comfort
and energy saving requirements.
The main part of hygrothermal rehabilitation is the thermal rehabilitation whose
purpose is to provide the closing elements with improved insulation qualities to
heat transfer.
Besides the thermal improvement, the rehabilitation also consists of a hygro part,
which refers to improving the behaviour of some construction elements with
respect to vapour diffusion and ventilation, the last one concerning the optimum air
exchange between outside and inside in order to ensure the sanitation and comfort
requests.
The hygrothermal rehabilitation of the closing elements, forming the building
envelope may become necessary after a period of service for the following reasons
[1. 15]:
decrease in effectiveness of the thermal insulations due to the repeated

action of some climatic factors during service;
page 13
increase in exigency towards the inner hygrothermal microclimate

according to the users high standards of hygiene and comfort;
increase in exigency regarding the insulation level of the existing envelope

after a period of service, for economic and energetic reasons
request for a complete modernization determined by aesthetic, functional

and resistance reasons etc. In this case, hygrothermal rehabilitation is
simply a contextual yet absolutely necessary component of the total
rehabilitation.
The basic principle of all the measures adopted to thermally rehabilitate the closing
elements of a building [1.15] consists of increasing their resistance to thermal
transfer by applying effective and long-lasting supplementary thermally insulating
layers.
For specific zones such as window pannels and unsealed joints of elements,
hygrothermal rehabilitation may be performed based on other principles as well,
but the main purpose remains the decrease in heat loss and consequently, in heat
preservation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.1.
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
Orlovschi, N., Leonte, C., Ionescu, C., Budescu, M., Efectul aciunii
seismice a variaiilor de temperatur asupra comportrii unei structuri n
cadre de beton armat, Simpozionul naional - Interaciunea construciilor
cu mediul nconjurtor V, 13, Iai octombrie 1978.
Ciongradi, I., Ionescu, C., Budescu, M., Reabilitarea sistemului de
susinere a convertorului de material plastic de pe platforma Svineti,
Proiect I.P.Iai, 1980.
Mihul, A., Orlovschi, N., Budescu, M., Studiul rspunsului seismic al
unor structuri speciale din industria hrtiei si celulozei, Combinatul din
Brila, Studiu I.P.Iai, 1977.
* * *, CET Borzeti, Expertiz tehnic, ISPE, 2000.
* * *, Cutremurul de pmnt din Romania de la 4 martie 1977, Editura
Academiei, 1982.
Ciongradi, I., Budescu, M., Biserica Evanghelic Iai, Proiect 1992.
Budescu, M., Ciongradi, I., Ciupal, A.M., Proposal of Intervention in
order to Rehabilitate The Resistance Structure Of "Trei Ierarhi"
Monastery" Buletinul I.P.Iai, Tomul XL (XLIV), Fasc. 1-4, 1994.
Negoita, Al., Aur, V., Budescu, M., Comportarea materialelor i a
construciilor din zidarie portant din municipiul Iai, Buletinul I.P.Iai,
Tomul XXIV (XXVIII), Fasc.3-4, 1979.
page 14
Generalities
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
Skinner, R.I, Robinson, W.H., McVerry, G.H., An Introduction to

Seismic Isolation, John Wiley & Sons, England, 1993
Kelly, J.M., Earthquake-resistant Design with Rubber, 2nded., SprinerVerlag, London, 1997.
Budescu, M., Contributii privind izolarea seismic a structurilor , teza de
doctorat , Institutul Politehnic Gheorghe Asachi Iasi , 1984.
Tranu, N., Isopescu, D. Structures Made of Composite Materials,
Editura Vesper, Iai, 1996.
Neale, K.W, Labossiere, P., Advanced Composite Materials in Bridges
and Structures, 1st International Conference, Ed. Quebec, 1992.
Crasto, A.S., Kim, R.Y., Mistretta, J.P., Rehabilitation of concrete bridge
beams with externally-bonded composite plates. Part II - International
SAMPE Symposium and Exhibition (Proceedings), Vol.41, 1996.
Gavrila, I., Fizica construciilor. Reabilitarea higrotermic a cldirilor.
Editura Cermi, Iai, 1999.
page 15
2
STRUCTURAL ASSESSMENT
OF BUILDINGS
2.1 THE NEED FOR ASSESSMENT
There are many situations when the owner, the beneficiary and the administrator of
a building has the obligation or the desire to know about the condition of the
building and assess its ability to resist various actions, especially when degradation
affects the structure due to aging or when certain functional or technological
changes require some intervention.
Assessing the condition of a building requires a skillful expert. This expert is a
very well trained specialist, officially certified and authorised by public authority.
Every assessment ends with an assessment report including the experts findings,
conclusions and suggestions regarding the condition of the building and the most
appropriate intervention decisions that the beneficiary needs to make.
Here are the most frequent situations when assessment is necessary:
i. a change in the destination of the building or of one of its parts/rooms caused by:
- alterations in the layout (arranging or making basements, over-storeys and
attics, making or eliminating holes within the structural, stiffening, closing
or dividing walls)
- replacing/improving the technological process in industrial buildings,
changing and/or replacing the equipment, altering the net load, changing
the characteristics of the equipment, increasing the vibration level,
changing the installation routes etc.
ii. the occurrence of flaws in the structure due to designing errors, defective
execution, the inappropriate service conditions or maintenance of the building as
well as the degradation and differential settlements of the foundation soil,
corrosion, condense, frost and thaw phenomena, high differences in temperature,
changes in the strength and deformation capacity of the building materials over
time, the effects of material fatigue and aging, vibrations and traffic;
page 16
Structural assessment of buildings
iii. the users or the public authority inspectors observance of the cases when some
structural elements are undersized or service loads are actually bigger than the
considered design loads;
iv. the occurrence of certain circumstances when other buildings or technologies
close to the building of interest may cause various damages (for example, a
damaged water tower may fall over the neighbouring buildings);
v. the occurrence of important damages due to natural calamities (strong winds,
floods, landslides, mine or cave subsidency, earthquakes) or other causes (fires,
explosions).
The buildings located in seismic areas are a special case. In many countries, the
norms for this type of buildings require that the owners should assess the condition
of the structures that had been exposed to strong earthquakes. These assessments
establish the building safety level according to the current design codes and
possible intervention measures to increase safety in case of earthquakes.
The seismic rehabilitation of historical buildings must be preceded by an elaborate
documentary work, by the careful evaluation of the buildings and their site as well
as by a thorough planning of the whole rehabilitation process. All these provide
information about the history of the buildings, their former inhabitants, the utilities
they used over time and which is the most important, they provide clues about what
needs to be repaired and what needs to be kept as before, during the rehabilitation
operation and about the elements allowing intervention.
Research consists of studying the history of the building and its evolution in time
by means of written documents and photos. Then, the building is examined by
taking photos of its interior, its exterior and its construction site. The initial
materials, their characteristics, the finishing etc. as well as their alteration in time
are also evaluated. These alterations may sometimes be part of the historical
character of the building so they must be carefully analysed before starting the
rehabilitation operation to decide what elements need repairing and what elements
need replacing.
The rehabilitation process starts with the design activity that selects the materials,
the characteristics and the finishings which need to be protected during the
operation and decides upon the logic order of activities required by the
rehabilitation operation.
Protecting a historical construction is partly based on preserving the building
materials and the characteristics, maintaining the historical nature and architectural
page 17
features of the entire building. These features differ from one building to another
and it refers to materials (stone, brick, wood, plaster, brass), external characteristics
(porches, decorative elements, windows, roofs), interiors (entrance halls, rooms).
To sum up, the rehabilitation operation begins only after all important materials
and characteristics that need to be preserved during the process have been
identified.
2.2 METHODS OF ASSESSING THE CONDITION OF EXISTING
BUILDINGS
2.2.1 Evaluation stages
The technical literature presents various methods used to evaluate the condition of
the existing buildings [2.1], [2.2], [2.3], [2.4], [2.5] grounded on the following
principles:
a. the assessment of a building condition is done in successive and more and
more complex stages to get a thorough and accurate picture of the existing and
working conditions of the structural and non-structural elements of the
building;
b. the evaluation operation is generally developed on several levels:
gathering the initial information from the analysis of the existing
documents referring to the building and the technical prescriptions in use at
the time of its execution, surveys;
the preliminary qualitative evaluation through direct observation (in situ),
visual analyses and inspections on the construction site;
the additional qualitative evaluation, more detailed and achieved by
sampling, uncoverings etc.;
the preliminary approximate analytical evaluation;
the detailed analytical evaluation;
c. the above-mentioned evaluation procedures may be approached independently
one by one or successively, in groups of two or more, depending on the
information and data obtained in the previous stages.
As shown in fig.2.1, the operation begins with gathering the initial data, followed
by the preliminary qualitative evaluation and, if necessary, by the preliminary
analytic evaluation.
Initial evaluation provides the first series of data related to the condition of the
building and of the structure, on which the expert and/or the beneficiary can decide
page 18
to continue with the further detailed evaluation. It should be mentioned that when
making this decision, they also need to consider the preservation degree foreseen
for the building being assessed.
Evaluation results are written down in an assessment report including the
recommendations and suggestions related to the intervention (for example, repairs,
strengthening, changing the destination of the building, partial or thorough
demolition) and, if requested, studies on the intervention cost.
Successive application of more and more refined evaluation procedures (named
filters) defines a new investigation method for the structural assessment of
buildings - the screening method.
2.2.2 Initial Data
Initial data come from the information gathered by analysing the existing
documents, which are either in the beneficiarys, the designers or the archives
possession: the initial project, the book of the building, the geotechnical report, the
data base concerning the monitoring of the building behaviour, information
provided by the administration concerning the building service and behaviour
during the previous earthquakes or other accidental actions.
Initial data will include:
the time of design and errection of the building, the names of the designers
and contractors;
the destination and the site of the building;
the description of the building spans, bays, number of storeys, structure

and the geometric dimensions of the main structural elements, dividing and
closing systems, building services, finishings;
the extent to which the project complies with the current prescription
regarding the errection of the building;
the description of the technology used, the duration and technological

stages;
the building service period, any interventions, repairs or alterations made

on it, any disturbances, variations or special events during its service, etc.;
the characteristics of the materials used in the project (for concrete grade
or class, aggregate grading, cement type and quality, preparation method
etc., for reinforcement steel grade and type, steel characteristics from the
page 19
ASSESSMENT PLANNING
INITIAL DATA
from the existing documents
PRELIMINARY QUALITATIVE
EVALUATION
Inspections on the construction site
Material characteristic evaluations
CONCLUSIONS, SUGGESTIONS
YES
SATISFACTORY
RESULTS ?
NO
PRELIMINARY ANALYTICAL
EVALUATION
Simplified design diagrams
Current analysis methods
YES
SATISFACTORY
RESULTS ?
NO
QUALITATIVE AND ANALYTICAL
DETAILED EVALUATION
Checking the documents
Additional site inspections
Analyses and testings of materials
Detailed design diagrams
Complex analysis methods
SATISFACTORY
RESULTS ?
NO
YES
INTERVENTION PROPOSALS
AND OPTIONS
COST ANALYSES
ASSESSMENT REPORT
Fig.2.1 The diagram of the general evaluation of the condition of an existing building
page 20
suppliers bulletins and site tests etc., for the steel in metallic products steel
grade and type, suppliers, laboratory test bulletins, welds etc.)
a brief presentation of the geotechnical report.
2.2.3 Qualitative evaluation

The qualitative evaluation of a building is the first assessment stage and consists of
an inspection on the construction site in order to identify its structure, the
damage/degradation/flaws and their causes.
This evaluation regards aspects like preserving the destination and the importance
of the building, the seismic area where it is situated and the actions to which it is
subjected. According to these aspects, several types of buildings can be identified.
There are buildings which definitely have the required safety level, others which
certainly have a seismic risk and need to be examined through analytic methods.
The qualitative evaluation is based on the architectural and structural design of the
building. When these are not available, the assessment is based on the surveys
made during the evaluation process. There are circumstances when structural
elements are not visible as they are hidden by finishings and insulating systems.
Therefore, the operation requires uncoverings to identify the structural elements.
Generally, the elements that need identification are the following:
vertical elements: plain concrete, reinforced concrete or masonry

columns and walls;
main and secondary elements of the floors: plates, belts, beams and
girders
roofing elements;
prefabs and their joining;
bracing systems;
stairs and staircases;
closing and dividing elements;
the foundation system;
finishing and coating elements if they are fixed to the structural

elements.
All these elements need to be identified and surveyed at the same time. The survey
is a brief one if technical documentation is available and a more detailed one if the
page 21
project is not available. Whatever the case, the building survey enables the
identification of the position, the real dimensions of the structural and nonstructural elements and of any alterations the building has been subjected to during
its service with or without the documentation provided by authorised institutions.
The following data need to be pointed out:
the building axes;
all element axes, both horizontal and vertical;
spans, bays, heights;
shapes and sizes of element cross-sections;
reinforcement of the reinforced concrete elements;
the position and the structure of the joints between the reinforced
concrete prefabs;
position and structure of metallic joints.
The qualitative evaluation is also directed towards the elements technical condition
and safety degree and the identification of any flaws, degradation and damage
occurred during the service life of the building. Special attention will be paid to the
following noticeable aspects:
building movements due to landslides;
cracks made by differentiated settlements ;
foundation soil investigation through drillings, soundings or ditches,

ground-water level and the degree of aggressiveness;
water infiltration at foundation level due to several causes (disturbed

water supplies and pipes, the access of running waters, the lack of
pavements, the lack of trenches and rain-pipes etc).;
water leakage, wall dampness and condensation and their effects on the
building elements;
the condition of any kind of insulation;
the effects of temperature differences, solar radiation and freeze-thaw

cycles;
the effects of the aggressive environment on concrete and metal

(corrosion level superficial, deep or evolving, anticorrosive
protection level, the degradation of the concrete and the reinforcements
page 22
obtained through corrosion, the condition of the reinforcement

covering etc);
the effects of some biological factors (for example, the existence of

certain fungi in wood structures);
element, section or joint eccentricities ;
the lack of certain structural elements;
the effects of earthquake, accidents, damage, explosions, fire (element

or spar failure, spar buckling, element and structure movements or
high distortions, large cracks in the reinforced concrete or masonry
elements, metallic joint degradation due to the lack of certain joint
pieces, of incomplete or defective welds or screws or because of
insufficient screwing etc.);
the building deformation level, which can be found out through

topometric measurements as well;
the concrete condition as a result of the degradation caused by wear

and accidental blows and the reinforcement protection.
The degradations revealed by the analysis of the building technical condition are
mentioned in the damage and disturbance surveys. These surveys will contain:
the flaws/damages, their nature and position in the building elements;
the lack of certain elements, spars, pieces, screws, rivets, welds etc.;
information about the flaw dimensions: distortions and deflections

(structure translations, remanent deflections), crack opening and the
distance between cracks (for walls and concrete, reinforced concrete
and masonry);
the concrete degree of degradation, the depth of the concrete layer

affected by chemical and physical agents;
the reinforcement degree of degradation, the thickness of the corrosion

layer;
the thickness of the corrosion layer for steel elements;
parts of wood elements affected by moisture, fungi etc.;
the building areas affected by moisture and wall dampness;
the degradation level of the waterproof, thermal and acoustical

insulation;
page 23
the degradation level of any kind of installation.
When the physical, chemical and mechanical characteristics of materials need to be

checked as well and the elements show no decay, the characteristic values
established in the project can be used.
Otherwise, experiments will be made to identify these properties, the reinforcement
position within the reinforced concrete elements, the quality of the welds etc.
Technical literature (see chapter 3) minutely presents the methodology of nondestructive and destructive tests on site and in laboratory, describing the necessary
equipment, and how to assess the results. Many of the technical reports are also
devoted to determine the corrosive effect of the aggressive environment on
building elements and to predict corrosions likely evolution in time.
Other types of experiments are used to determine the dynamic characteristics of the
buildings. It is well known that material structure changes over time and possible
decays may weaken or even eliminate/destroy the joints between structural
elements. Changes may also occur in the interaction process between structure and
non-structural elements and between foundation and foundation soil. All these
aspects show that in many cases it is necessary to establish the altered/modified
vibration periods and damping characteristics through experiments.
If the data contained in the initial geotechnical report are not relevant or simply not
enough, or if changes have been detected within the foundation soil structure due to
the underground water rise, migration or flow, to the rain water leakage or to losses
from ducts, then the geotechnical report must be remade. Thus, a new set of ground
investigations based on drilling (sounding) or excavating procedures according to
the nature of the soil and the importance of the building are performed and the
results are concluded into the new geotechnical report.
In accordance with the various qualitative assessment methodologies, analysis
results may be digested, wrote down and consigned in various document or form
types including a synthesis of the findings on the structural and non-structural
elements. Finally, the building may be given a grade representing its bearing
capacity or its degree of risk/safety.
2.2.4 Analytic Evaluation
Along with decision data, preliminary qualitative evaluation also provides the
initial data for a further more minute analysis based on calculus.
page 24
Preliminary analytic evaluation more accurate than the qualitative evaluation is

based on determining the ratio between available generalised force and necessary
generalised force that should be supported by the building, the element or the
section according to the current design codes at the moment when the assessment is
made. These ratios have various names, such as coefficient of seismic capacity or
degree of safety under seismic actions or other actions. A generalised force in the
expression of the above mentioned ratio may be the total (base) shear force for the
entire structure, effort and/or stress for individual elements and typical crosssections. These ratios may also be expressed by absolute deflections or relative
displacements.
The lowest values accepted for structural safety assessment reports are mentioned
in the codes and they generally depend on the building category/class of
importance. The closer to (or bigger than) 1 the values mentioned in the reports, the
better the load bearing capacity of the building.
Structure modelling according to loading cases, mass and stiffness is achieved
through simplified representations for each principal axis of the building or stick
models or storey stiffness models (roughly taking into account the influence of the
torsion effect).
The structural analysis will be carried out for gravity loads, climatic and seismic
loads using the actual magnitudes/loads, geometry and cross-sections found in the
structural survey and considering all existing damages and flaws.
The bearing capacity of the characteristic cross-sections is determined using the
dimensions given by the surveys and the present values of strength found out
experimentally. If no damages are found, the initial design values are accepted.
The detailed analytic assessment is based on using 3D-calculus models with
concentrated masses or finite elements, which can reveal and accordingly consider
both the structural damaged areas and the non-linear behaviour of the building
materials. The seismic action may be given by an accelerogram or a set of
accelerograms recorded from real earthquakes or acceleration spectra specially
drawn for the given site. In this case, the effective ductility of the structural
elements independently and of the entire structure can also be determined.
2.3. ASSESSMENT REPORT

A building assessment ends with a document called assessment report, which
generally consists of the following chapters:
page 25
A. The object/reason/purpose of the assessment, indicating the technical and/or

functional elements which generated it. If the beneficiarys request includes
modernization, transformations, functional and technological changes etc., the
expert will further analyse the technical and economic effects of these interventions
on the building in general and on the structure in particular. In this case, the
assessment will be the starting point of supplementary studies and other documents
required by the investor and/or the public authority to be granted the funding and to
obtain the various certificates, authorisations and references to perform the
rehabilitation process.
B. Data and information used in the assessment. The assessment should include
all the written documents and drawings that were available to the expert, e.g.:
the building project or, if it is not available, the architectural and structural
surveys made during the assessment;
the geotechnical report and how it was conceived: if it was based on drilling,
sounding or excavating and/or data gathered from elaborate geotechnical
reports made previously for the neighbouring buildings;
documents or information on the building history, on its behaviour during

previous earthquakes or other accidental actions, from detailed assessments
made for these events, data concerning any changes, repairs or strengthening
operations carried out;
surveys on the building damages walls, ceilings, foundations, stairs, columns,

girders, lintels etc.;
notes on the results of uncoverings made inside and outside the building in
order to determine the structural element characteristics and hidden flaws if
any;
analysis bulletins and reports including the experimental determination and test
results and conclusions;
the changes on the initial layouts and facades requested by the beneficiary (if
any), together with the corresponding documents and references;
the calculus notes containing the results of the structural analysis after making
the changes requested by the beneficiary and after performing the
intervention/strengthening measures, if necessary.
C. The description of the building from several perspectives:
site location, topography, geological and geotechnical soil conditions, its

relation with the neighbouring buildings;
page 26
the general assemble of the building (structural elements and corresponding

joints, openings, spans, heights), its layout and its architectural design;
the history of the building, if it is an architectural, historical, religious or tourist

monument;
any alterations, repairs and consolidations to which the building has been
subjected;
the design of the roof structure, coverings, insulations, pavements, floors,

finishings, carpentry etc
the structure elevation, foundations and footing level, stairs, floors etc.
The main architectural and structural drawings are enclosed. If they are not
available, they are replaced by architectural and structural surveys, photos, data
obtained through soundings and uncoverings.
D. Building degradation and damage. Description explains their likely causes.
The surveys and photos of fissures, cracks, degradations and damages detected are
enclosed.
E. The results of the qualitative evaluation of the building are obtained by
examining the following elements:
the architectural and structural project and/or the building surveys and the
survey of the important details where the project details are not available or the
construction did not comply with the project or the building was subjected to
changes for which no technical documentation is available;
the degradation, damage, fissures and crack survey;
the inspection or the visual examination/analysis on the construction site;
information provided by the beneficiary or other people regarding the building

behaviour during previous earthquakes and other accidental events.
F. Calculus notes contain the results of the analytic examination of the structure
under several circumstances: the present situation, with the changes requested by
the beneficiary, with strengthening, with both alterations and strengthening etc.
Depending on the complexity of the calculus, the following methods can be used:
simplified calculus methods (equivalent static method, current method)
postelastic static calculus methods (biographical method, mechanism

combining methods);
page 27
non - linear dynamic calculus methods (time-history).
To determine the load bearing capacity of the structure and structural elements
individualy, the values of the physical and mechanical material characteristics are
required (ultimate strength, yield strength, elastic modulus etc.). If these values
cannot be found within the project papers or they are not reliable, non-destructive
or destructive tests are required. The notes provide the data used in the calculus and
enclose the test bulletins. There are also cases when the dynamic structural
characteristics need to be determined as well, to assess its stiffness, so that test
results could be compared to (identified with) the analytic results and the calculus
models could be validated. Strengthening efficiency can also be evaluated by
checking the increase in structure stiffness with the increase in its own vibration
frequency.
This chapter also includes calculus schemes, initial data, the loading cases, the
software packages used, their results, interpretation and comments. The minute
calculus notes and the result listings are usually enclosed in one copy only.
G. Conclusions and suggestions regarding the intervention. The final
conclusions of the qualitative and analytic evaluation are followed by suggestions
and intervention measures required to obtain the intended safety level. The
intervention measures may be classified as:
i. structure, shape and functional preserving measures, such as:
-
internal and external

repairs/mendings;
structural
and
non-structural
element
structural element or overall structural consolidation in order to

increase the endurance, stiffness and ductility of the structural
assembly as much as possible through interventions on the existing
elements or by replacing or adding new structural element.
ii. shape and destination altering measures, such as:

-
decreasing the live load in the building/on the floors;
changing the building function in order to lower its category (class,

group) of importance;
partial demolition by reducing the number of storeys or removing parts

of the building, the internal or external structural or non-structural
element with a high risk of failing;
iii. overall demolition measures, mainly applied to old, physically and morally
worn out buildings, whose retrofit is not financially worthy.
page 28
The expert presents the suggested measures and the solutions which are to be
detailed in the intervention project (repairs, strengthening, or demolition). These
measures are tested by calculus to confirm the increase in safety under exterior
actions at least to the level required by official norms. If requested, the expert will
also present the estimated economic documentation of the costs involved in the
intervention measures.
In the end, the decision concerning the intervention, positioning and work stages
belongs to the beneficiary, the owner or the investor who, together with the public
authority representatives (if any) may consider other intervention criteria as well
(urban character, land value, the importance of the building as a historical
monument etc.) or may decide to perform other works as well, such as:
functional and technological change or modernization;
finishing, closing, division and floor improvements;
insulation and installation changes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
2.1 Pielert, J., Baumert, C. and Green, M., ASCE Standards on Structural
Condition Assessment and Rehabilitation of Buildings, Standards for
Preservation and Rehabilitation, ASTM STP 1258, S.J. Kelley, Ed.,
American Society for Testing and Materials, 1996, pp. 126-136.
2.2 Culver, Ch., Lew, H.S., Hart, G.C. and Pinkham, C., Natural Hazards
Evaluation of Existing Buildings, National Bureau of Standards, U.S.A.,
1975.
2.3 Okada, T. and Bresler, B., Strength and Ductility Evaluation of Existing
Low-Risc Reinforced Concrete Buildings-Screening Method, EERC 76-1,
University of California, Berkeley, 1976.
2.4 Hirosawa, M., Evaluation Methods of Earthquake Resistant Properties of
Existing Reinforced Concrete Buildings, Japanese National Committee
for Earthquake Engineering, Tokyo, 1976.
2.5 Asociaia Inginerilor Constructori din Romnia, AICR, Metoda de
determinare a capacitii portane la solicitri gravitaionale i seismice a
construciilor din fondul existent, cu propuneri de msuri pentru reducerea
gradului de risc", Bucureti, 1990.
page 29
3
SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT USED IN
STRUCTURE DIAGNOSIS
3.1 GENERAL ASPECTS
The diagnosis made to determine the construction condition involves experimental
determinations on three levels:
i.
the building material;
ii.
the structural member;
iii.
the entire building.
To determine the characteristics of the materials used in construction two methods

are used:
non-destructive methods,
destructive methods.
Experimental tests to establish the behaviour of the structural elements and the
building are carried out in situ. Usually, the condition of the building is
determined by dynamic measurements, which enable the identification of the
structural model and the pre-and post-rehabilitation diagnosis.
3.2 ULTRASONIC DIAGNOSIS

Ultrasonic velocity in a completely compact solid (void free) is about 5000 m/s
compared to the sound velocity in the air is about 340 m/s [3.1], [3.2], [3.3], fig.3.1.
Within the solid, ultrasonic velocity depends on compactness. The greater the
compactness, the closer the velocity will get to the value corresponding to a
completely compact object and the greater the percentage of voids the lower the
velocity.
page 30
V=5000 m/s
V=340 m/s
a.
b.
Fig.3.1. Ultrasonic propagation: a. in a solid; b. in the air
Within a concrete element, the longitudinal ultrasonic velocity (VL) is determined

by measuring the necessary time (t) for the ultrasonic impulse to be propagated on
the length (d), i.e.:
VL = d / t
(3.1)
Since concrete strength is directly related to its compactness, ultrasonic velocity

through concrete can provide a measure of its strength RC and the following
relation can be formulated:
RC = f(VL)
(3.2)
Thus, by means of ultrasounds certain internal flaws of the concrete like

segregation areas, holes etc. can be detected and located.
The equipment used to determine the ultrasonic velocity through concrete can be of
various types all of them following the same principle. Thus, an ultrasonic signal
having the frequency of 40-100 KHz is released by an impulse generator (G). The
signal is sent to an emitter (E), which is connected to the element being tested, as
presented in a simplified drawing - fig.3.2. The emitter is connected to the concrete
piece through a thin layer of soft material, usually plasticine [3.2]. The ultrasonic
signal is received by a receiver (R), then it is amplified (A) and visualised
analogically or digitally (C).
d
G
Fig.3.2 The ultrasonic measuring principle
To determine the concrete strength of the structural elements, three measuring

methods can be used (fig.3.3, 3.4 and 3.5). Fig.3.6 shows the photo of an ultrasonic
measuring instrument.
page 31
System and equipments used in structure diagnosis
d1
d1
d2
d3
d2
Fig.3.3 Measurings on opposite sides
Fig.3.4 Measurings in the corner zone
R1
R2
R3
Fig.3.5 Measurings on the same face
Fig.3.6 Ultrasonic measuring instrument, SDS COMPANY [3.4]
Ultrasonic wave velocity is influenced by various factors, such as [3.5]:
the size of the building element;
the reinforcement of the construction element;

page 32
the temperature of the environment.
To determine the concrete strength of a building where the propagation velocity is

measured in conditions that are different from those of a standard element, certain
corrections need to be made.
The propagation velocity determined with the relation (3.1) is valid only if:
d > 1,6
where:
is the minimum dimension of the element being tested,

perpendicular to the direction of the ultrasonic propagation
is the vibration wavelength, determined with the relation

(3.4)
= VL/f
where:
(3.3)
VL
f
(3.4)
is the propagation velocity

is the oscillation frequency
For the regular frequency of 40 KHz, within a compact concrete with the
propagation velocity VL= 4000 m/s, the result is: =10 cm and d >1.6 x 10=16 cm.
Therefore, if the minimum transverse dimension of the element (the direction on
which determination is made) is more than 16 cm, no correction is necessary.
If < d < 1,6 , the disturbances which occur distort the measured velocity so that
it appears to be lower than real velocity by almost 6-7% which can lead to an
underestimated strength by 30-40%.
If the ratio LS/Le<0,4, where LS is the cub side on which calibrating determinations
were carried out (usually LS=20 cm) and Le is the length of the ultrasonic signal,
the velocity being measured is lower than the standard velocity and correction
needs to be made. The graph chart in fig.3.7 presents the correction values for
various LS/Le ratios.
When determining the propagation velocity for the reinforced concrete structures,
reinforcements must not be ignored.
If the impulse encounters the reinforcement on its way, the propagation velocity
will be higher than the propagation velocity for the plain concrete as ultrasonic
velocity through steel is 5.6 km/s and that through concrete is 3.5-4.5 km/s.
page 33

0.5
Ls/Le
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.12
0.18
0.24
0.32
0.4
velocity
[km/s]
variatia vitezei
[Km/s]
Fig.3.7. The variation of the ultrasonic velocity functions depending on the ratio LS/Le
If reinforcements cannot be avoided, then the measured velocity needs to be

corrected.
The temperature of the environment of the element being tested also influences the
ultrasonic impulse velocity. Thus, temperatures between 40C and 60C on the
concrete element may cause micro-cracking. Although they do not decrease the
strength, they lower the impulse velocity. For temperatures below 0C the free
water in the concrete pores freezes and the propagation velocity in ice is higher
than in water. Therefore, the velocity measured is higher than that of the concrete
at the standard temperature (+20C 5C).
All these corrections are explained in details in the catalogues of measuring
equipment and in the present norms.
3.3 DETERMINING THE CONCRETE STRENGTH BY MECHANICAL

METHODS
3.3.1 The imprint method
The imprint method consists of hitting the concrete surface with a ball-shaped steel
head and measuring the diameter of the mark obtained. The concrete strength is
determined through an empirical relation between the diameter of the mark and this
mechanical characteristic.
The standardising curves that establish a relation between the two variables depend
on the type of the equipment. The diameter of the mark is measured with a
micrometric magnifying lens.
page 34
3.3.2 The back pressure method

The back pressure method is based on the energy returned at the impact between
two objects. Thus, the concrete strength can be determined by measuring the back
pressure of a mobile system at its impact with a concrete surface. The instrument
used for this test is called sclerometer.
The concrete strength determination by means of the sclerometer is based on the
relation between the concrete hardness expressed by the back pressure index and its
compressive strength, using a concrete structure as standard element.
The results of the sclerometer test are relevant for a concrete layer whose thickness
is about 3 cm from the tested surface.
The areas where strength is determined with the sclerometer must comply with the
following conditions:
i.
the surface being tested should not coincide with the concrete pouring
direction or with its opposite side;
ii.
the concrete in the testing region should be as representative as

possible for the whole element from the point of view of homogeneity
and quality;
iii.
it should cover both the highly stressed areas and the potential lowstrength regions;
iv.
the concrete surface must be perfectly flat and smooth;
v.
the surface of the tested area for which the concrete quality is
determined must be of maximum 400 cm2 and minimum 100 cm2;
vi.
number of tested points required for the determination of the concrete

strength in a single area must correspond to at least 5 correct
measurements;
vii.
the tested points will be chosen so that the regions with gravel size of
more than 7 mm and superficial visible holes would be avoided;
viii.
the sclerometer must be kept perfectly perpendicular on the tested

area;
ix.
the surface must not be humid.
To determine the strength of other types of concrete whose characteristics are

different from those of the standard concrete, correction coefficients will be used
[3.2], [3.3].
page 35
Fig.3.8 presents the photo of a sclerometer used to measure the concrete strength
by means of the back pressure method.
Fig.3.8 The sclerometer Schmidt, SDS COMPANY [3.4]
3.4 DETERMINING THE CONCRETE STRENGTH BY DESTRUCTIVE

TESTS ON CORES/SAMPLES
3.4.1 Core extraction
The place of core extraction from construction elements is established according to
the damage level of the construction and its importance, taking care that:
they should not cross reinforcements the choice of these regions is

based on the project or the non-destructive measurements with the
pachometer;
the extraction areas should be representative for the examined element;
core extraction from locally deteriorated areas can be used only to point
out the characteristics of the examined flaw the cores obtained by this
method cannot be used to determine the concrete strength of the examined
element.
The core diameter d depends on the following factors:

the maximum aggregate size for which the relation below is valid
dcore (34) dmax of the aggreg.
page 36
(3.5)
the distance between the reinforcements in the extraction areas (a)

measured in centimetres for which the following condition should be
observed:
dcore a-dreinforcement- 2dcore cutter-3
(3.6)
When extracting the core, the strength reserve and the stress level of the crosssection estimated by the expert need to be considered. The hole made by drilling
will be filled with a suitable material to restore the load bearing capacity of the
weakened section.
The height of the core that is going to be tested destructively must comply with the
following limits:
dcore hcore 2dcore
(3.7)
If the core ending surfaces are not the result of the plane and perpendicular cutting
on generators, after the extraction, certain remedial works will need to be made by:
polishing the end surface under water jet (for unevenness of maximum 23mm)
cutting the end surface with a diamond tool under water jet
filling the end surface with a putty (epoxy mortar, cement mortar, sulphur
paste with or without smoke black) which complies with the following
requirements:
-
maximum thickness of 1 cm,
good adherence to concrete,
high hardening rate,
its modulus of elasticity is close to or higher than that of the concrete

in the core,
its strength to compression is close to a higher than that of the core

concrete.
3.4.2 The number of cores and their preserving conditions

The number of cores extracted for a structure will be chosen according to the
following criteria:
i.
the number of the examined elements;
ii.
the stress pattern of the element;

page 37
iii.
local variations in the quality of concrete from one element to

another and within the same element;
iv.
the extent of the damage.
When determining the necessary number of cores sufficient information needs to

be gathered and taken into account.
It is recommended that the test specimens should be kept in water at 20-25C from
their cutting to the test and at least 24 hours before the test, the cores must be taken
out and kept in air at the same temperature for their conditioning.
3.4.3 Compression core testing
The strength recorded by the testing machine is not the real concrete compressive
strength due to the following factors:
the degradation of a concrete layer adjacent to the lateral surface of the

core due to core drilling;
the degradation o a concrete layer adjacent to the end surfaces of the

core;
the existence of an interlayer between the machine loading plates and

the core whose properties are different from those of the concrete;
the ratio between the core height and its diameter.
The strength under compression determined on cores must be corrected according

to the following factors:
the diameter of the core,
the slenderness of the core measured through the ratio:

hcore/dcore
the damaged ending layers,
the device used to flatten the surfaces.
The results of the tests are written down in an analysis bulletin which should
include:
i.
information about the structure;
ii.
the indication of the element the core has been extracted from;
page 38
iii.
the direction of the core extraction versus the direction of the

concrete pouring;
iv.
the core dimensions;
v.
the end surface preparation;
vi.
the nature of the evening layer used (if necessary);
vii.
the number, diameter and orientation of the bars found in the core;
viii.
the compressive strength measured directly on the core
ix.
the values of the strength correction coefficients;
x.
the strength values obtained for each test bar after correction;
xi.
the class and the age of the tested concrete;
xii.
the statistic processing of the test results;
xiii.
the test conclusions.
3.4.4 Non-destructive testing of cores

The non-destructive testing of cores is necessary to determine the elastic constants
of the concrete and to verify or determine the relation between the parameters used
in the non-destructive tests.
The determination of the concrete elastic constants on cores is done by longitudinal
resonance methods and ultrasonic methods.
The dimensions of the test specimens used to determine the elasto-dynamic
constants by the non-destructive resonance method must comply with the following
condition (3.8):
hcore 4 dcore
(3.8)
and under unusual circumstances the following relation is accepted:

hcore 3dcore
(3.9)
When the longitudinal resonance methods are used, the test specimen is fixed at its
middle length and the emitter and the receiver are disposed one at each end.
The dynamic modulus of elasticity of concrete Ed is determined with the relation:
page 39
E d = 4 L2 f L2
where
L
fL
g
CL
a
CL
g
(3.10)
is the length of the test specimen;

the longitudinal fundamental frequency;
the apparent specific density;
the gravity acceleration;

the Bancroft correction factor which is about 1 for:
dcore< 0,4 hcore
3.5 VIBRATION MEASURING METHODS.

EQUIPMENT AND OPERATIONS
The vibration of a system (be it a building or a machine foundation) may be
generated by internal disturbance, like in the case of working machine parts
directly supported by the system or external disturbance, when vibrations are
transmitted to the system through the supporting medium, which is the foundation
soil in the case of buildings or the construction element for the equipment.
When analysing vibrations experimentally, the correlation between action and
response through the studied system must be made.
This correlation consists of determining the quantitative and qualitative values
which define both action and reaction [3.6]
In practice, this problem is approached differently, according to the purpose of the
vibration study:
i.
determining the system response to an existing

experimentally and comparing it to a standard response;
action
ii.
determining the parameters of the action experimentally and

comparing them to the system response by analytic calculus;
iii.
determining the system characteristics by introducing some known

actions and analysing its response, this operation being specific to
a laboratory.
To make a quantitative and qualitative characterisation of an oscillating process,

various instruments, machines and equipment are required to generate vibration,
capture the system response and process the information obtained.
page 40
3.5.1 Acting systems and procedures

Dynamic actions may be classified according to its application manner into [3.7]:
i.
direct actions, if they come from outside and have a fixed point as
a supporting point, fig.3.9.a;
ii.
indirect or inertial actions, if they are generated by the inertia

forces of some moving mass placed on the oscillating system,
fig.3.9.b;
F(t)
F(t)
a.
b.
Fig.3.9 Acting ways in dynamic regime
a. direct action; b. indirect or inertial action
The dynamic actions can be generated by several methods, by means of

mechanical, pneumatic or electromagnetic systems etc.
The devices used to generate dynamic actions are called vibration generators or
vibrators.
3.5.1.a Mechanical generators
Mechanical generators may be with direct action, using connecting rod, fig.3.10, or
with indirect action, using a translating inertial mass, fig.3.11.a or a rotational
inertial mass, fig.3.11.b.
To produce rotational movements, mechanical generators use direct current
electrical engines with variable rotative speed or hydraulic engines.
In case of direct acting achieved by means of a spring with the stiffness k, the
dynamic force F(t) is determined with the relation:
page 41
Fig.3.10. Mechanical generators with direct acting
F(t) = k X(t)
(3.11)
X(t) = X sin ( t)
(3.12)
where:
where:
X is the displacement amplitude (of the rod-crank driving system),
is the circular frequency of the rotational movement ,
t - the time.
For the indirect action, the dynamic force F(t) is the result of a mass movement and
it depends on its acceleration:
&& (t)
F(t) = m X
(3.13)
&& (t) = 2 X(t)

X
(3.14)
and acceleration is:
In the case of mechanical generators with inert mass rotating in opposite directions,
the displacement amplitude X(t) depends on the position of the mass with respect to
the rotation centre , and the dynamic force is the sum of the forces produced by
the two moving masses, fig.3.11.b.
The operation of this system is based on the position of the mass during the
rotational movement. Thus, the minimum force is reached when the position of the
mass is on the axis linking the rotation centres and the highest value when it is
perpendicular to the axis.
page 42
F(t)= 2 m r 2 cos ( t)
F(t)=m X(t)
m r 2
m r cos ( t)
m r 2 sin ( t)
X(t)
a.
b.
Fig.3.11 Indirect-driving mechanical generators

a. with translating inertial mass; b. with rotating inertial mass
Fig.3.12 shows the photograph of an inertial generator used to test bridges.
Fig.3.12 Inertial generator
3.5.1.b Hydraulic generators

Hydraulic generators are direct-driving and have the advantage of generating
random movements of the seismic type as well.
Usually, such a generator or actuator is made of a hydraulic cylinder, a servo valve
with compensating nitrogen bottles and an oil pump. The servo valve is electrically
page 43
driven by a computer using a specialised software. Fig.3.13 presents the

photograph of a driving system of this type.
Fig.3.13 Hydraulic generator produced by MTS [3.8]
3.5.1.c Electrodynamic generators

Electrodynamic generators are built on the principle of the diffuser. Fig.3.14 shows
a generator of this type, which consists of an electromagnet supplied with direct
current and a coil supplied by a power oscillator. Because of the magnetic field, the
movement of the coil can be sinusoidal or random, depending on the oscillator
supply.
ELASTIC MEMBRANE
SYSTEM AT WORK
OSCILLATOR
METALLIC CORE
ELECTROGENERATOR
SUPPLY
COILS
Fig.3.14 Vibration electrodynamic generator
Electrodynamic generator can be direct-driving or indirect-driving. Fig.3.15

presents an electrodynamic generator.
page 44
Fig.3.15 An electrodynamic generator produced by MB Dynamics [3.9]
3.5.2. Transducers and sensing devices used for measuring vibration

During the vibratory movement of a system, any of its points can be characterised
by the displacement, speed and acceleration on various directions or by the
material state of stress and deformation in that point. As a matter of fact, the
vibration of the material point is characterised by a variation in the mechanical
energy, which can be acquired by means of sensing devices and converted by
transducers in a measurable form of energy (usually electrical energy).
The transducers are devices housing the conversion of mechanical energy into
another form of energy. The conversion can be made directly from mechanical
energy to electric energy, such transducers being termed energetic transducers or
generators.
The variation of the mechanical energy can be represented by the variation of
electrical energy, resulting in parameter transducers.
3.5.2.a Resistive electric transducers
The resistive electric transducers are parameter transducers that convert the
variation of the mechanical energy into the variation of the electric resistance,
which ultimately corresponds to a variation of current.
page 45
The resistive tensometer transducers consist of a grid made of a special alloy

representing the resistance which is fixed on a holder, fig.3.16 and fig.3.17.
HOLDER
GRID
CONDUCTOR
Fig.3.16 A resistive electric transducer
Fig.3.17 A tri-directional resistive electric

transducer produced by Vishay [3.10]
Taking into account that the wire resistance is:

R =
where:
l
S
l
S
(3.15)
- resistivity,
- length,
- surface.
The variation of the grid resistance of a transducer can be determined with the
following formula:
R = R k
(3.16)
where: is the strain,
k - the transducer parameter (the material, the grid shape and
dimensions, the holder etc are considered, indicated by the
producer.
To measure the resistance variation R of a resistive electric transducer caused by
the specific strain , the Wheatstone bridge is used. The transducer resistances are
generally ranged from 120 to 1000, and the measured specific strains can reach
2-3%.
3.5.2.b Inductive Transducers
The inductive transducers are included in the class of parameter transducers and are
based on converting a movement variation into the inductance (L) variation of a
circuit changed with direct current.
page 46
For dynamic measurements, the variable cored inductive transducers are used very
frequently, fig.3.18.
For this transducer, the coil inductance is directly proportional to the penetration
depth (l) of the core. Therefore, the transducer can also be used for measurements
where great displacements are detected.
COIL
METALLIC CORE
Fig.3.18. A variable cored inductive transducer
3.5.3. Sensing devices

When measuring vibrations, sensing devices are very often used to measure forces,
movements displacements and accelerations.
3.5.3.a Force detectors
This type of detectors have an elastic body with a perfectly linear behaviour whose
strain caused by an external action is converted into an easily measurable
analogous variable by means of a transducer. For static actions, detectors which
have mechanical displacement transducers may be used, as shown in fig.3.19.
DISPLACEMENT
TRANSDUCER
ELASTIC
ELEMENT
Fig.3.19 Force detector and mechanical transducer

page 47
With dynamic actions, most force detectors use resistive, inductive or piezoelectric
transducers to measure the strain of the elastic body.
3.5.3.b Vibration detectors
The detectors used to measure vibrations can be divided into two categories:
i.
fixed point detectors, which measure vibration in relation to a

motionless point (inductive transducers);
ii.
seismic detectors, operating on the principle of an oscillating

system whose degree of dynamic freedom consists of a mass, a
spring, a damping device and a transducer, fig.3.20.
x r (t) = Xr sin( t - )
SPRING
DISPLACEMENT
TRANSDUCER
K
DAMPING
DEVICE
xo (t) = Xo sin( t)
Fig.3.20 Seismic detector
The movement of the mass of the seismic equipment is given by the relation:
x r (t) = X r sin( t )
(3.19)
where: is the phase difference between the movement of the holder and that of
the mass of the seismic instrument.
Since the seismic detectors are systems with a degree of dynamic freedom, the
following formula can be written:
xr
=
x0
p2
2 2
2 2
(1 p ) + 4 p
p=
page 48
tg =
2p
1- p 2
(3.18)
where:
xr
x0
is the amplitude of the seismic mass,

- the oscillation amplitude,
- own pulsation of the seismic detector,
- the critical damping fraction,
- the oscillation pulsation.
If relation (3.18) between xr/xo and p is represented (fig.3.21) in a chart for

=0.0050.5 the following ranges can be defined:
I.
(acceleration detector) where xr p2 x0, i.e. the value measured by

the detector is directly proportional to acceleration, =0;
II.
(frequency meter): the detectors response is high in amplitude and

corresponds to the frequency meter range, =/2;
III.
(speed or displacement detector), where xr x0, therefore the

displacement of the holder is the same with that of the mass but out of
phase by . This means that the seismic mass will remain fixed, whereas
the holder moves, = .
Fig.3.21 The seismic detectors ranges
Fig.3.22 shows the photograph of SS-1 Ranger seismometer [3.12], which

measures the speeds of a vibratory movement. The sensitivity of the device reaches
350 V/m/s, enabling the measurement or the recording of vibration of very low
intensity.
The most frequently used vibration detectors are accelerometers due to their small
weight, their robustness and their region of operation at high frequency.
page 49
Fig.3.22 The SS-1 Ranger seismometer [3.12]
Most modern accelerometers work on the principle of seismic detectors with

piezoelectric transducers [3.13], [3.18], fig.3.23. Fig.3.24 presents an
accelerometer produced by MVI Technologies Group, U.S.A. [3.14].
Fig.3.23 An accelerometer with a piezoelectric transducer
Fig.3.24 A DA 120 accelerometer [3.14]
When choosing an accelerometer, the most important parameter is the operation

range so that acceleration would not depend on frequency.
page 50
Fig.3.25 presents a calibration curve for accelerations where the area with constant
acceleration representing this operation range can be noticed.
Fig.3.25 The frequency response curve of an accelerometer
3.5.4
Equipment used in information acquisition and processing
3.5.4.a Analogue to digital conversion

The detector output parameter is the variation of an electric variable whose
amplitude is directly proportional to the variable being measured. For the signal to
be measured and processed, it is amplified and then taken by an analogue to digital
converter (data acquisition system) and recorded by the computer, fig.3.26. The
digital signal can be processed and displayed by means of a specialised
programme.
4
1
1
2
3
4
5
Detector
Amplifier
Data collecting system analogue to digital converter
Computer
The programme used to collect and process signals
Fig.3.26 The data collecting and processing system

page 51
The analogue to digital converters (A/D) are used to convert an analogical signal
into a sequence of digitally expressed numbers representing the instant value of the
signal at pre-set discrete time intervals.
Under certain conditions the original analogical signal may be obtained through the
reversible process using a digital to analogue (D/A) converter. The time increments
are usually homogeneous, representing a constant sampling frequency, for instance,
fig.3.27.
The quality of the digital signal depends on the following factors [3.6]:
The accuracy of the sampling intervals;
The number of bytes used in the digital representation;
The linearity of the analogical amplifiers for in the signal processing;
The quality of the signal filtration before the A/D conversion.
AMPLITUDE
a.
AMPLITUDE
TIME
b.
t
TIME
Fig.3.27 Analogical signal (a.), digital signal (b.)
For the multi-channel conversion, a single A/D converter is usually used to multiprocess several channels. In this case, even though the time lag among channels
can be compensated, it is better to use synchronised maintenance and sampling
circuits to sample all the channels simultaneously for the sequentially made A/D
conversion as well.
page 52
3.5.4.b Dynamic measurement processing

Once the signal has been obtained in digital form using proper filters, many
operations can be made later. For instance, the acceleration signals may be
integrated to obtain the speed value using the direct digital integration in the time
region or, if desired, the operations in the frequency region. Each integration
corresponds to a division of the Fourier spectrum by j.
The FFT analysers use the FFT algorithm (the first Fourier transformation) to
calculate the spectra of the data blocks, The FFT algorithm is an effective way of
calculating the discrete Fourier transformation (DFT). The latter is a finite, discrete
approximation of the Fourier integral transformation.
The DFT equations require real signals recorded in time. The FFT algorithms
equally apply real or complex series over time [3.6].
Fig.3.28.a presents a signal recorded by a Ranger seismometer at the foundation of
a turbo generator and the resulted Fourier spectrum, fig.3.28.b [3.15].
0.01
a.
0.00
-0.01
-0.02
0
0.0010
6.33
12.40
0.0008
0.0006
b.
0.0004
0.0002
0.0000
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Fig.3.28 The signal recorded by a seismometer (a.) and its Fourier analysis (spectrum) (b.)
For a time-analysis it is important to choose a band width or a frequency domain,

which implies the use of a filter. It is difficult to establish precise rules to choose
the band width of the filter, but the following aspects can be considered:
page 53
for the stationary signals, particularly for the periodical signals

containing discrete and equally spaced frequency components, it is
recommended to use a constant band width on a linear frequency scale
the band width must be between one fifth and one third of the
minimum domain of frequency analysed;
for the stationary or transitory random signals, the spectrum shape will
be determined by means of resonances so that the band width would be
chosen of about one third of the band width of the narrowest resonance
peak.
Usually, to represent a spectrum, a linear range of frequency is used together with a

constant band width.
In order to cover a large region of frequency, a frequency logarithmic scale may be
selected.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
3.1 Winden N.G.B., Ultrasonic measurement for setting control of concrete.
Testing during concrete construction, Ed. by H.W. Reinhardt, Chapman
& Hall, London, 1990.
3.2 Stefanescu-Goang A., Determinarea rezistenei betonului prin metode
nedistructive, Exemple de calcul, Editura tehnic, Bucureti, 1981.
3.3 Tertea I., One T.,Verificarea calitii construciilor de beton armat i
beton precomprimat, Editura Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1979.
3.4 SDS COMPANY (www.concretendt.com/).
3.5 Pohl E., Prfung von Beton mit Ultraschall, Deutsche Bauinformation,
Berlin, 1966.
3.6 Cyril, M. H., Shoc and Vibration Handbook, Fourth Edition, McGRAWHILL, 1995.
3.7 Ciongradi I., Ionescu C., Budescu M., Strat L., Atanasiu G., Stefan D.,
Severin C., Dinamica construciilor, lucrari de laborator, U.T. Gh.
Asachi Iai, 1989.
3.8 MTS (www.mts.com).
3.9 MB Dynamics innovates and delivers SOLUTIONS, Vibration and
Shock (www.mbdynamics.com/).
3.10 Measurements Group (www.measurementsgroup.com/mg.htm)
3.11 KISTLER (www.kistler.com/tech_theory.htm).
3.12 SEISMOMETRUL SS-1, Ranger Seismometer, KINEMETRICS, USA.
3.13 Patrick L. W, Dynamic Force, Pressure, & Acceleration Measurement
(www.endevco.com/pdf_pat_articles/patw_dynamicforce-2.pdf).
page 54
3.14 10dB-STEEL (www.01db.com/GB/HTM/OVERFRM.HTM).

3.15 Ciongradi, I., Budescu, M., Albu, Gh., Analiza caracteristicilor dinamice
de la CET Craiova, UT Iai, 1998.
3.18 Buzdugan, Gh., Fetcu, L. i Rade, M., Vibraii mecanice, Bucureti,
Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 1982.
page 55
4
ADVANCED POLYMERIC COMPOSITES FOR
REHABILITATION OF BUILDINGS
Advanced polymeric composites are increasingly being used in strengthening civil
engineering structures made of traditional materials. In particular these materials
are utilized in structural rehabilitation of reinforced-concrete load-bearing elements
due to their versatility, high strength-to-density and stiffness-to-density ratios and
corrosion resistance to many aggressive factors. Fibre reinforced polymeric
composites (FRPC) are easily applied on structural members made of steel, timber,
reinforced and prestressed concrete for use in structural rehabilitation works where
space constraints and time limitations are imposed.
4.1 FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMERIC COMPOSITES ROLE AND

PHASES
Composites are materials consisting of two or more chemically distinct phases
(constituents) on a macroscale, having a distinct interface separating them (fig.4.1)
a
b
c
Fig.4.1. Phases of a composite system:
a continue phase (matrix); b disperse phase (fibres as reinforcements); c - interface
In fibrous polymeric composites, fibres with high strength and high stiffness are
embedded in and bonded together by the low modulus continuous polymeric
matrix. Each of the individual phases must perform certain functional requirements
page 56
based on their mechanical properties so that a system containing them may perform
satisfactorily as a composite [4.1].
In the case of advanced FRPC the continuous fibres constitute the backbone of the
material and they determine its strength and stiffness in the direction of fibres. The
desirable functional requirements of the fibres in a composite are: they should have
a high elastic modulus for an efficient use of reinforcement; the fibres should have
a high ultimate strength; the variation of strength between individual fibres should
be low; the fibres must be stable and retain their strength during handling and
fabrication; the diameter and surface of the fibres should be uniform.
The polymeric matrix is required to fulfil the following main functions: to bind
together the fibres and protect their surfaces from damage during handling,
fabrication and service life of the composite; to disperse the fibres and separate
them; to transfer stresses to the fibres; to be chemically and thermally compatible
with fibres.
The interface region is small but it has an important role in controlling the overall
stress-strain behaviour of the composites. It exhibits a gradation of properties and it
is a dominant factor in the resistance of the composite to corrosive environments. It
also has a decisive role in the failure mechanisms and fracture toughness of the
polymeric composites.
4.2. FIBRES FOR POLYMERIC COMPOSITES

Reinforcing fibres for polymeric composites are fabricated from materials that are
stronger and stiffer in the fibrous form than as a bulk material. Their high fibre
aspect ratio (length/diameter) enables an effective transfer of load via matrix
materials [4.2].
Proper selection of type, amount and orientation fibres results in a composite with
desired mechanical characteristics such as axial strengths, elastic moduli, fatigue
strength and cost.
Fibres used in tension elements utilized for structural rehabilitation must meet
certain requirements such as: high strength, high stiffness, convenient elongation at
tensile fracture, high toughness, durability, low cost and availability in suitable
forms.
The diameter of fibres should be small enough to reduce the possibility of surface
flows and to provide a high transfer area of shear stresses between the reinforcing
fibres and the matrix.
page 57
Advanced polymeric composites for rehabilitation of buildings
The type and chemical compositions of fibres determine several properties such as:
stress-strain relationship, toughness, durability and fatigue resistance.
There are three main types of reinforcing fibres utilized in polymeric composites
for structural rehabilitation of civil engineering structures: glass fibres, carbon and
graphite fibres and aramid fibres.
Fibres are available in a variety of configurations, which may be classified in the
following main categories:
-
unidirectional, in which all the fibres lie in one direction;
bi-directional, where the fibres lie at 900 to one another;
random, when the fibres are in-plane randomly distributed.
A short description of the main types of fibres for polymeric composites used in
structural rehabilitation is given below.
4.2.1. Glass fibres
Glass fibres are the most commonly used reinforcing fibres for polymeric matrix
composites. Molten glass can be drawn into continuous filaments that are bundled
into rovings. These rovings can be fabricated into chopped fibres, continuous
strands, chopped strands mats and woven fabrics before using them as
reinforcement in composites.
During fabrication, fibre surfaces are coated to improve wetting by the matrix and
provide better adhesion between the composite constituents. Coating the glass
fibres with a coupling agent will provide a flexible layer at the interface, the
strength of the bond is improved and the number of voids in the material is reduced
[4.3].
The most common glass fibres are made of E-glass and S-glass. E-glass is the least
expensive of all glass types and it has a wide application in fibre reinforced plastic
industry. S-glass has higher tensile strength and higher modulus than E-glass.
However, the higher cost of S-glass fibres makes them less popular than E-glass.
The main properties of E-glass and S-glass are summarized in Table 4.1, which
also gives the main properties of carbon and aramid fibres [4.4].
To facilitate fabrication of glass fibre reinforced polymers glass strands are
incorporated into rovings, fabrics, woven rovings and mats.
page 58
Glass fibre rovings consist of up to 120 untwisted strands, usually supplied wound
together on a spool and suitable for unidirectional (UD) fibre reinforced of resins.
Thermal
expansion
coefficient
E-glass
2500
S-glass
2500
Carbon (high
1950
modulus)
Carbon (high
1750
strength)
3450
4580
(GPa)
72,4
85,5
2100
380
0,5
-0,6...-1,3
0,20
2800
240
1,1
-0,2...-0,6
0,20
Kevlar 29
1440
2760
62
4,4
Kevlar 49
1440
3620
124
2,9
Kevlar 149
1440
3450
175
1,4
(kg/m3)
Poissons
coefficient
Young
modulus
(MPa)
Fibre Type
Density
Tensile
strength
Ultimate
tensile strain
Table 4.1
(%)
3,5
2,6
(10-6/ oC)
5
2,9
0,20
0,22
-2,0 longitudinal
30 radial
-2,0 longitudinal
30 radial
-2,0 longitudinal
30 radial
0,35
0,35
0,35
Woven rovings (WR) are glass fibre rovings woven into a coarse fabric, usually
with a balanced square weave.
Glass fabrics are woven from twisted glass fibres on textile machinery and are
available in several weaves.
4.2.2. Carbon fibres
Carbon and graphite fibres are used interchangeably but there are some
significant differences between these two coming from their modular structure.
Most of the carbon fibres are produced by thermal decomposition of
polyacrylonitril (PAN). The carbon atoms are arranged in crystallographic parallel
planes of regular hexagons to form graphite, while in carbon, the bonding between
layers is weak, so that it has a two-dimensional ordering [4.5]. The manufacturing
process for this type of fibre consists of oxidation (at 200-3000C), different stages
of carbonization (at 1000-1500 0C and 1500-20000C) and finally graphitization (at
2500-30000C).
page 59
Graphite has a higher tensile modulus than carbon, therefore high-modulus fibres
are produced by graphitization. Carbon fibres are commercially available in long
and continuous tow, which is a bundle of 1,000 to 160,000 parallel filaments.
Carbon fibre tows can also be woven into two-dimensional fabrics of various
styles. These fibres show high specific strength and stiffness; in general, as the
elastic modulus increases, ultimate tensile strength and failure elongation decrease
(fig.4.2).
The tensile modulus and strength of carbon fibres are stable as temperature rises;
they are also highly resistant to aggressive environmental factors [4.5]. The carbon
fibres behave elastically to failure and fail in a brittle manner (fig 4.2). The most
important disadvantage of carbon fibres is their high cost. They are 10 to 30 times
more expensive than E-glass [4.6].
Tensile
stress
(MPa)
4000
d
3000
2000
1000
0
0
4
Tensile strain (%)
Fig.4.2. Stress-strain curves of typical reinforcing fibres

a) carbon (high modulus); b) carbon (high strength); c) Kevlar 49; d) S-glass; e) E-glass
The high cost of these fibres is caused by the high price of raw materials and the
long process of carbonization and graphitization. Moreover, graphite fibres cannot
be easily wetted by the matrix, therefore sizing is necessary before embedding
them in the matrix. Carbon and graphite fibres with suitable properties have been
page 60
developed for structural engineering applications, particularly in structural

strengthening of load-bearing elements made of traditional materials. Table 4.1
gives some of their physical and mechanical properties.
4.2.3. Aramid fibres
Aramid is a generic term for a group of organic fibres having the lowest specific
gravity and the highest tensile strength-to-weight ratio among the current
reinforcing fibres. These fibres are sold under the DuPont trademark Kevlar and
they have been extensively used for structural engineering applications.
Kevlar fibres are produced by extruding liquid crystalline solution of the polymer
with partially oriented molecules.
There are several types of Kevlar fibres: Kevlar 29 (for composites with maximum
impact and damage tolerance), Kevlar 49 (used in reinforced plastics) and Kevlar
149 (with the highest tensile modulus among all available aramid fibres).
The compressive strength of Kevlar fibres is less than 20% of the tensile strength.
Kevlar 49 has brittle behaviour under tension, but under compressive load it is
ductile, metal like and absorbing a large amount of energy.
It also shows a large degree of yielding on compression side when subjected to
bending. This type of behaviour, not observed in glass or carbon fibres gives
Kevlar composites better impact resistance.
Kevlar has a very good tension fatigue resistance, a low creep and can withstand
high temperatures. The strength and modulus of Kevlar fibres decrease linearly
when the temperature rises, but they retain more than 80% of their original strength
at 1800C.
Kevlar fibres absorb some water, the amount of absorbed water depending on the
type of the fibre.
At high moisture content, Kevlar fibres tend to crack internally at the preexisting
microvoids and produce longitudinal splitting [4.5]. Kevlar fibres are resistant to
many chemicals but they can be degraded by some acids and alkalies.
Some typical properties of Kevlar fibres are given in Table 4.1, while fig.4.3 shows
the comparison of different fibres and materials on a specific tensile strengthtensile modulus plot [4.7].
page 61
Specific 20
strength 18
(104 m)
16
S-glass
14
Carbon
(high strength)
12
10
Aramid
(Kevlar)
E-glass
8
6
Steel wires
Graphite
(high modulus)
4
2
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Specific modulus (106 m)

Fig.4.3 Performance diagram of fibres used in structural composites [4.7]
4.3. POLYMERIC MATRICES

4.3.1 Thermosetting resins
Matrix in a polymeric composite can be regarded as a structural or a protection
component. Resin is a generic term used to designate the polymer, polymer
precursor material, and/or mixture or formulation thereof with various additives or
chemically reactive components [8]. The fabrication and properties of composite
materials are fundamentally affected by resin, its chemical composition and
physical properties. Polymeric matrices have the highest potential applications in
the construction industry and, in particular, in advanced composites for structural
rehabilitation. Thermophysical characteristics of the matrix influence the
processability and mechanical properties of the composite material. There are two
fundamental classes of polymeric matrices, thermoplastics and thermosetting.
Structural rehabilitation systems are mainly based on thermosetting resins, which
are irreversibly formed from low molecular weight precursors of low viscosity. The
initial low viscosity of thermoset resins enables high fibre volume fractions to be
incorporated while still retaining good fibre wet-out.
These polymers have strong bonds both in the molecules and between the
molecules; they are characterized by lack of softening on heating [9]. After
compounding with fibres, the resin is cured to give a three-dimensional crosspage 62
linked polymeric matrix of large molecular weight. The three-dimensional network

of thermosets results in less flow under stress, greater dimensional stability, lower
coefficient of thermal expansion and greater resistance to solvents.
However thermosetting polymers have a limited storage life, long required
fabrication time and low failure strain, which results in low impact resistance
[4.10]. The most common thermosetting matrices used in advanced composites for
structural strengthening are epoxy, polyester and vinyl ester which are discussed
here.
4.3.2 Epoxy matrix
The term epoxy resins defines a class of thermosetting resins prepared by the ringopening polymerization of compounds containing an average of more than one
epoxy group per molecule. The main physical properties of the cross-linked resins
depend on the backbone of the epoxide, and the polymerization initiator. Prior to
adding fibres, small amounts of reactive curing agents are added to liquid resin to
initiate polymerization. Cross links are formed and epoxy liquid resins changes to a
solid material. The main advantages of epoxy resins are: easy processing, very
good mechanical properties, good adhesion to a wide variety of fibres, low
shrinkage during cure and excellent resistance to chemicals and solvents. They can
be formulated to have a wide range of stiffness (fig.4.4) and other properties since
epoxies can be obtained from a large number of starting materials, curing agents
and modifiers.
Stress 140
(MPa)
High modulus
120
Intermediate modulus
100
80
60
Low modulus
40
20
0
0
Strain (%)
Fig.4.4 Stress-strain curves of epoxy matrix resins of different modulus

page 63
The main disadvantage of epoxy resins are their relatively high cost and long
curing period. The density of cross-links depends on the chemical structure of the
starting resin, curing agent and reaction conditions. The cross links formed during
the curing process play a major role in establishing the final properties of the solid
epoxy.
Tensile modulus and tensile strength (fig.4.4), thermal stability and chemical
resistance are improved as the density of the cross links increases. On the other
hand, fracture toughness and strain-to-failure are reduced. High-performance
epoxies have been prepared with a variety of phenolics and aromatic amines.
Epoxy resins can be partially cured; thus the reinforcement can be pre-impregnated
with liquid resin and partially cured to give a prepreg. After that a prepreg material
can be subsequently moulded by a fabricator, without fabricator requiring
knowledge of resin chemistry and detailed information on resin handling [4.10].
4.3.3 Polyester matrix
The so-called general purpose polyester unsaturated resins are made using ethylene
glycol, either orthophthalic or isophtalic acid as the saturated diacid, and fumaric as
the unsaturated diacid [4.10].
A wide variety of polyesters is available based on the choice of the diacid. The
flexibility of polyesters may be controlled by the choice of diacid and diols.
Relatively flexible polyesters are produced from highly aliphatic precursors; highmodulus (stiff) polyesters, brittle, with increasing glass-transition temperatures
may be obtained from combinations with large amounts of aromatic diacids and/or
aromatic diols.
Other chemical agents are added to extend the pot life, modify the chemical
structures between cross-links and reduce the resin viscosity. The main advantages
of polyester resins are low cost, fast cure time and low viscosity. Their mechanical
properties are generally lower than those of epoxies.
The main disadvantage of polyester resins is their high volumetric shrinkage. This
volumetric shrinkage can be reduced by adding a thermoplastic component. Cross
link can range the properties of polyester resins in the same manner as explained
for epoxy resins.
Fig.4.5 gives a typical stress-strain curve for a general purpose polyester resin
tested in tension and compression. The graph shows a non-linear relationship and
this is a function of the viscoelastic nature of the material [4.1].
page 64
Stress (MPa)
140
120
a
80
*
40
10
12
Strain (%)
Fig. 4.5 Stress-strain curves for general purpose polyester resin [1]
a- compression; b- tension;
The range of applicability of polyesters may be extended by adding methylmethacrylate to improve weathering, or highly chlorinated or brominated
monomers to improve fire resistance.
4.3.4 Vinyl ester matrix
Vinyl esters are resins based on methacrylate and acrylate. Some variations contain
urethane and ester bridging groups.
Due to their chemical structure these resins have fewer cross links and they are
more flexible and have a higher fracture toughness than polyesters. They also have
very good wet-out and good adhesion when reinforced with glass fibres.
Vinyl esters properties are a good combination of those given by epoxy resins and
polyesters. They exhibit good characteristics of epoxies such as chemical resistance
and tensile strength, as well as those of polyesters such as viscosity and fast curing.
However their volumetric shrinkage is higher than that of epoxy and they have
only moderate adhesive strength compared to epoxy resins.
Some typical properties of thermosetting resins are given in Table 4.2.
page 65
Table 4.2
PROPERTY
UM
MATRIX
polyester
epoxy
vinyl ester
Density
kg/m3
1200 - 1400
1200 - 1300
1150 - 1350
Tensile strength
MPa
34,5 - 104
55 - 130
73 81
Longitudinal
modulus
GPa
2,1 - 3,45
2,75 - 4,10
3,0 - 3,5
0,35 - 0,39
0,38 - 0,40
0,36 - 0,39
10-6/ 0C
55 - 100
45 - 65
50 - 75
Moisture content
0,15 - 0,60
0,08 - 0,15
0,14 - 0,30
Service temperature
100
175
170
Poissons
coefficient
Thermal expansion
coefficient
4.4
MICROMECHANICAL MODELS FOR PREDICTING THE

MECHANICAL
PROPERTIES
OF
FIBRE
REINFORCED
COMPOSITES
4.4.1 Strength and stiffness of FRP composites

4.4.1.1 General
The properties of a composite material depend on the properties of its constituents
and their distribution and physical and chemical interactions. These properties can
be determined by experimental measurements but one set of experimental
measurements determines the properties of a fibre-matrix system produced by a
single fabrication process. When any change in the system variables occur,
additional measurements are required.
These experiments may become time consuming and cost prohibitive, therefore a
variety of methods have been used to predict properties of composite materials.
The mechanics of materials approach is based on micromechanics. Most of
composite structures made of fibrous composites consist of several distinct
unidirectional laminae.
page 66
A lamina is a flat or curved arrangement of unidirectional or woven fibres in a

support matrix. The unidirectional lamina (fig.4.6) is the basic building block in a
laminated fibre-reinforced composite material.
A unidirectional composite consists of parallel fibres embedded in a matrix. The
direction parallel to the fibres is called the longitudinal direction (axis 1 or L) and
the direction perpendicular to the fibres in the 1-2 plane is called the transverse
direction. Any direction in the 2-3 plane is also a transverse direction. These axes
are also referred to as the material axes of the lamina.
The in-plane elastic behaviour of a unidirectional lamina may be fully described in
terms of four basic lamina properties:
longitudinal modulus (E1=EL),
transverse modulus (E2=ET),
shear modulus (G12=GLT),
the major Poissons ratio (12=LT).
The basic strength parameters referred to the principal material axes of the
unidirectional lamina are presented in fig.4.7:
longitudinal tensile strength (FLt),
longitudinal compressive strength (FLc),
transverse tensile strength (FTt),
transverse compressive strength (FTc),
in-plane shear strength (FsLT).
In most cases the properties of FRP composites can be determined using the
micromechanics which in composites literature means the analysis of the effective
composite properties in terms of constituent material properties.
The unidirectional composite shows different properties in the material axes
directions. Thus, this type of composites are orthotropic with their axes 1,2,3 as
axes of symmetry (fig.4.6). A unidirectional lamina has the strongest properties in
the longitudinal direction; material behaviour in the other two directions (2,3) is
nearly identical because of the random fibre distribution in the cross section.
Therefore, a unidirectional composite can be considered to be transversely
isotropic, that is, it is isotropic in the 2-3 plane.
page 67
(3)
(2) T
Transverse direction
(1) L
Longitudinal direction
Fig.4.6 Unidirectionally fibre reinforced lamina
4.4.1.2 Volume and weight fractions

A key element in micromechanical analysis is the characterization of the relative
volume and/or weight content of the various constituent materials. The weight
fractions are easier to obtain during fabrication or using one of the experimental
methods after fabrication; the volume fractions are used in micromechanics of
composites. Therefore it is desirable to determine these fractions and the
relationships between the weight fractions and volume fractions.
Consider a volume vc of a composite material which consists of volume vf of fibres
and volume vm of the matrix material. The subscripts c,f and m represent the
composite material, fibres, and the matrix material respectively.
Let us also consider wc, wf and wm the corresponding weights of the composite,
fibres and the matrix material respectively. Let the volume fraction and the weight
fraction be denoted by V and W respectively. Assuming that no voids are present in
the composite the volume fractions and the weight fractions are defined as follows:
vc = v f + vm
Vf =
vf
and Vm =
vc
V f + Vm = 1
page 68
(4.1.a)
vm
vc
(4.1b)
(4.1c)
1 = L
1 = L
1 = L
1 = L
b.
12=LT
2 = T
21=TL
2 = T
21=TL
a.
c.
2 = T
d.
2 = T
e.
12=LT
Fig.4.7 Lamina loading schemes for basic strength parameters:

a) longitudinal tensile stress (FLt); b) longitudinal compressive stress (FLc); c) transverse
tensile stress (FTt); d) transverse compressive stress (FTc); e) in-plane shear stress (FsLT)
wc = w f + wm
Wf =
wf
wc
and Wm =
(4.2a)
wm
wc
(4.2b)
The density c of the composite can be obtained in terms of the densities of the
constituents (f and m) and their volume fractions or weight fractions. From the
weight of a composite written as:
(4.3)
c vc g = f v f g + m v m g
(in which g is the gravity acceleration) and using the definition for the volume
fractions, the following equation can be derived for the composite material density:
(4.4)
c = f V f + mVm
page 69
The density of composite materials in terms of weight fractions can be obtained as:
c =
Wf
1
f + Wm m
(4.5)
Considering the definition of weight fractions and replacing the weights by the
products of density and volume, the conversion between the weight fractions and
volume fractions can be obtained:
Wf =
f
Vf
c
Wm =
m
Vm
c
(4.6)
Vm =
c
Wm
m
(4.7)
and the reverse relations are:
Vf =
c
Wf
f
The composite density calculated theoretically from the weight fractions may not
agree with the experimentally determined density. Assuming that the theoretically
calculated density is ct and the experimentally determined density is ce the
volume fraction of voids Vv is given by:
Vv =
ct ce
ct
(4.8)
The void content may significantly influence some mechanical properties of a

composite material. A good composite must have less than 1% voids, whereas a
poorly made composite can have up to 5% void content [4.2]. Higher void contents
lead to increased scatter in strength properties, to lower fatigue resistance and
greater susceptibility to water penetration.
When the composite material consists of fibres, matrix and voids:
V f + V m + Vv = 1
(4.9)
The range of constituent volume fractions that may be expected in fibre reinforced
composites can be determined using representative area elements for idealized
fibre-packing geometries such as the square and triangular arrays shown in fig.4.8.
If it is assumed that the fibre spacing, s, and the fibre diameter, d, do not change
along the fibre length, then, the area fractions must be equal to the volume
fractions. The fibre volume fraction for the square array is found by dividing the
area of the fibre enclosed in the square by the total area of square:
page 70
Vf =

4s
(4.10)
The maximum theoretical fibre volume fraction occurs when s=d. In this case:
V f max =
= 0.785
(4.11)
In case of a triangular array:
Vf =

2 3 s
(4.12)
and, when s=d, the maximum fibre volume fraction is:
V f max =
2 3
= 0.907
(4.13)
These theoretical limits are not generally achievable in practice. In most continuous
fibre composites the fibre volume fractions range from 0.5 to 0.75.
b.
a.
Fig.4.8 Representative area elements for idealized fibre-packing geometries

a) square; b) triangular
4.4.1.3 Longitudinal modulus of a unidirectional composite

Elementary mechanics of materials models have been adopted in the elastic range,
based on the following assumptions [4.2], [4.4]:
page 71
A unidirectional composite may be modelled by assuming fibres to be

uniform in properties and diameter, continuous, and parallel throughout the
composite.
It may be assumed that a perfect bonding exists at the interface, so that no

slip occurs between fibre and matrix materials.
The fibre and matrix materials are assumed to be homogeneous and linearly
elastic.
The matrix is assumed to be isotropic, but the fibre can be either isotropic
or orthotropic.
Since it is assumed that the fibres remain parallel and that the dimensions
do not change along the length of the element, the area fractions must equal
the volume fractions.
Let us consider the model of the unidirectional composite shown in fig.4.9. Since
no slippage occurs at the interface and the strains of fibre, matrix and composite
are equal we can write:
f 1 = m1 = c1
(4.14)
(1) L
cL
in which subscripts f, m and c refer to fibre, matrix and composite, respectively and
the second subscript refers to the direction. For the model shown in fig.4.9 the load
(Pc=LAc) is shared between the fibres (Pf=f1Af) and the matrix (Pm=m1Am).
lc
fibre
matrix
(2) T
L
Fig.4.9 Model of FRP composite for predicting longitudinal behaviour
page 72
Static equilibrium requires that the total force on the lamina cross section must
equal the sum of the forces acting on the fibre and matrix:
LAc= c1 Ac = f 1 A f + m1 A m
(4.15)
Since the area fractions are equal to the corresponding volume fractions, Equation
(4.15) can be rearranged to give an expression for the composite longitudinal stress:
L = c1 = f V f + mVm
(4.16)
Equation (4.16) can be differentiated with respect to strain, which is the same for
the composite, fibres and matrix:
d c
d c
d f
L d f
V f + d m
d
Vm
(4.17)
where (d/d) represents the slope of the corresponding stress-strain diagrams at

the given strain. If the stress-strain curves of the materials are linear, the slopes
(d/d) are constants and they can be replaced by the corresponding elastic
modulus in Equation (4.17). Thus:
E L = E c1 = E f 1V f + E m (1 V f )
(4.18)
Relationships (4.16) and (4.18) are known under the name rule of mixtures
indicating that the contributions of the fibres and the matrix to the composite stress
and elastic modulus respectively are proportional to their volume fractions. In
Equation (4.18) it is assumed that the fibre can be anisotropic with different
properties in the longitudinal and transverse directions and that the matrix is
isotropic. For example aramid and carbon fibres are anisotropic whereas glass is
practically isotropic. The matrix modulus does not need a second subscript. The
rule of mixtures predictions for the longitudinal elastic modulus is very close to the
experimental results.
4.4.1.4 Longitudinal tensile strength
When a fibre reinforced composite is subjected to longitudinal tension the
constituent with the lower ultimate strain will fail first. Under assumption of
uniform strengths, two cases are distinguished [4.7] depending on the relative
magnitudes of the ultimate strains of fibres and matrix. When the ultimate tensile
strain of the fibre is lower than that of the matrix (fu<mu) the composite will fail
when its longitudinal strain reaches the ultimate strain in the fibre (fig.4.10.a).
Then, the longitudinal tensile strength of the composite can be calculated with:
FLt = F ft V f + m (1 V f )
page 73
(4.19)
where:
FLt
Fft
m
Vf
is the longitudinal composite tensile strength,

the longitudinal fibre tensile strength,
the average matrix stress at the fibre fracture strain(fig.4.10.a),
the fibre volume fraction.
When the ultimate matrix tensile strain is lower than that of the fibre (mu<fu) the
composite fails when its longitudinal strain reaches the fracture strain of the matrix
(fig.4.10.b). Then, the longitudinal tensile strength of the composite can be
calculated with:
A lot of a FLt = f V f + Fmt (1 V f )
(4.20)
4.4.1.5 Longitudinal compression strength

When fibre reinforced composite materials are loaded in longitudinal compression
the models for tensile longitudinal strength cannot be used since the failure of the
composite is, in many cases, associated with microbuckling (fig.4.11) or kinking of
the fibre within the restraint of the matrix material. There are three main
longitudinal compression failure modes [4.18], [4.7]:
stress
stress
Fft
Fft
fibre
fibre
FLt
composite
f
FLt
Fmt
Fmt
composite
matrix
matrix
fu
a.
mu
strain
mu
b.
Fig.4.10 Longitudinal stress-strain curves for composite and constituents

a. fibre dominated strength (fu< mu)
b. matrix dominated strength (mu<fu)
page 74
fu
strain
microbuckling of fibres in either extensional or shear mode (fig.4.11.b);
shear failure of fibres without buckling (fig.4.12);
transverse tensile fracture due to Poisson strain (fig.4.13).
Fig.4.11 Modes of fibre buckling

a-representative volume element; b-extension mode; c-shear mode
To find the fibre buckling load in each buckling mode the energy method can be
utilised [4.19] and the following formula can be developed for the fibre critical
stress in case of extensional mode buckling (fig.4.11.b):
fcr = 2
V f Em E f
(4.21)
3(1 V f )
from which the longitudinal compressive strength in the composite material is:
FLc = V f cr = 2V f
V f Em E f
(4.22)
3(1 V f )
When the shear buckling mode occurs (fig.4.11.c) the following formula for the
fibre buckling stress is determined:
fcr =
Gm
V f (1 V f
and the longitudinal compressive strength is:

page 75
(4.23)
FLc =
Gm
1Vf
(4.24)
Another possible failure mode under longitudinal compression is the failure of

fibres in direct shear due to maximum shear stress. This occurs at an angle =45o
to the loading axis, fig.4.12, at high values of Vf for well aligned fibres when pure
compressive failure, which can be related to shear failure of the fibres, may be
encountered. In case of the shear mode governed by the shear strength of the fibre,
the predicted strength is [4.7]:
FLc = 2 Fsf [V f + (1 V f )
Em
]
Ef
(4.25)
in which Fsf is the shear strength of the fibre.
L
Fig.4.12 Shear failure without fibre buckling
Fig.4.13 Transverse tensile rupture due

to Poisson strain
A model of failure under longitudinal compressive loading is based on the

transverse tensile fracture due to Poisson strains (fig.4.13). Under the compressive
longitudinal stress, the transverse Poisson strain is:
T = LT L = LT
L
EL
page 76
(4.26)
and the compressive failure of a unidirectional fibre reinforced composite loaded in

the fibre direction may be caused by transverse splitting of the material.
At failure L is the compressive strength (FLc) such that T equals the ultimate
transverse tensile strain (Tu) of the composite:
LT
L
EL
= Tu
(4.27)
and the corresponding formula for FLc is:
FLc =
EL
LT
Tu
(4.28)
The ultimate transverse strain of the composite can be calculated from the ultimate
tensile strain [4.20] of the matrix (mu):
Tu = mu (1 V f )
1/ 3
(4.29)
and the longitudinal compressive strength of the composite is [4.2]:
FLc =
[ E f V f + E m (1 V f )](1 V f1 / 3 ) mu
f V f + m (1 V f )
(4.30)
Experimental results are in better agreement with predictions of Equation (4.30)

than with the predictions based on microbuckling of fibres.
4.4.1.6 Transverse modulus
The transverse modulus is a matrix-dominated property being sensitive to the local
state of stress. Let us consider a simple mathematical model shown in fig.4.14:
The fibres are assumed to be uniform in properties and diameter,

continuous and parallel throughout the composite.
The composite is represented by a series model of matrix and fibre

elements, and the main assumption is that the stress is the same in the fibre
and matrix.
Both constituents are assumed to be linear-elastic materials and the fibrematrix bond is perfect.
page 77
Considering the model made up of layers representing fibres and matrix materials it
is clear from fig.4.14 that each layer has the same area on which load acts,
experiencing the same stress. Since the dimensions of the representative volume
element do not change along the longitudinal direction, the length fractions must be
equal to the volume fractions.
Assuming the fibres and matrix to deform elastically and the stress is the same in
the fibre, matrix and composite, in the transverse direction, we can write:
( c )T
ET
f
Ef
Vf +
m
Em
Vm
(4.31)
and:
ET =
E f Em
(4.32)
E mV f + E f (1 V f )
where Ef is the transverse modulus of the fibres.
lm
lf
fibre
matrix
t
lc
Fig.4.14 Model of a unidirectional composite under transverse normal stress
The model utilised to determine the transverse modulus is not mathematically

rigorous. In a real composite the parallel fibres are dispersed in the matrix material
in a random fashion; generally both constituents will be present at any section
perpendicular to the load, especially at the higher volume fraction. Thus the load is
shared between the fibres and the matrix and the assumption that the stresses and
page 78
the matrix are equal is inaccurate and the mechanics of materials prediction
underestimates the transverse modulus. Halpin and Tsai [4.21] developed semiempirical equations to match the results of more exact micromechanics analyses:
1 + 1 1 V f
ET = E m
1 1 V f
(4.33)
where:
1 =
(E
(E
Em ) 1
E m ) + 1
(4.34)
and 1 is the reinforcing efficiency factor for transverse loading. For usual case of
circular-section fibres, satisfactory results are obtained by taking 1=2. When 1=0,
the Halpin-Tsai equation reduces to the inverse rule of mixtures, whereas a value of
= yields the rule of mixtures.
4.4.1.7 Transverse tensile strength
The transverse tensile loading is the most critical loading of a unidirectional
composite. Many factors influence the transverse tensile strength and the most
important are: the matrix strength, the fibre-matrix interface properties, and defects
in matrix such as microcraks and voids.
In case of transverse loading, the high-modulus fibres act as effective constraints
[4.22] on the deformation of the matrix, causing stress and strain concentrations in
this constituent and at the fibre-matrix interface, where the critical stresses and
strains usually occur. An empirical approach [4.20] for the prediction of transverse
tensile strength of fibrous composites leads to the formula given below:
FTt =
ET Fmt
(1 V f1 / 3 )
Em
(4.35)
The preceding equation above assumes perfect adhesion between phases and thus
failure occurs by matrix fracture at or near the interface. A reduction coefficient
(Cv) to account for voids can be used [4.23] to modify Equation (4.35) and Cv can
be determined with:
Cv = 1
4Vv
(1 V f )
page 79
(4.36)
where Vv is the void volume fraction [4.24].

Another empirical formula based on tensile strength of the matrix, (Rtm) can also
account for voids:
E
RtT = Rtm C v 1 + (V f V f )1 m
E f
(4.37)
The effect of voids is very detrimental to the transverse strength and this is
reflected by both empirical formulas. Although the results provided by these
formulas can be used for preliminary design, experimental data are usually required
if transverse strength is the controlling mode of failure of the component [4.23].
4.4.1.8 Transverse compressive strength
Transverse compressive strength values are usually higher than tensile strength
values for both matrix and composite. Also the transverse compressive strength
increases with increase in the fibre volume fraction. This is explained by the
additional constraints placed on the matrix, preventing its deformation in the
direction perpendicular to the plane of load-fibre axes. For preliminary design
Equation (4.37) can be used replacing the tensile strength of the matrix by the
compressive strength of the matrix [4.25].
4.4.1.9 In-plane shear modulus
The behaviour of unidirectional composites under in-plane shear loading is
dominated by the matrix properties and the local stress distributions. The
mechanics of materials approach uses a series model under uniform shear stress
(fig.4.15) to determine the shear modulus.
f m
T TL
lc
lm
LT
L
LT
TL
lf
f
t
m
f
c
c
b.
a.
Fig.4.15 a) Model of unidirectional composite for prediction of shear modulus; b) shear

deformations for constituents and for the model
page 80
Using the notations shown in fig.4.15 the total shear deformation of the composite,
c, is the sum of the shear deformations of the fibre, f, and the matrix, m; each
shear deformation can be then expressed as the product of the corresponding shear
strain (c, f, m) and the cumulative widths of the material(lc, lf, lm):
c = f + m
(4.38)
c lc = f l f + m lm
(4.39)
Dividing both sides of Equation (4.39) by lc and recognising that the width fraction
is proportional to volume fractions, yields:
c = f V f + mVm
(4.40)
Assuming linear shear stress-shear strain behaviour of fibres and matrix, the shear
strains can be replaced by the ratios of shear stress and the corresponding shear
modulus:
LT
G LT
lc =
f
Gf
lf +
m
Gm
lm
(4.41)
where GLT is the in-plane shear modulus of the composite, Gf is the shear modulus
of fibres and Gm the shear modulus of matrix. But the shear stresses are equal on
composite, fibres and matrix and from Equation (4.41) we obtain:
G LT =
G f Gm
GmV f + G f (1 V f )
(4.42)
As in the case of transverse modulus Equation (4.42) underestimates the values of

the in-plane shear modulus, and the Halpin-Tsai equations can be used to give
better predictions:
G LT = Gm
1 + 2 2 V f
1 2 V f
(4.43)
where:
2 =
(G
(G
f
Gm ) 1
Gm ) + 2
page 81
(4.44)
and 2 is the reinforcing efficiency factor for in-plane shear. The best agreement
with experimental results has been found for 2=1. Assuming 2=1, Equation
(4.43) becomes:
G LT = Gm
( G f + G m ) + V f (G f Gm )
(4.45)
(G f + G m ) V f (G f Gm )
In this section, the matrix and the fibres have been assumed to be isotropic; the
shear modulus of the constituents can be computed from the elastic modulus, E,
and Poissons ratio, using the following formula:
G=
E
2(1 + )
(4.46)
When the reinforcing fibres are anisotropic, the corresponding shear modulus (G12)
should be utilised.
4.4.1.10 In-plane shear strength
Under in-plane shear (fig.4.16) the failure could occur by matrix failure, constituent
debonding or a combination of the two.
Failure surface
TL= 21
21= TL
Fms
12= 21= LT
Fms
Fig.4.16 In-plane shear failure of unidirectional composite
Shear failure may also occur when off-axis unidirectional composite elements are
loaded in axial tension. For a preliminary design, the in-plane shear strength may
be evaluated using a formula similar to Equation (4.37) replacing the matrix tensile
strength with the shear strength of the matrix as follows:
page 82
G
FsLT = Fms C v 1 + (V f V f )1 m
G
(4.47)
where Cv is the reduction coefficient.

Again, in this section the matrix and the fibres have been assumed to be isotropic;
when the reinforcing fibres are anisotropic, the corresponding shear modulus (G12)
should be utilised.
4.4.1.11 Prediction of Poissons ratio
Two Poisson ratios are considered for in-plane loading of a unidirectional fibre
reinforced unidirectional composite. Using the axis system shown in fig.4.17 the
first Poisson ratio, LT, relates the longitudinal stress, L, to the transverse strain, T,
and is normally referred to as the major Poisson ratio:
LT =
T
L
(4.48)
where L is the longitudinal strain and the loading scheme is: L0, T=0 and
LT=0. The second one called the minor Poisson ratio, TL, relates the transverse
stress, T, to the longitudinal strain, L:
TL =
L
T
(4.49)
when T0, L=0 and LT=0.

Undeformed composite
L
f
lf
lc
lm
Deformed composite
Fig.4.17 Model of unidirectional composite for prediction of Poissons ratio

page 83
A model similar to that used to predict ET [4.2] can be used to determine LT;
however, the load is applied parallel to the fibres, fig.4.17. The deformation pattern
illustrated in this figure, for cumulative thicknesses of layers is utilised to express
the transverse strains in the composite and constituents (fibre and matrix) in terms
of longitudinal strains and the Poisson ratio.
The total transverse deformation of the composite, c, is the sum of the constituent
transverse deformations, f and m:
c = f + m ; f = ( f
)l
T
; m = ( m )T l m ; c = ( c )T l c
(4.50)
Assuming that no slippage occurs at the interface and the strains experienced by
the composite, fibre and matrix are equal and that the widths are proportional to the
volume fractions the following formula is obtained for the major Poisson ratio:
v LT = v f V f + vmVm
(4.51)
Equation (4.51) is the rule of mixtures for the major Poisson ratio of a
unidirectional composite. The following functional relationship (presented in
macromechanics of composites) exists between engineering constants:
LT E L = TL ET
(4.52)
Thus the minor Poisson ratio can be obtained from the already known engineering
constants EL, ET and LT :
TL = LT
ET
EL
(4.53)
4.5 PROPERTIES OF FIBRE REINFORCED POLYMERIC COMPOSITES

RELATED TO STRUCTURAL STRENGTHENING OF CIVIL
ENGINEERING STRUCTURES
As stated in the previous chapter the properties of polymeric composites are
determined by the properties of their constituents, their distribution and the
interaction among them.
The performance of composites can be ranked on the basis of specific strength
(strength-to-density ratio) and specific modulus (elastic modulus-to-density ratio).
page 84
In view of these characteristics a comparative representation of the performance of

epoxy composites is shown in fig.4.18.
Specific
strength
(104m)
12
b
10
8
6
4
2
10
12
6
Specific modulus (10 m )

Fig.4.18 Performance map of epoxy composites
a- glass/epoxy; b-Kevlar/epoxy; c-carbon/epoxy
As it can be seen carbon/epoxy composites with unidirectional fibres seem to have

the most convenient combination of specific modulus and strength [4.7].
As a matter of fact carbon/epoxy plates are the most utilized composite products in
structural rehabilitation of traditional building elements.
The behaviour of polymeric composites with unidirectional fibres, in the fibre
direction, is usually dominated by the fibres properties.
As it can be seen from fig.4.19, the higher the elastic modulus, the lower the
ultimate strain.
However, in the transverse direction, the behaviour of unidirectional composites is
mainly dominated by the matrix properties.
Stress-strain diagrams of some unidirectional polymeric composites normal to the
fibre direction are illustrated in fig.4.20.
page 85
Stress,
(MPa) 2500
2000
a
b
1500
1000
500
0
Strain (%)
Fig. 4.19 Stress-strain diagrams of unidirectional epoxy composites in fibre direction: aglass/epoxy; b- kevlar/epoxy; c- carbon/ epoxy.
Stress
(MPa) 10
0
c
b
80
60
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
Strain (%)
Fig.4.20 Stress-strain diagrams of some unidirectional polymeric composites in the

transverse direction. a) E glass/epoxy; b). S-glass/epoxy; c) carbon/epoxy
page 86
All materials exhibit quasi-linear behaviour with low ultimate strength and strains.
Table 4.3 gives a list of the main properties needed to design strengthening
solutions of civil engineering structures using advanced polymeric composites.
The composite properties listed in the Table 4.3 are at ambient temperature (240C)
and zero moisture conditions. These values can be used for preliminary design
purposes. However for a final design of a component, it is recommended that a
designer obtain more exact properties for the particular selection of the constituent
used [4.7].
4.6 MANUFACTURING PROCEDURES OF POLYMERIC COMPOSITE

PRODUCTS FOR STRUCTURAL REHABILITATION
There are various manufacturing options available and they have been developed to
suit the variety of production parameters encountered. The processes most used to
produce composite strips and shapes or to apply external composite reinforcing
elements are presented in this chapter.
4.6.1 Pultrusion
Pultrusion is a continuous fully automated manufacturing process which allows the
production of long, straight constant section structural shapes made of fibre
reinforced polymeric composites. Raw materials are a liquid resin mixture
(containing resin, fillers and specialized additives) and flexible textile reinforcing
fibres. The process involves pulling these raw materials through a heated steel
forming die using a continuous forms such as rolls of roving or rolls of mats.
Table 4.3
E glass
/epoxy
Fibre volume fraction, (Vf)
0,55
2100
Density (, Kg/m3)
Longitudinal modulus (EL, GPa)
39
Transverse modulus (ET, GPa)
8,6
In-plane shear modulus (GLT, GPa)
3,8
0,28
Major Poissons ratio (LT)
0,06
Minor Poissons ratio (TL)
Longitudinal tensile strength (FLt, MPa) 1080
Tranverse tensile strength (FTt, MPa)
39
Property
page 87
Kevlar
49/epoxy
0,60
1380
87
5,5
2,2
0,34
0,02
1280
30
Carbon
/epoxy
0,65
1600
177
10,8
7,6
0,27
0,02
2860
49
In-plane shear strength (FsLT, MPa)

89
Ultimate longitudinal tensile
0,028
strain (Ltu)
Ultimate transverse tensile
0,005
strain (Ttu)
Longitudinal compressive strength (FLc, 620
MPa)
Transverse compressive strength (FTc, 128
MPa)
Longitudinal
thermal
expansion 7,0
-6 0
coefficient (1, 10 / C)
Transverse
thermal
expansion 21
coefficient (2, 10-6/0C)
49
0,015
83
0,016
0,005
0,005
335
1875
158
246
-2,0
-0,3
60
30
As the reinforcements are pre-impregnated and saturated with the resin mixture in
the resin bath and pulled through the die, the hardening of the resin is initiated by
the heat from the die and a rigid, cured profile is formed that corresponds to the
shape of die. Fig.4.21 shows the representation of the process [4.11].
Fig. 4.21 The pultrusion process : a-roving creels; b-mat creels; c-guide; d-resin
impregnator; e-surfacing material; f-preformer; g-forming and curing die; h-caterpillar
type pull; i-pull blocks; j-cutt off saw
The creels position the reinforcements for subsequent feeding into the guides. The
main function of the reinforcement guides is to locate properly the reinforcement
within the polymeric composite. The resin bath wets out (pre-impregnates) the
reinforcement with a solution containing the resin, catalyst, and any other additives
required. On exiting the resin bath, the composite is a flat sheet form.
The performer is an array of tooling which squeezes away excess resin as the
product is moving forward and shapes the materials prior to entering the die. In
certain applications a radio frequency wave generator unit is used to preheat the
composite before entering the die.
page 88
When in use, this heater is positioned between the resin bath and the performer. In
the die the thermosetting reaction is heat activated (energy is primarily supplied
electrically) and the composite is cured.
The operating speed is influenced by the curing rate and by the time required for
excess solvents to be eliminated from the composite. On exciting the die, the cured
profile is pulled to the saw for cutting to length. Constant section shapes with good
and uniform properties are manufactured using the pultrusion technique.
In general pultrusion is dominated by the use of unidirectional reinforcement,
which lends itself most appropriately to the process and gives maximum strength
and stiffness in the axial direction of the composite product. Fibre volume fractions
of up to 65% are achievable with unidirectionally aligned fibres [4.12].
4.6.2 Hand lay-up technique
This is the simplest procedure used for the manufacture of fibre reinforced
polymeric composite components. In this technique fabrics, woven rovings or
chopped strand mat are laid over a polished mould previously treated with a
released agent. Fig.4.22 shows the hand lay-up operation [4.13].
b
Fig.4.22 Hand lay-up technique
a-mould; b-composite layer; c-brush; d-roller
The release agent applied to the mould is allowed to dry before any lay-up is
undertaken. A gel coat resin is first laid-up against the carefully prepared mould
surface. This forms the outer surface of the component after removal from the
moulding and may therefore have special properties for improved weathering and
page 89
abrasion resistance, depending on the destination of the element. The gel coat can
be reinforced with a surface tissue mat which also has the function of balancing the
composite throughout its cross section. After the gel coat of resin is brushed over it
and the first layer of fibrous reinforcement is placed in position, the liquid
thermosetting resin is worked into the reinforcement by hand with the aid of a
brush or roller. Subsequent layers of resin and reinforcement are then applied until
the required thickness of the composite is reached. Normally the lay-up cures at
room temperature, although a heating source can be used to accelerate the cure.
This process has the advantage of using the minimum of equipment and low-cost
moulds that may be in any suitable material, such as wood, sheet metal or fibre
reinforced polymers. There are no size restrictions, as it is a flexible process and
some design alterations can be readily made. However, the labour cost per unit is
high and the quality of the composite products depends to a large extent on the
workers skill [4.14].
4.6.3 Spray-up technique
In this process, especially suitable for glass fibre reinforced polymeric composites,
the fibres and the resin are simultaneously deposited on a mould, fig.4.23. During
the spray-up operation, fibre roving is fed continuously through a chopper and the
resulting chopped strands are projected onto the mould in conjunction with resin.
g
e
a
c
Fig.4.23 The spray-up technique:

a-resin premixed with catalyst; b-resin premixed with accelerator; c-roving;
d-roving chopper; e-gun nozzle; f-mould; g-composite product
The fibre/resin matrix is then consolidated with rollers. There are two systems used
in the spray-up process:
page 90
if two gun nozzles are used (fig.4.23) one carries resin premixed with
catalyst while the other one carries resin premixed with accelerator;
when only one gun nozzle is used all ingredients are fed into a single
mixing chamber ahead of the spray nozzle.
By either method, the resin mix precoats the chopped strands, and merged spray is
directed onto the mould by the operator. The fibre/resin matrix is then rolled by
hand to remove air, lay down the fibres and smooth the surface. The main
advantages of the process are: it uses roving reinforcement, which is the cheapest
form of reinforcement; the labour cost for producing complex shapes is less than
with a hand lay-up process; the process is also suitable for on-site fabrication. This
technique requires an operator with considerable skill, able to control the thickness
of the composite product and maintain the fibre/resin ratio. Also the quality of the
finished composite element is highly dependent on the skill of the operators.
4.6.4 Continuous laminating
In continuous laminating, fabrics or mats, are passed through a resin dip and
brought together between cellophane covering sheets. The lay-up is then passed
through a heating zone and resin is cured, fig.4.24.
a
b
f
g
c
d
h
Fig.4.24 Continuous laminating process
a-reinforcement creels; b-cellophane creels; c-guidance rolls; d-impregnating roll; ethickness control rolls; f-infrared radiation oven; g-resin bath; finite product
page 91
The laminate thickness and the resin content are controlled by squeeze rolls as the
various plies are brought together. Continuous laminating is an automated process
with low tooling cost ideally suited for the production of flat or corrugated panels
of various cross sections. Though the widths are limited by the size of rolls, there is
no limitation of the length of the elements produced. The wall thickness is very
uniform, though limited in size.
4.6.5 Pressure bag method
This is another variation of the hand lay-up technique. A tailored bag, normally
rubber sheeting, is placed against the lay-up, fig.4.25. Air pressure up to 0.35MPa
is applied between the pressure plate (e) and the rubber bag (f). Since the pressures
applied in this method can be much greater than in the vacuum bag method,
fibre/matrix ratios by weight can be increased to about 65% with a corresponding
increase in mechanical properties.
Air under
pressure
g
e
f
d
a
Fig.4.25 Pressure bag moulding
a-mould; b-fibre resin lay-up; c-cellophane; d-clamps; e-pressure back-up plate;
f- tailored rubber bag (not inflated); g-air pressure line; h-moulded part; i-tailored
rubber bag (inflated)
Various shapes can be made, undercuts are possible and also core and inserts can
be used [4.15].
4.6.6 Vacuum bag moulding
The vacuum bag is a process of moulding fibre reinforced polymeric composites in
which (after lay-up) cellophane or polyvinyl acetate is placed over lay-up, joints
are sealed and a vacuum is created, fig.4.26. The resulting low atmospheric
page 92
pressure then eliminates voids and forces out the entrapped air and excess resin.
Higher fibre volume fractions are possible with less air voids and the manufactured
component has a better internal surface. Though better adhesion in multilayered
constructions is possible, it requires more labour and quality often depends on the
operator.
4.5.6 Reinforcement impregnation by vacuum
Vacuum impregnation of the fibrous reinforcement is, to a certain extent,
comparable with lay-up, and it is specially organized for strengthening of concrete
elements [4.16]. The concrete beam to be strengthened is prepared (through sand
blasting, grinding or water blasting). The beam surface is cleaned, primer is applied
and after curing the primer, the reinforcing fibres or fabrics are placed in
predetermined directions. It is important that the resin can flow and wet all fibres.
A vacuum bag is placed on top of the fibres, the bag is sealed on contour, and a
vacuum pressure is applied, fig.4.27.
There are two holes in the vacuum bag, one for the inlet where the resin is injected
and one for the outlet where the vacuum pressure is applied. There are several
advantages of vacuum impregnation over traditional wet hand lay-up: it is possible
to avoid hand contact with the resin (or adhesive); waste at the work site can be
minimized; the quality of the composite product can be improved.
However, achieving a high degree of vacuum with surfaces of rough texture may
require a large investment in equipment.
f
d
c
d
before vacuum applied
after vacuum applied
Fig.4.26 Vacuum bag moulding:

a-mould; b-fibre resin lay-up; c-flexible bag; d-to vacuum; e-gasket; f-clamp
page 93
g)
b)
f)
A
c)
c)
g)
h)
b)
Section A-A
i)
a)
Fig.4.27 Strengthening of a reinforced concrete beam with vacuum injection system

a-polymeric resin; b-resin flow; c-resin transportation; d-reinforced concrete beam; ereinforcing fibres; f-vacuum bag; g-vacuum and resin flow;h-vacuum; i-resin trap
4.7
STRENGTHENING SYSTEMS
POLYMERIC COMPOSITES
WITH
FIBRE-REINFORCED
There are various systems of structural strengthening with fibre reinforced

polymers, figs.4.28-4.30.
The difference is related to the individual phases of the composite and also the
form and the technique used in strengthening [4.16].
Usually these systems are divided into prefab(or pre-cured) and wet lay-up
(or cured in situ) systems.
a) Prefabricated elements
Prefabricated straight strips can be manufactured by pultrusion, hand layup or continuous laminating. These strips are adhesively bonded to the
members to be strengthened. They are usually in the form of ribbon strips
that may be delivered in roll coil.
Prefabricated angles, channels, shells or jackets which are installed
through the use of adhesives. They are factory-made curved or shaped
elements that can be fitted around columns or beams.
page 94
b) Wet lay-up systems
Pre-impregnated fibre tows that are wound or otherwise mechanically

placed onto the strengthened element surface. Installation of this product
may be carried out with or without additional polymeric resin.
Dry fibre tows that are wound or otherwise mechanically placed onto the
strengthened member surface. The polymeric resin is added to the fibre
during winding process.
Dry unidirectional fibre sheet and semi-unidirectional fabric, where fibres

run predominantly in one direction. The structural member may be
partially or fully covered. Placement of the system on the structural
element surface requires saturating resin usually after a primer (a coating
applied to a surface prior to the application of an adhesive to improve the
performance of the bond) has been applied. The fibrous reinforcement can
be applied directly into the resin which has been put onto the member
surface, or can be pre-impregnated with the resin and then applied wet to
the sealed substrate.
Dry multidirectional fabric where fibres run in at least two directions. In

this case installation requires saturating resin and the fabric is applied using
one of the two processes described before.
Resin pre-impregnated uncured unidirectional sheet or fabric with fibres

running predominantly in one direction. These systems may be applied
with or without additional resin.
Resin pre-impregnated uncured multidirectional sheet or fabric, with

fibres running predominantly in two directions. Installation may be done
with or without additional resin.
Woven roving
Bi-directional fabric
Mat
Fig.4.28 Glass fibre products
page 95
Roving
aramid fabric
aramid strips
Fig.4.29 Aramid fibrous products for structural strengthening
a.
b.
Fig.4.30 Carbon fibre products for structural strengthening

a. carbon sheet; b. carbon/epoxy plate
BIBLIOGRAPHY
4.1 Hollaway L.- Polymer Composites for Civil and Structural
Engineering. Chapman and Hall, Glasgow, 1993.

4.2 Agarwal, B.D., Broutman, L.J.- Analysis and Performance of Fibre
Composites. Second edition. Willey-Interscience, New-York, 1990.
4.3 Mallik, P.K- Fibre-Reinforced Composite Materials, Manufacturing and
Design. Marcel Dekker, Inc., Basel, 1993.
4.4 Taranu N., Isopescu D.- Structures Made of Composite Materials.
Vesper, Iasi, 1996.
4.5 Malek, A.M.- Analytical Study of Reinforced Concrete Beams
Strengthened with Fibre Reinforced Plastic Plates. PhD Dissertation,
The University of Arizona, 1997.
4.6 Schwartz M.- Composite Materials Handbook. John Willey & Sons,
New York, 1992.
page 96
4.7 Daniel I., Ishai O.- Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials.

Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1994.
4.8 The Composite Materials Handbook-MIL 17, vol.3, Technomic,
Lancaster, 2000.
4.9 Williamson R.B.-Polymers in Construction. University of California
Printing Office. Berkeley, 1990.
4.10 Restaino A.J., James D.B.- Thermosetting Resin Matrix. In: Concise
Encyclopedia of Comp. Mat. Ed. A. Kelly, Pergamon, Oxford, 1995.
4.11 EXTREN Design Manual. Morrisson Molded Fibreglass Co., Bristol,
1995.
4.12 Hutchinson A.R., Quinn J. Chap. 3 Materials from Strengthening of
Reinforced Structures. Eds. L.C. Hollaway &M.B. Leeming, CRC
Press, Woodhead, Cambridge, 1999.
4.13 Taranu, N. Elemente portante din materiale plastice. Teza de doctorat,
IPIasi,1978.
Benjamin, B.S. Structural Design with Plastics, 2nd edition, Van
4.14
Nostrand, New York, 1981.
4.15 Frados, J. ed. Plastics Engineering Handbook of the SPI Inc., 4th edition,
Van Vostrand, New York, 1976.
4.16 Taljsten, B. Strengthening Concrete Beams for Shear with CFRP Sheets.
Construction and Building MATERIALS, 17, 2003.
4.17 fib, Technical report. Externally bonded FRP reinforcement for RC
structures. Sprint Digital-Druck, Stuttgart, 2001.
4.18 Jones, R.M., Mechanics of Composite Materials. Taylor & Francis,
Philadelphia, 1999.
4.19 Timoshenko, S.P., Gere, J.M. Theory of Elastic Stability. McGraw Hill
Book Co., New York, 1961.
4.20 Nielsen, L.E., Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Composites.
Volume 2, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1974.
4.21 Halpin, J.C., Tsai, S.W. Effects of Environmental Factors on Composite
Materials. Air Force Technical Report, AFML-TR-67-423, 1967.
4.22 Gibson, R. F. Principles of Composite Material Mechanics. McGraw
Hill Book Co., New York, 1994.
4.23 Barbero, E.J. Introduction to Composite Materials Design. Taylor&
Francis, Philadelphia, 1999.
4.24 Chamis, C.C. Simplified Composite Micromechanics Equations for
Hygral, Thermal, and Mechanical Properties. SAMPE Quarterly, 14,
April, 1984.
4.25 Chamis, C.C. Simplified Composite Micromechanics Equations for
Mechanical, Thermal, and Moisture Related Properties. In Engineers
Guide to Composite Materials, American Society for Metals, Metal
Park, 1987.
page 97
5
INFRASTRUCTURE CONSOLIDATION
5.1 GENERAL ASPECTS
The following factors are to be taken into account when consolidating
infrastructures:
i.
the nature of the foundation soil;
ii.
the groundwater level;
iii.
the structure and the importance of the building;
iv.
the foundation type and its present state;
v.
the necessity of maintaining the building in service.
Before starting the intervention works at the infrastructure level of a construction it

is necessary to identify the cause. Thus, the intervention may be caused by:
the aggressiveness of the ground waters or of the foundation soil,
the increase in loads on foundations, by:

o
changing the destination of the building,
introducing additional floors,
consolidation,
the choice of an inappropriate foundation system,
the decrease in the bearing capacity of the foundation soil, by:
non-existing protection measures for buildings founded on

moisture-sensitive soils,
infiltrations of rain waters,
the defective maintenance of the water supply, sewage, and

heating systems,
execution errors:
page 98
Infrastructure consolidation
not complying with the designed foundation depth,
not complying with the foundation dimensions designed in the

project,
incorrect excavations,
missing or incorrectly located reinforcement bars,
the inappropriate display of not initially designed basements within

buildings
the decrease in the capacity of the foundation system due to

underground works or construction works in its close vicinity, with no
appropriate protection measures,
settlements as a consequence of vibration effects produced by:
pile driving,
road traffic,
functioning of various machines that increase the compaction

degree of sands,
not complying with the minimum frost depth.
The main consolidation procedures of the construction infrastructures are presented

in Table 5.1.
The modifications applied to the foundation and/or foundation soil as necessary
stages in consolidating a construction may create unwanted situations, which are
at the same time unfavourable to the constructions nearby.
5.2 TYPES OF FOUNDATION DEGRADATION

5.2.1 Erosion of foundations made of stones
The strength and durability of rocks are determined by the amount and distribution
of the soft mineral included in the mineralogical composition. If this is destroyed
and removed by mechanical alteration and dissolution, the hard mineral groups
remain with very weak connections among them. This degradation process, which
is present in the natural stone foundations, is accelerated by the succession of the
freeze thaw phenomena and by the presence of salts in the gravitational water.
Most of rocks have no significant degradations as a consequence of erosion, except
for sandstone, marls and limestone [5.1].
page 99
5.2.2 Degradation of foundations and basement walls made of brickwork

Brick is the most porous foundation material used in making the infrastructure
works for constructions.
Table 5.1
ENLARGING THE
EXISTING
FOUNDATIONS
INTRODUCING
BORED PILES OR
MICROPILES
CONSOLIDATING
THE FOUNDATION
SOIL BY INJECTION
CONSOLIDATING
THE ADJACENT SOIL
BY PLANTATIONS OR
OTHER PROCEDURES
page 100
Moisture leads to damages due to the freeze-thaw successions, which materialize in

exfoliation or splitting of the surface parallel to the external side with no
waterproofing. Large continuous cracks can completely destroy the bricks.
The factors that influence the damages to the brickwork infrastructures both
qualitatively and quantitatively are:
i.
the natural moisture content of the ground and its variation in time;
ii.
the climate;
iii.
the number of freeze-thaw cycles;
iv.
the freezing speed on the construction site.
5.2.3 The rotting of wood infrastructures

The infrastructures made of wood have as a main cause for damages the
development of fungus rot that thrives on nutrients that are found in wood. The
favourable conditions of fungus rot growth in wood infrastructures imply a
temperature between 0 and 40C, and the wood must have at least 20% water with
respect to its dry weight together with a significant availability of oxygen in the
area. Raft and pile foundations are frequently subjected to attack by fungus rot
when the water table sinks below the top of the foundations, fig.5.1.
Wood infrastructures damaged by fungus rot are the most vulnerable to insect
attacks that destroy the wooden mass, accelerating the decrease in their strength
and durability.
5.2.4 Moisture damage on stone and brick infrastructures where lime
and clay are used as mortar
Brick walls where lime and clay are used as mortar often absorb moisture. In this
situation problems occur after a while only to walls that have been covered,
especially with cement mortar, disturbing the moisture balance in the wall, and
blocking the air escape. Moisture can thus penetrate farther up into the wall before
it finds a zone where the fluid exchanges with the exterior are no longer blocked.
These situations are recorded on old buildings because the original ground level
increases by:
modernization of the urban planning in the built area,
asphalt works,
arrangement of the ground for a fast exhaustion of the run off

waters near the building etc.
page 101
INITIAL LEVEL OF
UNDERGROUND WATER
NEW LEVEL OF
UNDERGROUND WATER
Fig.5.1 Rotting of wood foundations due to groundwater lowering
The brick walls immediately above the stone brick infrastructures can suffer
important damages, such as exfoliation and detachments of the mortar layers due to
the crystallization of the salt from the infiltrated water or dissolving/hydration of
the existent minerals in the constitutive rocks.
5.2.5 Damages caused by additional settlements in case of:
5.2.5.a Groundwater level lowering
Settlements occur as a result of the stress increase in the foundation soil and
changes in the pore water pressure. In urban areas, new building construction has
involved an important volume of works for drainage and/or water removals, and
infrastructure expansions for terrestrial transportation have blocked much larger
surfaces to the rain water infiltration as well as the occurrence of the areas with
cut-and-cover gallery works for metros, plantation in urban areas of deciduous
trees induce as an effect the lowering of the groundwater table and consequently
supplementary settlements to the existent constructions.
5.2.5.b Grounds with low bearing capacity
The constructions previous to the development of civil engineering and
respectively to geotechnical engineering have no quantitatively justified
dimensioning based on geotechnical reports. Therefore, some of them are founded
page 102
on grounds with low bearing capacity, the damages beginning from the
infrastructure and most of the times propagating to the superstructure [5.2].
5.2.5.c Grounds with irregular stratification in the active zone of foundations
The risk to make a foundation on an irregular soil profile for constructions with
large surface in the horizontal plane is increased especially since the absence of
certain soil investigation methods was accepted due to the lack of advanced
technology. Damages can be found in areas subjected to supplementary settlements
(see fig.6.1.).
5.2.5.d Load increase
Constructions that initially performed well can present damages due to the
supplementary settlements induced by load alteration, the settlements being
differentiated on the footing.
5.2.5.e Removal of neighbouring constructions
In every city there is an area considered as historically and culturally representative
for the present community. The interventions on constructions associated to this
area are of consolidation type but they can also be radical, like the removal of some
buildings that cannot be recovered. In these situations, the remained neighboring
constructions are subjected to irregular displacements upward by the partial
decompression of the foundation soil. Under some circumstances local stability
problems of infrastructures can occur due to loss of lateral supports [5.1].
5.3 CONSOLIDATION OF NATURAL ROCK FOUNDATIONS

Usually, the following procedures can be applied for the rehabilitation of natural
rock foundations:
i.
introducing a new foundation

(underpinning), fig.5.2.a;
ii.
performing a reinforced coating, fixed by connectors, on one side

or both sides of foundation (all over the foundation height or only
to a certain extent), fig.5.2.b;
iii.
introducing an adjacent foundation, fig.5.2.c;
iv.
consolidation by injection;
v.
consolidation of foundation soil.

page 103
under
the
existing
one
a.
b.
c.
Fig.5.2 Consolidation procedures of natural stone foundations.

a. underpinning, b. covering, c. introducing adjacent foundations
Underpinning is performed on alternatively cast sections (section length will be 80120 cm). In addition to the reinforcing bars located transversally longitudinal
reinforcing bars will be provided as well.
In some cases, the underpinning presented in fig.5.2.a can be continued by the
restoration of the affected stone works by jacketing, fig.5.2.b, by a previous
injection of cracks or uncovered joints [5.3]. Underpinning can also be done on
piles, fig.5.3.a and on pilasters, fig.5.3.b.
The connection between coating /jacketing and the existing foundation is usually
made with clamps hammered in joints or bored holes. In the case of bored holes,
clamp can be fixed by mortar injection.
REINFORCED CONCRETE PILES
REINFORCED CONCRETE PILASTER
a.
b.
Fig.5.3 Underpinning with discharge on isolated supports.

a. on piles, b. on pilasters
page 104
In the case of adjacent foundations, connection is achieved in one of the

variants indicated in fig.5.4 and 5.5, applied for the consolidation of natural
rock foundations.
EMBEDDED CONNECTOR
PIERCED CONNECTOR
OLD FOUNDATION
NEW FOUNDATION
a.
OLD FOUNDATION
NEW FOUNDATION
b.
Fig.5.4 Procedures for coupling adjacent foundations

a. pierced connectors, b. embedded connectors
CONNECTOR
NEW FOUNDATION
OLD FOUNDATION
Fig.5.5 Procedures for coupling adjacent foundations with connections under the
foundation
The underpinning procedure both enlarges and deepens the old foundation system
with two aspects to consider:
an increase of the dead load together with a structural benefit from

the new foundation member, that increases the average value of the
reactive pressure and by that consuming partly the new bearing
capacity value of the foundation soil;
an increase of the bearing capacity of the foundation soil, given the

increased foundation width and depth together with a potential
increase of the effective settlement on the enlarged active zone.
page 105
The overall effect on safety factor is sometimes questionable when consolidating

foundations without the active zone from the soil underneath.
The technology related to the injection of natural rock foundations will be the same
as the one applied in brickwork injections.
When injecting natural rock foundations, the following aspects should be taken into
account:
fissures should not be too fine and should allow injection,
fissures should not have clayey mud, since it influences the cement mortar
setting and strengthening,
the inserted mortar should not be in aggressive water or moving water,
foundations will not be exposed to heat or moisture excess during

injections based on lime mortar,
if the foundations consolidated through this procedures are exposed to

freeze-thaw cycles, they will be protected by introducing of continuous
insulations on the external side.
5.4 CONSOLIDATION OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

FOUNDATIONS
Reinforced concrete foundations generally require consolidation because of the
existence of certain execution errors and more frequently due to load increase or
foundation soil degradation.
Usually, the rehabilitation of reinforced concrete foundations is achieved by
introducing some adjacent foundations, which partially overtake the load from the
existing foundations. The procedures of increasing the bearing capacity of the
foundation soil are obviously applied too.
In the case of continuous footings, the systems used are the same as those for
natural stone foundations, fig.5.2.c and d, with the connecting systems in fig.5.4
and 5.5.
A peripheral ring is introduced in the case of spread foundations [5.4], which can
also contribute to the increase in soil bearing capacity. The ring can work
independently with discharge on the existing foundation, fig.5.6.a or, when this is
not possible, by direct coupling to the column bases, fig.5.6.b.
page 106
Beam networks are consolidated either by introducing certain spread foundations

designated to the column area, fig.5.7, or certain supplementary beams, fig.5.8, and
if necessary, the foundation system is transformed into a mat foundation, fig.5.9.
a.
b.
Fig.5.6 Consolidation procedures for spread foundations

a. peripheral ring at the foundation base; b. peripheral ring coupled on the column base
SPREAD
FOUNDATIONS
NETWORK OF
FOUNDATION BEAMS
SECTION A-A
Fig.5.7 Consolidation of beam networks with spread foundations
Each of the various options presented above gives the benefit of the best
accordance between active and reactive pressure at the footing level, that is
partly transferred now to the new foundation members.
page 107
BEAM NETWORKS
A
SUPPLEMENTARY
FOUNDATION BEAMS
SECTION A-A
Fig.5.8 Consolidation of beam networks with supplementary beams.
To rehabilitate mats on beams when the bearing capacity of beams is decreased, the
increase in beam capacity is achieved by procedures generally used for beam
consolidation. Beam networks made of steel profiles connected to the beams of the
existing structure can be applied as well.
Under certain circumstances, for structures where the structural walls possess high
storage of bearing capacity, piles that couple to the existing foundation with
reinforced concrete elements or steel profiles included in concrete can be used.
NETWORK OF BEAMS
A
MAT
FOUNDATION
SECTION A-A
Fig.5.9 Consolidation of beam networks with a mat foundation

page 108
5.5 TYPES OF PILES USED IN INFRASTRUCTURE CONSOLIDATIONS

The development of various piling technologies offers the possibility of an optimal
choice of the consolidation type used for the infrastructure of a certain construction
based on the existing conditions.
The hollow steel pile with circular cross-section or the piles made of steel profiles,
externally protected against corrosion by a layer of 1,8 m of epoxy resin,
represent favourable solutions within the consolidation works [5.1]. They are
introduced by light hammering, the work being performed from the inside and the
minimum basement height required by the technology being 2.5 m. In the case of
hollow piles, they are filled with concrete.
The Mega-steel pile is a square steel pipe pile which is driven down into the soil
with a hydraulic jack, the driving also being helped by local water flush. The
section joints are made by welding. If the pile does not reach a soil layer of high
consistency or the layer is not at the required depth, an enlarged base of plain
concrete is performed. Concrete is pumped into the pile under pressure.
Pressed or driven Mega piles of reinforced concrete have a square cross-section of
the side of about 300 mm and the segment length of 1 m. These piles are usually
used for constructions in soft rocks. The joints are made to give adequate bending
capacity, generally by welding steel plates at the ends of each pile segment. The
pile body has an included steel pipe in the cross-section centre, through which the
verticality of the pile insertion is checked and the air or water flush can aid the pile
driving.
The Lindo piles are recommended in grounds consisting of hard rocks or other
obstacles difficult to overcome by regular solutions. The pile consists of a
removable steel pipe, which is introduced into the ground by drilling. Concrete is
pumped into the pile when it has reached the required depth and a steel core is
introduced with the dimensions varying from 50 to 100 mm.
The load transmission from the existing foundation to the new pile group can be
achieved through different variants. The direct location of piles under the existing
foundation is more difficult. This solution is possible only by making slits and
introducing the pile through the existing foundation, and then pouring the concrete
in the joint zone.
If the piles are located on the perimeter external to the existing foundation, a
connecting beam will be made to include both piles and the body of the old
foundation.
page 109
5.6 CONSOLIDATION OF PILE FOUNDATIONS

The partial or total replacement of a number of wooden piles damaged by rot by
concrete or steel piles is difficult, especially because of the lack of information
regarding the dimensions, number and location of piles.
The technological procedure consists of soil removal both inside and outside
around the existing foundation up to the depth where the pile is not damaged. The
next step consists of removing the rotten pile segment and placing new steel or
reinforced concrete pile segments with an individual joint (more difficult to do) or
with a transfer zone of the plate type (fig.5.10).
The load is transmitted in steps, as from a pile foundation above to a pile
foundation underneath, and from each of them to the foundation soil [5.1].
ROTTEN ZONE
WOODEN PILES
NEW PILE MEMBER
REINFORCED
CONCRETE PLATE
Fig.5.10 Consolidation of wooden piles foundations
5.7 FOUNDATION SOIL CONSOLIDATION

The consolidation of the foundation soil should generally take into account the
following actions [5.5]:
increasing the bearing capacity of the soil;
ensuring the site stability,

page 110
improving the mechanical properties of the soil,
soil impermeability.
The consolidation of the foundation soil is usually achieved through the following
injection procedures:
silicate grouting,
cement grouting,
clay grouting,
waterproofing with bitumen.
Soil injection is performed by introducing a substance that binds the particles and
fills in the voids with a gel, which hardens in time, thus obtaining an increase in
strength and impermeability [5.6]. This procedure is applied to:
low cohesive soils,
cohesionless soils,
soils with high permeability with large voids or cracks.
The introduction of the solutions into the soil is performed by means of injectors in
order to ensure a uniform solution penetration, the injectors are successively
pushed.
The effectiveness of the injection procedure is entirely dependent on the initial
water-particle bonding, permeability and underground water conditions.
New materials (foamy substances) are recommended to accommodate various soil
types and site conditions so that the increase of the internal friction angle and
cohesion is reflected into a larger bearing capacity of the consolidated foundation
soil [5.9].
5.7.1
Soil consolidation by silicate grouting
Silicate grouting consists of injecting a solution of sodium silicate and an

electrolyte into the ground. The two substances in contact react and produce a
silicate gel that binds the solid particles.
The result is a cohesive soil with clogged voids and an increased bearing capacity
(fig.5.11). The sodium silicate should have a certain viscosity to enter the voids and
not to be washed away by the electrolyte solution, in case of successive procedure.
page 111
INJECTED AREA
1.5 r
INJECTOR
r
0.8 r
Fig.5.11 The location of the injected zones
The silicate grouting with two solutions can be used in sands and sandy fine
gravels with a permeability coefficient of 2.00 8.00 m/day.
The silicate grouting is not recommended to:
boulders, whose voids are not filled with fine materials,
karstic voids,
basaltic soils,
soils logged with oil products, oil or raisins,
soils with underground water whose pH is greater than 9.
In loessy soils (containing carbonate or calcium sulphate) the sodium silicate reacts
with the soluble salts in water, naturally included into the soil, resulting in the
precipitation of the silica gel.
The precipitation time of the silica gel can be modified from minutes to several
hours by dosing the quantities and the solution concentrations.
The silicate grouting can also be performed by adding inorganic reagents for fine
and silty sands, with permeabilities between 0.1 and 10 m/day, or organic reagents
for sands and fine pervious gravels [5.4], [5.7].
5.7.2
Soil consolidation by cement grouting
Cement grouting consists of an under pressure injection into the soil voids of
cement grout or fluid mortar of cement, which reduces ground permeability and
increases bearing capacity.
page 112
This procedure is applied for soils whose particles can be bound with cement. The
cement grouting can be used for gravels and sands where the voids are large
enough to let the particles hydrated by cement break through. The size of the
cement hydrated particles is about 50, and the soil that can be treated should have
voids of at least 0.1 mm. The procedure can be applied if the value of the specific
soil absorption is higher than 0.05 l/min.
The mortars currently used have c/a dosages between 1:2 and 1:12, depending of
the soil unit absorption. Calcium chloride may be added to accelerate the setting.
The cement grout or mortar is introduced into the ground by injection. The spacing
between injection points depends on the ground permeability and varies between
1.50 and 2.00m. The injection pressure is 3 5 at.
Cement grouting gives unsatisfactory results in very aggressive soils or in soils
with high salinity, since cement setting and hardening are hampered.
5.7.3
Ground consolidation by clay grouting
Clay grouting consists of introducing a suspension or clayey paste into the soil by
injection or caulking, which, once in the soil fissures, voids or pores, makes the soil
clogged and impervious.
Clay grouting is more economical in the ground with cages and large cracks, in
rocks with numerous karstic voids, for which the performance of cement grouting
provides important cement consumption and would thus be uneconomical.
Clay grouting can be performed in soils with aggressive water; for clogging the
fissured rocks and those with karstic voids, sandy clays with low plasticity are
used. In this case, the use of fat clays is not recommended, as the suspensions made
of these clays hardly release water and remain in fluid state inside the fissures.
Therefore, they can be easily washed away by the water moving through the rock
voids.
In order to be injected, clay is processed by soaking and dispersion in water, as a
suspension. By adding various chemical substances, dispersion time and
coagulation of clay suspension can be controlled.
Water release from the clay mortar can be accelerated by adding a coagulant during
injection (calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, lime grout) of 3 5 % of the
weight of the solid particles.
page 113
Clays and especially fat clays have the ability to exchange the ions from the
adsorption complex in the presence of an electrolyte [8]. By adding a solution
made from some calcium salt to a clayey suspension whose particles have sodium
in the adsorption complex, sodium will be replaced by calcium ions and the
suspension will coagulate. The presence of calcium and magnesium ions
coagulates the clayey suspensions, while sodium and potassium ions make them
more fluid.
Clay cement mixtures can be used in grounds consisting of boulders with large
voids.
Mortar pumps are used to introduce clayey suspensions in sands and gravels.
5.7.4 Ground consolidation by bitumen grouting
Bitumen grouting can be performed in cold and warm conditions.
Bitumen grouting in warm conditions consists of under pressure injection of hot
melted bitumen into the ground, at temperatures of 200- 2200C in order to:
create impervious curtains,
protect against water currents,
protect against aggressive waters.
In contact with the rocks and the cold water moving through the void, bitumen
hardens and cannot be washed away.
Bitumen grouting in warm conditions is considered appropriate for hard rocks with
cracks and voids for which the unit absorption of water varies between 0.1 and 100
l/min. The penetration radius of the hot melted bitumen depends on the fissure size
and continuity, the ground permeability, the injecting pressure value and the
injection duration. It should be taken into account that by cooling, bitumen reduces
its volume by approx. 12 %.
Bitumen grouting in cold conditions consists of injecting the ground with a
bitumen emulsion.
Chemical substances are added after the emulsion injection or at the same time
with the ground penetration, breaking it. The salts from the underground water are
often used to break the emulsion.
The bitumen released (from the emulsions) groups, fills the voids between the
particles and produces ground imperviousness.
page 114
The bitumen particles should be 25-35 times smaller than the average dimension of
the ground particles to create an easy penetration of the emulsion in sands and
gravels.
Cold bitumen grouting can be applied either independently as a possibility to make
sands, gravels and fissured rocks impervious, or as a completion of warm bitumen
grouting.
The injection of emulsion and chemical substances used to break it in the ground is
performed with equipments similar to the ones used for silicate grouting.
5.7.5
Soil consolidation by other procedures
The ground consolidation can also be achieved by reducing the moisture content.
Thus, electrophysical procedures are used to force water to move through the soil
voids from the anode to the cathode, where water is collected in wells and then
removed by pumping. This system is efficient in soils with fine and very fine
particles.
The electrical procedures (electroosmosis) are also applied where the injection of
chemical substances into silty and clayey soils is very difficult. The solutions are
dispersed into the soils in the space between the anode and cathode, under the
influence of electrical current (fig.5.12) [5.8], [5.9].
The advantage of electroosmosis injection over the introduction of chemical
solutions under pressure is that a directional dispersion of chemical solutions into
the ground can be achieved.
In addition to the procedures mentioned above, there are also others meant to
recreate the initial conditions into the ground. They can represent simple solutions
for improving the construction behaviour, but in some situations their effects are
difficult to estimate and they are also quite costly.
The raise of groundwater level is recommended to be applied to:
existing wooden foundations in soils (in well conditions) could

suffer degradations at water level lowering,
soils where differential settlements occur as a consequence of the

stress state modification against the one initial estimated.
The procedure of raising the groundwater level implies the water infiltration into
the pervious soil layers. Wells are made externally, near the foundation, and
supplied with water.
page 115
V
ANODE
0 + x
CATHODE
- x=L
a
FLOW DIRECTION
wz
t1
WATER PRESSURE AT
DIFFERENT t i
t2
x=L
t3
_
+
_
+
ELECTRODES PATTERNS
Fig.5.12. Electroosmosis principle and electrode arrangements
The level is checked by installing pipes displayed on the construction perimeter

and monitoring is permanent, fig.5.13 [5.1].
Water infiltration can be performed by creating a system to supply wells with
groundwater, the checking being based on piesometric pipes.
If the lowering of the groundwater level is due to the development of a deciduous
vegetation, its removal can lead to a return of the water level inside the ground
The lowering of the underground water level can be applied for:
natural rock or brick foundations in soils where the process of

chemical and/or mechanical degradation could be accelerated,
page 116
urban slopes with an average to high instability risk due to sliding,

which can affect the general stability of the existing constructions
on the slope.
PIEZOMETRIC PIPE
WATER INFILTRATION
WELL
Fig.5.12 Rising the groundwater level
An accessible and often applied solution is to create a water drainage system to

maintain the groundwater level in slope rehabilitation under control.
As regards the drain performance at the foundation level for the existing
construction, each construction presents particularities that require an evaluation
(difficult to make) of its behaviour improvement, by maintaining these drains in
service, with no consolidation works on the partially damaged foundation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
5.1 Knut I. Edvardsen, Foundation retrofit & rehabilitation, Bulletin of the
Norwegian Building Research Institute, English translation by Nils
Johanson and Richard D. Seifert, Universitz of Alaska Fairbanks, 1989
5.2 Rileanu P., Muat V., Lungu I., Foundation Soil Improvement by
electrosilication, Proceedings of the 10th Danube-European Conference on
Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 1996
5.3 Tologea S., Probleme privind patologia i terapeutica construciilor,
Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1976.
5.4 Nistor C., Troia L., Teodoru M, Minialov H., Consolidarea i ntreinerea
construciilor, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1991.
5.5 Silion T., Rileanu P., Muat V., Fundaii n condiii speciale, Rotaprint
Iai, 1989
5.6 Van Impe W.F., Soil Improvement, Ed. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 1995
page 117
5.7 Rileanu P., Muat V., Lungu I., The use of the electrosilication method at
the foundation consolidations for old architectural monuments in Iai,
Romania, Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium-Grouting and
Deep Mixing, Tokyo, 1996
5.8 Rileanu P., Boi N., Stanciu A, Geologie, Geotehnic, Fundaii, vol 1, 2,
Rotaprint Iai, 1986
5.9 Lungu I., Stanciu A., Boi N., Probleme Speciale de Geotehnic i
Fundaii, Ed. Junimea, Iai, 2002
page 118
6
BRICK AND STONE MASONRY
STRUCTURE CONSOLIDATION
6.1 GENERAL ASPECTS
When rehabilitating masonry structural systems, the following aspects must be
taken into account:
i.
the age of the building;
ii.
the masonry type;
iii.
iv.
v.
stone
brick
the type of the join(t)ing material between the masonry stone
dry masonry
loam or lime mortar
cement mortar
the structural system:
plain masonry
masonry with metallic elements
masonry with reinforced concrete columns and belts
the foundation type
Excluding the design and execution errors as a cause of masonry structure

degradation, the main causes are:
material aging;
page 119
Brick and stone masonry structure consolidation
the lack of building maintenance and the occurrence of

condensation, which lead to the degradation of the materials used
in the structural system;
foundation soil degradation due to rain water infiltration, leakage

from supply or sewage installations, rise in ground-water level or
their course deviation because of new construction;
exceeding the bearing capacity of the foundation soil when

building a new construction which is adjacent to an already
existing construction;
seismic action;
other extraordinary actions like explosions.
The most frequently encountered damages of masonry structures are:

crazes and cracks in the masonry walls due to foundation soil
degradation, fig.6.1;
DECREASED BEARING CAPACITY

OF SOIL AT PRESENT
Fig.6.1 Masonry weakening caused by the local degradation of foundation soil
wall cracking under horizontal actions following diagonal direction

(principal stresses) caused by exceeding the tensile bearing capacity,
fig.6.2.a;
embrassure base cracking under horizontal actions, fig.6.2.b;
crazes and cracks in embrassure crossing due to the lack of joints to

provide 3D interaction;
embrassure dettaching from lintels or the occurrence of oblique cracks

above door and window openings caused by seismic action;
page 120
masonry displacement and partial failure in areas with stress

concentrations, fig.6.3;
a.
b.
Fig. 6.2 Wall cracking under horizontal actions

a - failure under horizontal actions; b - failure due to bending
Fig.6.3 Masonry displacement/failure in the support area of a beam
Fig.6.4 shows the typical failure of a masonry structure without appropriate

measures to protect the building during seismic action.
The concept of masonry construction rehabilitation must include:
i.
the removal of the possible causes of material degradation,
ii.
avoiding changes in the structural system,
iii.
improving the load transmission to foundations,
iv.
joining the contiguous vertical elements,

page 121
v.
achieving co-working between vertical structural elements.
Fig.6.4 The degradation of an old masonry building in Umbria-Marche, Italy under the
earthquake on 26th September, 1997
There are cases when, although the building is functionally obsolete, the front walls
are preserved for the sake of the historical value of the construction. Two such
examples are provided by two buildings in England, where this method is very
frequently used (fig.6.5) [6.3]. Fig.6.5.a shows the contour wall supporting system
made of metallic frames arranged on the external contour utilised for the
rehabilitation of a building in Manchester. Fig.6.5.b presents the rehabilitation of a
construction in Sheffield by means of a new framing system made of metallic
frames.
6.2 GENERAL CONSOLIDATION PRINCIPLES

Masonry structure rehabilitation can be achieved through [6.4], [6.5], [6.6]:
displaced masonry recovery;
partial concreting with concrete denticulations;
crack and craze injection and caulking;
crack fastening with steel dogs;
wall jacketing;
opening planking;
page 122
corner area binding;
cross-tie implementation;
the use of metallic cover plates;
horizontal and vertical reinforced concrete element placement;
composite material jacketing.
a.
b.
Fig.6.5 Construction rehabilitation by front wall preservation

a - a building in Manchester; b- a building in Sheffield
The consolidation of a building may require the combination of the previouslymentioned procedures, depending on the damage causes, the weakening
mechanism and particularly on the condition of the building, aspects that will
define the general consolidation concept of the structural system.
Within the rehabilitation of any brick or stone masonry structure, a very important
stage is masonry preparation, consisting of:
the existing plastering removal;
joint deepening for 15-20 mm;
the inadherent material removal by wire brush rubbing till the opening
of the masonry stone pores;
the air blast of the cleaned areas to remove the dust.
Once the preparation ends, the specific consolidation stage may proceed according
to the chosen variant from the following ones.
page 123
6.2.1
Displaced masonry recovery
The areas with displaced masonry are rehabilitated by stripping the masonry down
and recovering it with the same materials as those used in the initial structure. This
principle is both structurally and architecturally important.
When stronger materials need to be introduced, non-homogenous areas may
appear, leading to concentration of tensions. However, all these aspects need to be
analysed in the general context of structural consolidation.
From an architectural point of view, when it comes to an apparent masonry
structure, the use of other materials may deteriorate the aspect of the building.
There are many examples when the use of cement mortar resulted in historical
value depreciation, fig.6.6.
Fig.6.6. Recovery of old masonry with cement mortar [6.2]
6.2.2
Partial concreting with concrete denticulations
Partial concreting means replacing the masonry stone by concrete in the main
cracked and crazed areas and consists of:
gradual removal of damaged bricks from the cracked areas, starting

from the bottom;
cleaning the mortar area;
air blast;
page 124
watering the bricks in the area so that they would not absorb the water
from the concrete (the operation will be repeated and, before pouring
the concrete, it needs time to dry to eliminate the exceeding water and
open the pores of the masonry stone);
concrete pouring.
This procedure is recommended for the interior walls and only when it is difficult
to re-sew the wall masonry [6.4], [6.6]. This procedure is recommended together
with introducing of vertical and horizontal new reinforced concrete elements
(columns and belts) to create a better 3D interaction of the entire structural
elements.
The technology described above, which is used in concreting, may be applied to all
consolidation works that involving wet processing.
6.2.3
Crack and craze injection and caulking
Large cracks and crazes can be caulked with cement mortar. Since it is difficult to
achieve profound caulking, in the case of thick walls this operation is used only as
a preliminary stage of the injection procedure.
Injection is used with the walls having isolated cracks and densely and irregularly
networked cracks. It can be done with grouting, fluid cement mortar or epoxy
reisin in the case of fine cracks.
The main stages of injection are:
removing the dust from the crack by means of a compressed-air jet;
washing the crack with a water jet if injection is done with grouting or
cement mortar;
introducing some fittings in the walls, 5 cm deep and 1 m from one

another along the crack to facilitate injection;
applying coating with a cement mortar layer on both sides of the

cracked areas (crack caulking);
a bottom to top injection with a pressure of maximum 3 atm. When the

injection material reaches this level, vertical injection is performed
through the next fitting;
fitting removal after the injection material has hardened and the areas
have been repaired.
page 125
6.2.4
Crack fastening seaming with steel dogs
Linking with steel dogs is used in the case of isolated cracks. Steel dogs are fixed
on both sides of the crack, as perpendicular to it as possible in undamaged masonry
areas.
The number of dogs depends on their cross-section and the bearing capacity of the
masonry wall and will ensure sufficient anchorage length.
Usually, the steel dogs used are round and fixed in the holes with cement mortar. It
is recommended that the dogs should be introduced on both wall sides if it is
possible [6.1]
In practice, flat steel dogs (plates) are also very frequent as they can be easier fixed
in the wall by ordinary means, fig.6.7.
CRACK
CONCRETING ZONE
FLAT STRIP
Fig.6.7. Flat steel strap
6.2.5
Wall jacketing
Wall jacketing is recommended for the highly damaged old buildings, where the
bearing capacity of the structural walls is signifivantly diminished.
Wall jacketing is very frequently used in masonry structure consolidation. It is
performed with cement or concrete mortar on either one side or both sides of the
walls and reinforcement is usually done with welded nets.
To obtain ductile sections, reinforcements with independent bars made of plain
steel should be used.
Generally, masonry wall coating starts at the foundation level from a reinforced
concrete belt. In this way, the final/total loadings are transmitted to the foundation
soil.
page 126
STEEL
DOGS
20 cm
10-15
20 c m
a.
b.
Fig.6.8 Reinforcement fixing by means of dogs
Wall jacketing should be conceived so that good co-working with the existing
masonry would be provided. This can be achieved by fixing the reinforcement to
the wall and ensuring that the material used for coating has good adherence to the
wall.
Jacketing reinforcement is fixed with chess-like vertically and horizontally
positioned dogs at about 20 cm, fig.6.8.a. The dogs may be fixed in holes that have
been filled with mortar. In the case of double jacketing, the dogs penetrate the wall
and tie the reinforcements on both sides. If the dogs are fixed by hammering, they
should be located in the vertical joints, inclined with about 10-15, fig.6.8.b. They
are made of plain steel and are 10 mm in diameter, 15 cm long, 6-8 cm in hook,
sharp and bent at right corner under heating.
The jacketing width will not be more than 4 cm in the case of mortar jacketing and
will not exceed 10 cm if it is made of concrete.
The jacketing width depends not only on the bearing capacity to be provided, but
also on the execution technology (casting or injection).
6.2.6
Opening planking
Opening planking can be done by:
placing the additional reinforcement around the opening embedded in

jacketing;
framing the opening by means of a reinforced concrete structure;
framing the opening with metallic profiles.

page 127
When reinforcement is used, it is added to the jacketing reinforcement and it will

consist of at least 2 bars of 12 mm in diameter, 10 cm between them, on the
opening contour at about 3-5 cm from its edge. The bars are additionally fixed in
the wall by means of dogs, fig.6.9.a.
Opening framing by means of a reinforced concrete frame is achieved by taking a
brick row out. If the wall is thick, the operation can be done separately for the
interior and the exterior and, if necessary, the two frames can be bounded, fig.6.9.b.
Opening framing with metallic profiles usually makes use of steel angle sections
fixed in the masonry by means of round steel anchors 60-80 cm long disposed on
the entire opening contour, fig.6.9.c.
BOUNDING
MEMBER
DOGS
A-A
10
3-5
a.
A-A
A
REINFORCED
RAMA DIN
CONCRETE
BETON ARMAT
FRAME
b.
METALLIC
FRAMING
c.
Fig.6.9 Types of opening planking
6.2.7
Corner area binding
To ensure a better element binding, additional bonds must be introduced in the

corner areas.
The nets are overlapped for at least 20 cm on both sides of the corner. Additionally,
three bars of 12 mm in diameter are fixed over the net by means of dogs at about
10 cm between them.
If possible, pierced dogs should be used to ensure a better bonding between
jacketing and the structure of the wall, fig.6.10.
Consolidation of the corner areas provides actually a real 3D interaction of the
jacketed structural elements.
page 128
10
Fig.6.10. Corner area binding
6.2.8
Cross-tie use
Cross-ties provide the space bonding of the masonry structures and they are used
with buildings that do not have reinforced concrete belts, whatever the floor type.
Cross-ties are usually made of round steel to enable nut tensioning. Other types of
sections (flat steel, channel bar etc) with round bars at their ends are also in use.
Cross-tie ending fixing is done with plates or other metallic profiles, which can
provide stress distribution over a large wall area and can couple the corner area.
By using two cross-ties on the interior and exterior sides, cramp-spaced and
bonded with reinforced concrete straps (beam traverse) at 1-1.3 m between them,
tie-belts can be obtained to improve the overall structural behaviour, fig.6.11.
1
FRONT
PLATE
CONNECTING
NUT
CROSSING
MEMBER
CRAMP
CROSS-TIE
1- 1
CROSS-TIE
CROSSING
MEMBER
Fig.6.11 Tie-belt
6.2.9
The use of metallic cover plates
Dry consolidation can also be achieved by means of metallic cover plates (channels
or angle sections), which can form upper and bottom belts, diagonal braces and
vertical beams. The metallic profiles disposed on both wall sides are fixed with
page 129
double-ended bolts. The result is masonry wall pre-stressing which improves

structural behaviour
6.2.10 The use of horizontal and vertical reinforced concrete element
The use of reinforced concrete columns and belts is one of the most frequently met
solutions as it provides good bonding between the horizontal and vertical structural
elements. Such works are very labour intensive, as they require the removal of
some parts of the masonry. This is why they are mostly used with old buildings
where mortar is less strong.
The reinforced concrete columns are introduced at wall and fixed with simple belts
with connectors, fig.6.12 or belts of the cover plate type (2 belts, one for each side
of the wall).
80 - 100 cm
CONNECTOR
EXISTING MASONRY
REINFORCED CONCRETE
BELT
Fig.6.12 Belt with connectors [6.3]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
Nistor C., Troia L., Teodoru M., Minialov H., Consolidarea i ntreinerea
construciilor, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1991.
Hassapis S., The Rehabilitation and Conservation of Old Masonry
Historic Structures With the Use of FRPs, Degree of Master of
Philosophy, University of Sheffield, 1999.
Pasta A., Restauro Antisismico, Dario Flaccovio Editore, Palermo, 1992.
Arsenie C., Voiculescu M., Ionacu M., Soluii de consolidare a

construciilor avariate de cutremure, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti,
1997.
Negoi Al., Aur V., Budescu M., Comportarea materialelor i a
construciilor din zidarie portant din municipiul Iai, Buletinul
I.P.Iai, Tomul XXIV (XXVIII), Fasc.3-4, 1979.
Tologea S., Probleme privind patologia i terapeutica construciilor,
Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1976.
page 130
7
REHABILITATION OF
REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
7.1 GENERAL ASPECTS
Buildings with reinforced concrete structures are largely used in most countries.
Although these types of structures have a high degree of safety, the cases when
intervention is needed to rehabilitate them are very frequent.
The causes of degradation of reinforced concrete structures are not few. The most
frequent damages are caused by defective performances during execution, such as:
certain operations performed in cold or hot weather conditions without taking

proper measures to ensure the quality of concrete;
incorrect disposal of the reinforcing bars in compliance with the execution

project;
formwork removal or stressing of the structural element before reaching the

required concrete strength;
use of low quality materials;
failure to comply with the technologies when casting the concrete.
The group of construction errors that may have unpleasant effects on the reinforced
concrete structures also includes errors related to the quality of the adjacent works
like jacketing, finishing etc.
Sometimes the causes of degradation of reinforced concrete structures and of other
types of structures as well may occur even from the design stage. Some of them
are:
loading underestimation related to the destination of the building or the

change in its destination;
incorrect analytic modelling and calculus errors;

page 131
Rehabilitation of reinforced concrete structures
structural errors, such as the lack of plastic deformation capacity (nonductile sections) for the buildings situated in seismic areas;
conceiving errors related to thermal coating/insulations and heating

systems;
accepting some inadequate structural systems suggested by the architects.
Damages are often caused by technological actions or the improper maintenance of

equipment and installations, sometimes accompanied by material aging. Most
examples of this type are found in industry, where damage may be caused by:
chemical agents;
poor maintenance of installations producing vibrations;
infiltration of chemical agents into the groundwater and infrastructure

failure;
technological operations that release aggressive chemical substances;
excessive humidity and the absence of ventilation systems
failure to comply with the climatic conditions (condensation) etc.
There are also other factors which, either by degradation in the foundation soil and
water infiltration as leakage from water supply systems, or degradation at the
hydro-and thermal level of coatings can make the structures lose their functioning
capacity (e.g. the loss of their capacity of retaining liquids in tanks or retaining
water at dams) or local failures into the structure itself.
However, most structural damages occur in seismic areas. The causes of reinforced
concrete structure degradation under seismic actions are very numerous. Many old
buildings, which have been subjected to a relatively high number of earthquakes,
have lost their bearing capacity because of material fatigue.
The concept of ductile design itself, which lies at the basis of construction design
in seismic areas, accepts minor structural damages during earthquakes, which will
require afterwards, interventions.
7.2 GENERAL REHABILITATION PRINCIPLES

Rehabilitation of reinforced concrete structures may be achieved in several ways.
However, the performance of the new system is constrained by a series of factors,
such as:
page 132
i.
the compatibility between the old systems capacity of deformation and

that of the system acquired by strengthening each structural member;
ii. achieving the best bonding possible between the two members (the new
one and the old one) so that an effective loading transfer could be
achieved;
iii. the correct modelling of the newly created system;
iv. developing new devices to assess the new systems performance and
behaviour.
The analyses on the increase in the existing structures performance particularly
under seismic actions have resulted in a series of rehabilitation measures which
restrain/condition the increase in bearing capacity and horizontal stiffness in
relation with the increase in structural members ductility [7.1]. For the reinforced
concrete framed structures this can be done by several procedures:
i.
using some stiffening panels or increasing the bearing capacity of the

existing ones, fig.7.1.a the panels can be made of reinforced concrete or
masonry;
ii. using some steel bracings, fig.7.1.b, either locally, within the frames or
generally, involved in major structural areas;
iii. using some adjacent structures, fig.7.1.c they may have several roles,
such as stiffening and decreasing the stress state within the structure,
leveling the behaviour of the building by diminishing the torsion effects
etc.;
iv. restoring the bearing capacity of the building by increasing the bearing
capacity of structural elements: columns, girders or joints, fig.7.1.d.
For buildings on shear walls, the rehabilitation principles are generally restricted to
restoring the bearing capacity of structural elements by caulking and obliterate the
fissures/cracks with mortar or epoxi resin injections. In order to increase the
bearing capacity, if necessary, the following methods may be used:
i.
performing some new structural walls connected afterwards to the

existing ones, fig.7.2, (the new walls may be built on either one side or
both sides of the existing walls);
ii.
reinforced concrete jacketing on either one side or both sides of the

existing walls (by shotcretting);
iii.
perimetral planking and member joining on intersections;
iv.
using some adjacent structures.

page 133
BRACING
PANEL
STIFFENING
PANEL
a.
b.
STRENGTHENING
OF THE JOINT
ADJACENT
STRUCTURE
STREGTHENING
OF THE COLUMN
STRENGTHENING
OF THE GIRDER
c.
d.
Fig.7.1 Strengthening solutions for reinforced concrete framed structures
Whatever the case, the interface connection between the old and the new elements
is required to ensure their bonding and obtain a single homogeneous structural
system.
Since both the systems used and the damage affecting the reinforced concrete
buildings are of various types, it is difficult to decide which one is the best
rehabilitation solution.
CONNECTORS
+
+ +
+
+
+ +
+
FLOOR
CONNECTING BARS
OLD STRUCTURAL
WALL
A-A
CONNECTORS
NEW STRUCTURAL
WALL
Fig.7.2 Strengthening of reinforced concrete structural walls using new/adjacent walls

page 134
A-A
CONNECTORS
FLOOR
PLANKING
ELEMENT
OLD STRUCTURAL
WALL
CARCASS
A
Fig.7.3 Planking of structural walls
Although researches and technical studies consider the rehabilitation thoroughly

investigated and as very important, no best recipes can be given finally, as each
system represents a different case. Moreover, the use of one procedure or another is
imposed by technological and economic conditions.
7.2.1 Strengthening with reinforced concrete or masonry panels
This procedure is used to stiffen and increase the bearing capacity of the structural
system under lateral actions. If possible, the panels will be placed in door or
window-free areas and, at the same time, vertical continuity should be kept not to
create areas with sudden stiffness variations.
Currently, in areas without window openings, masonry panels wedged within the
frame border are used due to the simplicity of execution.
Wedging can be done with metallic pieces, fig.7.4.a, or with leaning masonry
elements, fig.7.4.b.
In areas with windowpanes it is recommended to use reinforced concrete panels,
which must be tied to the adjacent elements, girders and columns, fig.7.5.
Connection can be made with reinforcing bars introduced in holes, which might
penetrate the structural elements, or with conexpand connectors.
This device provides efficient interaction between the elements of the existing
structure and the new elements, thus preventing stress concentration at the corners
of the reinforcing panels.
page 135
WEDGING
WITH MASONRY
WEDGING
a.
b.
Fig.7.4 Wedging procedures for masonry panels

a - metallic piece; b - wedging with masonry
A
A-A
GIRDER
CONNECTORS
A
COLUMN
CONNECTORS
Fig.7.5 Connecting procedures of the reinforced concrete panels within the frame border
When the width of the girder is smaller than the width of the column, the
reinforced concrete panel can be placed laterally to the girder, by tying at the floor
level and connecting to the contiguous vertical elements or not, fig.7.6.
Both procedures mentioned above require efficient co-working between the initial
structure and the new reinforcing panels so that higher stress could not push out the
panel and stress concentration could be prevented in the panel-structure contact
areas at corners.
In some cases, when reinforcing is performed in the outer area of the building,
prefab panels with connector-type joints may be used and the joining are is filled
with mortar, fig.7.7.
page 136
A
A-A
CONNECTORS
THROUGH THE FLOOR
A
COLUMN
CONNECTORS
Fig.7.6 Connecting reinforced concrete panels introduced laterally to the girder

A
A-A
EXISTING STRUCTURE
CONNECTOR FROM
THE STRUCTURE
SPIRAL
MORTAR
PANEL
CONNECTOR
STIFFENING
PANEL
Fig.7.7 Connecting prefab panels [7.2]
7.2.2. Strengthening with steel bracing systems

Steel bracings are more and more used for the rehabilitation of structures made of
reinforced concrete frames. The main reason is related to the weight-stiffness ratio
and some technological aspects.
The bracing systems are metallic frames with bracings inside. The frame may be
fixed in the frame opening in several ways:
i.
with connectors, spires and mortar, fig.7.7;
ii. with conexpand connectors and mortar caulking, fig.7.8.a;
page 137
iii. by means of metallic elements fixed on the opening edges with

conexpands, to which the bracing elements are linked with screws,
fig.7.8.b,
iv. by adhesion with epoxi resins, fig.7.8.c.
a.
b.
c.
a.
Fig.7.8 Coupling bracing panels

with conexpands and joint caulking; b. and c. with an intermediate element
Fig.7.9 presents two metallic bracing systems utilised in Japan [7.4].

Recently, honeycomb-shaped bracing panels with metallic structure have been
recommended. The panels are made of a metallic plate with metallic profile
reinforcement, fig.7.10.a [7.4]. The system can also be made of units joined with
bolts, fig.7.10.b. Panel segmentation enables manual handling, thus enabling the
introduction of elements to the stiffeners inside the building.
page 138
a.
b.
Fig.7.9. Bracing systems [4]

a. classic bracing element with connectors and mortar; b. adhesion with epoxi resins
a.
b.
Fig.7.10 Bracing panels made of metallic sheet

a. ribbed panel; b. panel made of assembled boxes
page 139
7.2.3 Strengthening by using adjacent structures

This device is used only when the building needs expanding and the adjacent
building may increase the capacity of the ensemble under lateral actions or may
ensure a better behaviour under torsion effects.
There are cases when joining adjacent buildings results in an ensemble whose
characteristics are superior to the parts. In this way, by coupling, lateral stiffness
may increase.
7.2.4 Strengthening achieved by increasing the bearing capacity of structural
elements
Most frequently, the procedure used in consolidating reinforced concrete structures
is based on reinforced concrete jacketing, which can be applied to columns,
girders, diaphragm walls, bridge piers, piles, foundations etc.
Jacketing consists of widening the section of the construction element by providing
on both sides reinforced concrete jackets intimately linked with the original
member.
Jacketing is used both to prevent further deterioration of a construction element and
increase the initial bearing capacity.
Apart from these consolidation systems, several other devices are currently used,
among them those based on composite materials. They can be introduced into the
structure very fast and prevent the increase in building weight.
Various aspects related to consolidation devices are dealt with in the technical
literature [7.5], [7.6], [7.7]. The main aspects concerning the consolidation of
columns and girders are presented below.
For columns, the most frequently used local consolidation systems are [7.2]:
reinforced concrete jacketing, fig.7.11.a;
boxes made of sheet-metal, the space between the element and the box
being injected with cement mortar, fig.7.11.b;
boxes made of metallic profiles, fig.7.11.c;
hoop reinforcement with strips, fig.7.11.d;
hoop reinforcement with cables, fig.7.11.e;
table sheets linked with epoxi resins, fig.7.11.f.
page 140
a.
b.
c.
d.
TABLE SHEETSLINKED WITH EPOXI RESIN
HOOP REINFORCEMENT WITH CABLES
HOOP REINFORCEMENT WITH STRIPS
BOXES MADE OF METALLIC PROFILES
TABLE BOXES
REINFORCED CONCRETE JACKETTING
e.
f.
Fig.7.11. Various procedures used to consolidate reinforced concrete columns

a. reinforced concrete jacketing; b. table boxes and mortar injections; c. boxes made of
metallic profiles; d. hoop reinforcement with strips; e. hoop reinforcement with cables; f.
table sheets stuck with epoxi resins
To some of these devices shown in fig.7.11, supplementary linking with conexpand

connectors can be done to improve the co-working between the jacketing system
and the initial system [7.3].
Some of the systems utilised for columns may be extended to reinforced concrete
girders in the same way and the joints linking the consolidated areas of the columns
to those of the girders must be specially detailed to provide proper jointing.
The most frequent procedures used to consolidate reinforced concrete girders have
flexible reinforcements, fig.7.12. Thus, cross-ties may be disposed by piercing the
plate, fig.7.12.a and b, or the core of the girder, fig.7.12.c. Plate perforation can be
done for groups of cross-ties, whereas core perforation for independent cross-ties
only. Technical literature deals with these aspects in detail [7.5], [7.7].
When jacketing reinforced concrete girders, care should be taken that the minimum
diameter of the stirrups would be 8 mm and they would be disposed at 10-15 cm
between them. To provide co-working between the new reinforcement and the
page 141
already existing one in the girder binding will be done with welded cover plates
disposed at 50-100 cm between them [7.5], [7.6], [7.7].
a.
b.
c.
Fig.7.12. Devices used to consolidate reinforced concrete girders by means of

reinforced concrete jacketing
A dry consolidation device used with reinforced concrete girders contains

metallic profiles or boxes fixed on the existing structure with threaded assembling
elements (pins, conexpands etc.). In fig.7.13.a the longitudinal elements made of
angle sections placed on the lower part of the girder are attached and co-working is
achieved by prestressed double-ended bolts alone, which function as cross-ties as
well. The double-ended bolts are disposed in the same way as the cross-ties by
piercing the plate.
a.
b.
c.
Fig.7.13 Procedures utilised in the consolidation of reinforced concrete girders by means

of metallic profiles and boxes
The metallic profiles, fig.7.13.b, and the boxes, fig.7.13.c may be attached to the
reinforced concrete girders with double-ended bolts and conexpands. In order to
provide the best contact between elements, injections with cement mortar can be
made. In this way, all non-uniformities caused by the casting of the reinforced
concrete element may be corrected.
Since good co-working between concrete and metal can be achieved by sticking
with epoxi resins, this system is often found in girder consolidation. The solution is
page 142
used both to increase the independent flexural bearing capacity, fig.7.14.a and the
shear strengthening, fig.7.14.b, and for mixed situations, fig.7.14.c.
In the third case, the vertical elements can be disposed continuously or
discontinuously as tie plates to take over the shearing force. This solution requires
special preparation of the concrete contact area to ensure flatness and the decrease
in thickness of adhesive layer.
a.
b.
c.
Fig.7.14. Procedures used to consolidate reinforced concrete girders with metallic plates
glued with epoxi resins
BIBLIOGRAPHY
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
Phan, L.T., Todd, D.R., Lew, H.S., Strengthening Methodology for

Lightly Reinforced concrete Frames I, NISTIR 5128, Building and Fire
Research Laboratory, Gaithersburg, Nist, Feb., 1993.
Goel, C.S., Seismic Upgrading of Reinforced Concrete Frames with Steel
Elements, Proceedings, Workshop on the Seismic Rehabilitation of
Lightly Reinforced Concrete Frames, Gaithersburg, June, 1995.
Jirsa, J.O., Use of Steel Elements in Rehabilitation of RC Frames,
Proceedings, Workshop on the Seismic Rehabilitation of Lightly
Reinforced Concrete Frames, Gaithersburg, June, 1995.
www.takenaka.co.jp/takenaka_e/techno/7
Malganov, A.I., Plevkov, V.S., Polishchuk, A.I., Strengthening of
Reinforced Concrete and Stone Members in Damaged and Reconstructed
Building, Tomsk, 1989.
Nistor, C., Troia., L., Teodoru, M., Minialov, H. Consolidarea i
ntreinerea construciilor, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1991.
Arsenie, G., Voiculescu, M., Ionacu, M., Soluii de consolidare a
construciilor avariate de cutremure, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1977.
page 143
8
NEW SYSTEMS OF STRUCTURAL
REHABILITATION TO EARTHQUAKES
8.1 GENERAL ASPECTS
During their life, buildings undergo numerous damages due to various causes,
which were widely presented in the paragraph 1.2. Among them, earthquake
remains the most important, resulting in significant degradations in structures.
Earthquakes can even lead to the collapse of structures if the design rules for
earthquake resistance of structures are not met. In this case the design engineer
must pay attention not only to the accurate conception, design and execution of
structures but to consider some new rehabilitation procedures for damaged
structures.
The economical evaluations showed that damaged structures repairing and
rehabilitation imply significant costs that could be up to 30% of the cost of a new
similar building [8.1] and which can not always ensure safety during strutures life.
The structural rehabilitation is a complex task, more difficult than the design and
execution of a new building. The conception and execution of the rehabilitation
projects imply technical experts with important technical knowledge and practical
experience.
Besides the classical rehabilitation procedures, in the last 20 years a series of new
seismic isolation procedures were outlined and adopted widely in pracice, such as:
i.
base isolation;
ii. increase in energy dissipation capacity.
8.2 BASE ISOLATION

The limitation of the energy induced in structures by earthquakes can be carried out
by base isolation. Base isolation mainly consists of uncoupling the foundation from
the structure. Thus, it results in a sliding surface which allows the free motion of
page 144
the foundation together with the ground, the structure being in rest due to its
inertia.
The isolation system consists of devices, called bearings, which allow the free
movement of the structure with respect to the ground. A series of other components
for energy dissipation or displacement reduction are added to the bearing.
A complete seismic isolation system could be done only in the case of an ideal
bearing, which is not achievable in practice, fig.8.1.a. Consequently, due to the
bearing stiffness, a certain quantity of energy is induced in the structure. This is
correlated with the excitation characteristics and the dynamic characteristics of the
new created ensemble (isolated system), fig.8.1.b.
IDEAL
BEARING
a.
BEARING
b.
Fig.8.1 The behaviour of a base isolated structure

a. ideal isolation; b. real isolation
In the case of an ideal bearing, a series of disadvantages affect the equipment in the
structure due to large displacements between structure and foundation. That is why
bearing stiffness must be correlated with the other systems in the structure, such as
water, gas, electricity supply systems, sewage, heating system etc.
In the last years various types of base isolation systems have been carried out.
Elastomeric and sliding bearings, springs, pendulums, ellipsoids, balls, rolls in two
directions etc. were used to make the bearings. The most frequently used bearings
are the elastomeric ones.
8.2.1 Kinematic bearings
The idea of seismic isolation is not new, it is over one hundred years old. In 1870
French Jules Tonaillon submitted the application for a license to the Office of
Inventions in San Francisco, California, which presents an isolation system with
balls, fig.8.2.a. This system anticipates numerous procedures of seismic isolation
that exist nowadays or which are patented [8.2]. The ball bearing has been
afterwards simplified and replaced by ellipsoids placed between two plane
surfaces, fig.8.2.b. This modification has the same effect of up-lifting the structure
page 145
New systems of structural rehabilitation to earthquakes
as the balls and to create the equilibrium between the inertia forces due to
earthquake and the gravitational forces.
a.
b.
Fig.8.2 Kinematic bearings
a. balls; b. ellipsoids
An alternative to the ball bearing is the friction pendulum bearing, fig.8.3, [8.3].
ELEMENT
DE SUSTINERE
BEARING
ELEMENT
SEAL
ELEMENT DE ETANSARE
SPHERICAL
SURFACE
SUPRAFATA
SFERICA
GLISOR
ARTICULATED SLIDER
Fig.8.3 Friction pendulum bearing
The bearing consists of a spherical sliding surface and a articulated element

covered with a high pressure resistant material. By the relative displacement of the
two sliding surfaces, this system ensures the lifting of the gravity center of the
building, and consequently, the occurrence of the gravitation force that will restore
the structure equilibrium.
Among the kinematic bearings used in practice, the pendulum bearings can be
mentioned as well. They are some reinforced-concrete cylinders with spherical
ends, placed in cavities that allow the free rotation, fig.8.4.
This type of structure that uses kinematic bearings was carried out in Iasi,
Romania.
Another kinematic system, similar to the short pendulum, was conceived and
patented by Nazin [8.4]. The length of the columns is equal to the level height, the
ends being introduced in a carcass to ensure the displacements limitation.
page 146
SUPRASTRUCTURE
KINEMATIC BEARINGS
FOUNDATION
Fig.8.4 Kinematic bearings short columns
8.2.2 Elastomeric bearings

Elastomers are materials with a high degree of polymerisation, obtained by
connections between molecular chains, called vulcanization [8.5]. At present, apart
from natural rubber, numerous synthetic elastomers are known: chloroprene,
silicone rubber, polyurethane etc. The most used elastomer, except natural rubber,
is the chloroprene rubber, also known as neoprene.
Elastomers are made of long macromolecules, which form a spatial network after
vulcanisation. The mechanical movements produce translations of the network
segments, which lead to physical transformations at the molecular chain level.
Elastomers are materials that do not obey Hookes law for any stress level.
Moreover, the force-deformation curve is strongly influenced by the shape factor
(the ratio of loaded area to force-free area of a single rubber layer). The
characteristic force-deformation relationship of elastomers for different types of
loadings is shown in fig.8.5.
For deformations less than 400%, elastomers exhibit mechanical properties similar
to those of incompressible liquids, that is Poissons ratio = 0.5 .
The following relation exists between the shear modulus G of the elastomer and the
instantaneous compression modulus E 0 of the bearing:
G=
E0
3
page 147
(8.1)
Fig.8.5 Elastomer behaviour to different loads
An elastomeric bearing is made of alternant layers of elastomer and steel plates,

fig.8.6.
The elastomer ensures large flexibility in horizontal direction and the steel plates
prevent the transverse deformations and ensure large vertical stiffness of the
bearing.
ELASTOMER
STEEL PLATE
Fig.8.6 Elastomeric bearing (elastomer, steel plates), foundation, superstructure
In general, the vertical stiffness of the bearing is about 400 times the horizontal
stiffness [8.2]. The bearing behaviour to horizontal and vertical actions is presented
in fig.8.7.
Because of the reduced damping capacity (the damping coefficient varies

between 2% and 3% of critical damping), the elastomeric bearings need
additional energy dissipating elements.
In order to increase damping capacity, in 1975 in New Zealand a new type
of elastomeric bearing was designed.
page 148
F
F
u
F
P
P
a.
b.
Fig.8.7 Behaviour of an elastomeric layer (working zone)

a. vertical load; b. horizontal load
A lead plug was introduced in the centre of the bearing, fig.8.8, [8.5]. Considerable
energy dissipation is ensured by the plastic deformation of the lead core.
LEAD CORE
Fig.8.8 Lead plug bearing
In order to eliminate the additional energy dissipating devices, in 1982 Malaysian

Rubber Producers Research Association in England developed a component of
natural rubber with high energy dissipating capacity. The addition of fine particles
of black carbon increases damping, so that the damping coefficient varies between
10-20% of critical damping.
Another type of elastomeric bearing is sliding bearing. It was designed in 1977 in
France and in 1978 in USA [8.6]. During strong earthquakes, the superstructure
slides by overpassing the friction between the Teflon plate fixed on the elastomeric
bearing and the steel plate fixed on the superstructure. The sliding process
dissipates a significant amount of energy. However, friction characteristics depend
on temperature and the relative sliding velocity of the surfaces in contact.
page 149

STAINLESS STEEL
SLIDING
TEFLON
Fig.8.9 Sliding bearings (stainless steel, Teflon, sliding)
Base isolation was used for the rehabilitation of structures made of stone and brick
masonry with low ductility or nonductile reinforced concrete structures.
The vast majority of the rehabilitation projects uses elastomeric bearings or lead
core bearings for base isolation. In the case of sliding bearings it is important that
the sliding force should be correctly estimated so that the isolation system should
begin sliding before significant degradations occur in the structure.
Seismic isolation is used for structure rehabilitation when conventional
rehabilitation procedures cannot be used. It is the case of historical buildings,
where classical interventions for rehabilitation alter their historical character.
Seismic isolation is not a rehabilitation procedure to be applied to all structures; it
is used for structures where an important seismic protection is desired and
significant costs for the design, fabrication and installation of the isolation system
are afforded.
8.2.3 Structures rehabilitated through base isolation
At present there are numerous seismically retrofitted structures using the base
isolation systems mentioned above. Some of the most representative base isolated
buildings will be presented further on.
Oakland City Hall in California, built in 1914 in Beaux Art style, was the tallest
building on the west cost of the USA at that time [8.7]. It has 18 storeys and a
surface of about 14214 m2. The structural system consists of steel frames filled
with peripheral walls of non-reinforced masonry, fig.8.10.
The damages caused by Loma Prieta earthquake in October 1989 imposed the
seismic rehabilitation of this building. Several repair and strengthening procedures
were taken into account. In the end, the solution of base isolation rehabilitation was
chosen. The rehabilitation of the building started in 1992 and was finished in 1995,
being the tallest base isolated building at that time.
page 150
a.
b.
Fig.8.10. Oakland City Hall, California

a. view; b. model of the rehabilitated building
The isolation system consists of 110 lead-plug rubber bearings ranging from 737
mm to 940 mm.
The installation of the isolation system required shoring up and shortening the
columns and transferring the loads to temporary supports.
The columns were raised less than 2.5 mm during the lifting process. The cost of
the retrofit was about $84 million, the isolators counting for about 2.5% of that
number.
Another structure rehabilitated through base isolation is San Francisco City Hall,
fig.8.11, [8.8]. It was designed in 1912 to replace the initial structure that had been
destroyed in 1906.
The building has 5 storeys, the plan dimensions of 94 m x 124 m and a 91 m dome.
The structural system is made of steel frames and non-reinforced brick masonry
with granite cladding.
The significant damages caused by the Loma Prieta earthquake in 1989 required
considerable repair and seismic retrofit. The retrofit strategy adopted for the
building was a base isolation system with superstructure strengthening using
concrete shear walls.
page 151
Fig. 8.11 San Francisco City Hall, California
The isolation system consists of 530 lead-plug rubber bearings and its installation
was a complicated process of shortening, shoring and installation. Many of the
columns are shored by four bearings under a steel structure.
The construction began in 1994 and was completed in 1998.
Another important base isolated building is New Zealand Parliament House. Built
in 1922, the Parliament House is a five-storey masonry walled structure, fig.8.12.
The isolation system used consists of a combination of 145 lead rubber bearings,
230 rubber bearings and 42 sliding bearings.
The elastomer used was a high-damping one. All the bearings were roundly shaped
with the diameter ranging from 480 to 580 mm. The diameter of the lead rubber
bearing ranges between 155 and 190 mm.
The sliding bearings consist of Teflon and stainless steel surfaces fixed on highdamping bearings.
The seismic retrofit started in 1992 and was accomplished in 1994 with a total cost
of $6 million [8.9].
Another use of base isolation was the protection of Rodins sculpture Gates of
Hell at the National Museum of West Art in Tokyo, Japan. [8.10]. It is a boardshaped sculpture, 5.4 m high, 3.9 m wide and weighing 7 tons, fig.8.13.
page 152
Fig.8.12 New Zealand Parliament House
Fig.8.13 Auguste Rodins The Gates to Hell, National Museum of Western Art, Tokyo
To prevent the sculpture from falling over in case of major earthquakes, it was
placed on a platform fixed on a base-isolation device, fig.8.14. At the same time
preservation work was carried out by replacing the steel frame and bolts that had
deteriorated with age.
The base isolation system contains five circular roller bearings and two dampers.
The bearings allow the free movement of the sculpture on the two horizontal
directions.
page 153
STRUCTURA
DE
REAR SUPPORT
STRUCTURE
SUSTINERE
A LUCRARII
SCULPTURA
SCULPTURE
PLATFORMA
CU BAZA
IZOLATA
BASE-ISOLATED
PLATFORM
SISTEM
DE IZOLARE A BAZEI
BASE ISOLATION SYSTEM
UNDERGROUND
SALA
DE LECTURA
LECTURE ROOM
Fig.8.14 Base isolation retrofit mechanism
A steel-reinforced joining material connects them, so that all of them could move
together, fig.8.15.
The dampers used are viscous dampers developed by Takenaka and Oils
Corporation. They control a wide range of horizontal displacements from minor to
major earthquakes.
Fig.8.15 Circular roller bearings
The seismic retrofit was performed by Takenaka Corporation from

December 1998 to March 1999.
8.3 INCREASE IN ENERGY DISSIPATION CAPACITY
The increase in energy dissipation is carried out by new elements that are added to
the structure, especially designed for that purpose. The main aim of the energy
page 154
dissipation elements is to dissipate large amounts of the energy induced by the

earthquake into the structure and reduce the relative displacements in structure.
At present there are numerous energy dissipation systems that use various materials
and procedures. Generally, they are all characterised by the capacity to transform
the kinetic energy into another form of dissipative energy.
There is no conceptual difference between the ductile design and the energy
dissipation approach. In both cases the reduction of floor displacements and storey
shear is intended.
The difference is that in the first case the energy dissipation function is assigned to
the structural members and in the second case, new elements are added to the
structure.
These energy dissipation systems can be classified in the following categories,
according to the type of energy dissipation mechanism [8.11]:
i.
dampers based on steel yielding;
ii.
dampers based on lead extrusion;
iii.
slip-friction dampers;
iv.
viscoelastic dampers;
v.
viscous dampers.
The use of additional energy dissipation elements in structure is recommended for

the following reasons:
these systems can increase the structural stiffness and damping;
energy dissipation in structure can be achieved only by additional dampers;
structural degradations can be limited at the damper-level, which can be

replaced more easily than structural members.
8.3.1 Dampers based on steel yielding

The damping devices that proved to be the most economical and suitable for
energy dissipation in structures are the yielding steel dampers. To understand their
behaviour it is necessary to examine the inelastic deformation process.
For stresses that are bigger than yield stress, irreversible structural modifications
take place. The material behaviour in the inelastic range could be fragile or ductile.
page 155
The ductile materials exhibit significant inelastic deformations before breaking.

Ductility (the material capacity to dissipate an important amount of energy through
inelastic deformations) is produced by particle dislocation.
This irreversible displacement of atoms in crystals is caused by four elementary
mechanisms:
i.
creep by diffusion;
ii.
relative slippage of the crystals;
iii.
mechanical twinning;
iv.
sliding.
The first two mechanisms take place at high temperatures so they are not specific
to hysteretic dampers, which work at normal temperatures. The mechanical
twinning consists of the reorientation of an area of a crystal under shear forces.
Sliding is the fundamental mechanism of the cold inelastic deformation and
represents the translation of a part of a crystal relative to another part, without a
volume change.
The resistance force in dampers depends on the non-linear characteristics of
material (stress-strain relation).
Starting from the general principles of steel behaviour, different types of devices
based on bending, torsion, shear or their combination were developed.
The advantages of yielding steel dampers lie in their stable behaviour in time, longterm reliability and good behaviour in environmental and thermal conditions. In
addition, yielding steel dampers ensure the structure high resistance, stiffness and
energy dissipation capacity.
The bracing system made of mild steel represents the most simple energy
dissipation system based on inelastic metal deformation.
Other systems, for which energy dissipation is carried out by disposable bars
deformed by bending are shown in fig.8.16.
The disposable elements should be designed so that yielding would occur prior to
the development of plastic hinges in the structural members.
page 156
STRUCTURE
STRUCTURA
STRUCTURE
STRUCTURA
ENERGY
ELEMENTE
DISSIPATION
DISIPATOARE
DEVICES
DE
ENERGIE
Fig.8.16 Yielding steel bracing system [12], [13]

(structure, energy dissipating elements)
Another device, referred to as added damping and stiffness (ADAS) and consisting
of multiple X-shaped steel plates, fig.8.17, was introduced by Bethtel Power
Corporation [8.14].
Due to its shape yielding takes place over the entire plate surface.
Fig.8.17 ADAS elements
Later Tsai and Hong (1982) modified the ADAS system in the form of tapered or
triangular (T-ADAS) elements [8.15].
Typical hysteretic loops for the T-ADAS elements are shown in fig.8.18.
Its shape leads to a constant curvature, each cross-section yields simultaneously so
the entire element dissipates energy.
page 157
700
Forta (KN)
FORCE
(kN)
360
Pp
Py
0
Py
-360
Pp
-700
-0,36
PINNED
ARTICULATIE
CONNECTION
-0,18
0,00
0,18
0,36
(rad)
Fig.8.18 T-ADAS element and its hysteretic loops (hinge)
8.3.2 Lead Extrusion Devices

Another type of damper that utilises the hysteretic energy dissipation properties of
metals is the lead extrusion damper. The process of extrusion consists of forcing a
material to pass through a hole or an orifice. This way the plastic deformations of
lead and consequently energy dissipation take place. Robinson first presented that
device in 1987 as a passive energy dissipation device for base isolated structures in
New Zealand [8.16], fig.8.19.
Lead extrusion devices have the following advantages: their load - deformation
relation is stable and not affected by the number of loading cycles, they are
insensitive to environmental conditions and ageing effects and have a long life and
do not require replacing or repairing after an earthquake since the lead in the
damper returns to its undeformed state after excitation.
a.
b.
Fig.8.19 Lead extrusion damper

a. constricted-tube type; b. bulged-shaft type
page 158
8.3.3 Friction dampers

In the last years a variety of friction devices has been proposed and developed for
energy dissipation in structures.
Most of these devices generate rectangular hysteretic loops, which indicate that the
behaviour of friction dampers is similar to that of Coulomb friction.
Generally, these devices have good performance characteristics, their behaviour
being relatively less affected by load frequency, the number of load cycles or
variations in temperature. These devices have high resistance to fatigue, as well,
and differ in their mechanical complexity and in the material used for the sliding
surfaces.
In 1993 Gregorian and Popov proposed a friction device that allows the slip in
slotted bolted connections [8.17]. The connection consists of two outer steel plates,
a central slotted gusset plate and two shims fastened to the outer plates. The sliding
interface consisted of brass and steel.
In this type of connection the brass shims were scratched whereas the steel plates
remained undamaged. The hysteretic loops are rectangular and stable after a large
number of cycles compared to steel-to-steel interface, where evidence of a heavy
abrasive wear was noticed.
Flour Daniel Inc. has developed a friction device called Energy Dissipating
Restraint [8.18]. The device consists of a cylinder, internal springs, compression
wedges, friction wedges and stops. The Energy Dissipating Restraint mechanism
consists of sliding friction through a range of motions with a stop at the ends of the
cylinder.
The Energy Dissipating Restraint is the only friction device that generates nonrectangular hysteresis loops and the slip load is proportional to the displacement. In
contrast to other frictional devices that exhibit rectangular hysteresis loop, these
devices are activated even by small excitations.
The device has self-centering capabilities, which reduce permanent offsets when
the structure deforms beyond the elastic range.
Friction devices have difficulty in maintaining their properties over prolonged time
intervals because the metallic interfaces are susceptible to corrosion, normal loads
on the sliding interface cannot be reliably maintained and some relaxation should
be expected over time and permanent offsets may occur after an earthquake.
page 159
8.3.4
Viscoelastic and viscous dampers
8.3.4.a Viscoelastic dampers

Viscoelastic dampers have been used as energy dissipating devices in structures
where the damper undergoes shear deformations. The viscoelastic materials exhibit
combined features of elastic solid and viscous liquid when deformed, i.e. they
return to their initial shape after each deformation cycle and dissipate a certain
amount of energy as heat [8.19].
A typical viscoelastic damper consists of viscoelastic layers bonded to steel plates,
fig.8.20 and can be installed on the bracing system [8.20]. When mounted onto the
structure, the relative motions between the center plate and the outer steel flanges
produce shear deformations and consequently energy dissipation.
Viscoelastic devices can be used at the beam-column connection in braced frames.
The connection consists of two single-toothed devices symmetrically placed. The
shear force is transferred through a shear pin so that the energy-dissipating device
should be subjected to axial forces only.
VISCOELASTIC MATERIAL
MATERIAL
VASCOELASTIC
Fig.8.20 Viscoelastic damper
Another use of viscoelastic material is viscoelastic infill panels. This system is

designed to increase both damping and lateral stiffness of structure.
The viscoelastic devices have the disadvantages of depending on excitation
frequency and ambient temperature.
8.3.4.b Viscous dampers
Viscous dampers utilize the viscous properties of fluids, being mainly oil dampers.
Sumitomo Construction Company in Japan has developed a viscous damping wall
system [8.21]. The device consists of an outer steel case attached to the lower floor
page 160
and filled with a highly viscous fluid. Within the steel case there is a moving steel
plate hanging on the upper floor. The relative velocity between the two floors
induces the viscous damping force.
Fluid viscous dampers operate on the principle of fluid flow through orifices as
well. These dampers possess linear viscous behaviour and are relatively insensitive
to temperature changes. Taylor Devices Inc. has manufactured this type of energy
damper, fig.8.21 [8.22].
The device is filled with silicone oil and consists of a stainless steel piston with a
bronze orifice head and an accumulator. A passive bi-metallic thermostat, which
allows the operation of the device over a temperature range of 400 C and 700 C,
compensates the flow through the orifice.
Fig.8.21 Viscous damper (Taylor device)
Fluid dampers are less sensitive to temperature changes and show stable behaviour
over a wide temperature range. On the other hand, fluid dampers have the
following disadvantages: they maintain seals for a long time and small motions in
the structure may cause seals to wear and fluid to leak out.
8.3.5
Examples of rehabilitated structures using energy dissipating devices
An important application of viscous dampers is the seismic retrofit of Hotel

Woodland in California [8.23].
Built in 1927, it s is a four-storey historical building with a non-ductile reinforced
concrete frame at the first level. Using the damping devices, the increase in
resistance to earthquake was obtained, and at the same time the historical
appearance of the building was preserved.
page 161
Compared to the conventional rehabilitation procedures (shear walls or braces), the

viscous dampers proved to be the most economical. 16 dampers were used, each
one having a 450 KN output force. The devices were added in chevron bracing
elements in a steel sub-frame, fig.8.22.
Fig.8.22 Seismic retrofit of Hotel Woodland, California using Taylor fluid viscous dampers
Nowadays, viscous dampers are used both for new structures and for the
rehabilitation of the old ones. Some of the rehabilitation projects using Taylor fluid
dampers are [8.24]:
Genentech FRC II, USA/San Francisco: New construction, 3-storey multibuilding complex, uses 192 dampers to dissipate earthquake energy, to be
installed in 2002;
Boise Airport, USA/Boise: New construction, airport terminal building

uses 8 dampers to dissipate earthquake energy to reduce demands on the
structure, to be installed in 2002;
Poplar Street Bridge, USA/St. Louis: Large highway bridge over the
Mississippi River uses 64 dampers to control longitudinal earthquake
movement while allowing free thermal, to be installed in 2002;
Buddhist Headquarters, Taiwan/Taipei: New construction, 17-story

building uses 60 dampers to dissipate seismic energy, to be installed in
2002;
Richmond-San Rafael Bridge, USA/Richmond: Retrofit of a 4.5 mile steel

truss bridge designed in the 1950's. A number of 28 dampers were used to
page 162
dissipate seismic energy and allow the bridge to withstand a maximum

credible earthquake, to be installed in 2002;
INTERCENTRO, Dominican Republic/Santo Domingo: New construction,

44-story steel frame building uses 48 dampers to dissipate earthquake
energy to reduce demands on the structure, to be installed 2002;
San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge, West Span-Suspension Bridge,

USA/San Francisco: Retrofit of suspension span between San Francisco
and Yerba Buena Island. 100 dampers were used to dissipate seismic
energy, to be installed 2001/2002.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
8.1 *** Comment rparer les btiments endommags par un seisme, Nations
Unies, New York, 1977.
8.2 Budescu, M., Contribuii privind izolarea seismic a structurilor, Tez de
doctorat, Institutul Politehnic Gh. Asachi Iai, 1983.
8.3 Mayes, R.L., Seismic isolation: When content protection is as important as the
structure, Proceedings Third National Concrete and Masonry Engineering
Conference, vol. 2, San Francisco, California, 1995.
8.4 Nazin, V.V., Experimentalniezdania v Sevastopole na gravitaionnh
sistemah seismoizolaii s vkliuciaicimsia suhmtreniem, Seismostoikoe
stroitelstvov Uzbekskoi SSR, Takent, 1974.
8.5 Robinson, W.H., Tucker, A.G., A Lead Rubber Shear Damper,
Bulletin of the New Zealand National Society for Earthquake
Engineering, vol.10, nr.3, 1977.
8.6 Plichon, C., Hooped Rubber Bearing and Frictional Plates: A modern
Antiseismic
Engineering Technique, Proceedings, Specialists
Meeting on the Anti-Seismic Design of Nuclear Installations, Paris,
France, 1975.
8.7 Oakland City Hall (www.dis-inc.com/oakbrief.htm)
8.8 San Francisco City Hall (www.dis-inc.com/sfhallbr.htm
8.9 New Zealand Parliament House (www.dis-inc.com/nzparlbr.htm)
8.10 Protecting Rodin's Sculpture the "Gates of Hell" at the National Museum
of Western Art Withstanding Earthquakes with Base Isolation Retrofit.
(www.takenaka.co.jp/takenaka_e/news_e/pr9903/m9903_04.htm)
8.11 Kelly, J.M., Skinner, M.S., Beucke, K.E., Experimental Testing of an
Energy-Absorbing Base Isolation System, UCB/EERC 80/35.
8.12 Aristizabal-Ochoa, D., Disposable knee bracing: improvement in
seismic design of steel frames, ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering,
vol. 112, no. 7
8.13 Jurukovski, D., Petkovski, M., Rakicevic, Z., Energy absorbing elements
in regular and composite steel frame structures, Eng. Structures, 1995
page 163
8.14
8.15
8.16
8.17
8.18
8.19
8.20
8.21
8.22
8.23
8.24
Tyler, R.G., Damping in building structures by means of PTTF sliding

joints, Bulletin of New Zealand Society of Earthquake Engineering, vol.
10, 1977
Tsai, K.C., Hong, C.P., Steel triangular plate energy absorber for
earthquake-resistant buildings, Proceedings, 1st World Congress on
Constructional Steel Design, Mexico, 1992
Robinson, W.H., Cousins, W.J., Recent developments in lead dampers
for base isolation, Pacific Conference on Earthquake Engineering, vol. 2,
New Zealand, 1987
Grigorian, C.E., Popov, E.P., Slotted bolted connections for energy
dissipation, Proceeding ATC-17-1 Seminar on Seismic Isolation, Passive
Energy Dissipation and Active Control, Applied Technology Council,
Redwood City, CA, vol. 2, 1993
Nims, D.K., Inaudi, J.A., Richter, P.J., Kelly, J.M., Application of the
energy dissipating restraint to buildings, Proceeding ATC-17-1 Seminar
on Seismic Isolation, Passive Energy Dissipation and Active Control,
Applied Technology Council, Redwood City, CA, vol. 2, 1993
Mahmoodi, P., Structural dampers, Journal of Structural Division,
ASCE, vol. 95, 1969
Mahmoodi, P., Keel, C.J., Performance of viscoelastic structural
dampers for the Columbia Center Building, Building Motion in Wind,
ASCE publication, 1986
Miyazaki, M., Mitsusaka, Y., Design of a building with 20% or greater
damping, Proceedings of the 10th World Conference on Earthquake
Engineering, Madrid, 1992
Symans, M.D., Constantinou, M.C., Seismic response of structures with
supplemental fluid viscous dampers, NCEER Bulletin, vol. 7, no. 4,
1993
Miyamoto, H.K., Seismic Rehabilitation of a Historic Concrete Structure
Using
Fluid
Viscous
Dampers,
(www.msm1.com/pdf_files/HotelStockton.pdf)
Taylor, D., Constantinou, M.C., Fluid Dampers for Applications of
Seismic
Energy
Dissipation
and
Seismic
Isolation,
(www.taylordevices.com/dampers.htm)
page 164
9
RC STRUCTURE REHABILITATION WITH
ADVANCED POLYMERIC COMPOSITES
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composites are increasingly being utilised as
alternatives to traditional construction materials for rehabilitation of infrastructure
applications.
The existing infrastructure is in real need of renewal due to deficiencies existing in
construction works such as: wear, ageing of structural components, environmental
deterioration, insufficient detailing at the time of original design, the use of
substandard materials in initial construction, change in loading patterns and
inadequate maintenance through the life of the structure [9.12], [9.13].
When rehabilitation of civil infrastructure is discussed, it is important to
differentiate among repair, strengthening and retrofit. These three terms refer to
different structural conditions:
A composite is used in repairing when the FRP composite material is utilized to
fix a structural or functional deficiency, such as a crack or a severely degraded
element.
The strengthening (nonseismic) of a structural member is specific to those
situations where the application of the FRP composite enhances the existing design
performance level.
The term retrofit (seismic) is mostly used as a generic term for rehabilitation
especially in relation to the seismic upgrade of load-carrying members.
It is important to use these terms correctly on the basis of structural functionality
and also because the specifics related to the use of FRPs in conjunction with
existing traditional materials have a significant effect on the selection of fibrematrix combinations [9.12].
page 165
RC structure rehabilitation with advanced polymeric composites
Traditional building materials and technologies are suitable in many situations and
have a number of advantages, including the low cost of materials and construction.
However they lack in longevity in some cases, and, in others are susceptible to
rapid deterioration, emphasizing the need for better grades of these materials or
newer technologies.
In some cases design alternatives may be constrained by the current limitations of
materials used, for example the size of a column due to restrictions on design and
minimum dimension needed. In a similar manner, the use of conventional materials
is often not possible in cases of retrofit or may be deemed as ineffective in terms of
functionality. In other situations restraints such as dead load restrict the widening
of current structures. In all such (and other) cases there is a critical need for the use
of new materials and technologies, with the end of aim of facilitating functionality
and greater structural and life-cycle efficiency.
FRP composites give the designer a wide range of material choices to meet some
specific structural requirements. They may have tailored properties derived from
their anisotropy given by the arrangement of the fibre reinforcement in the
polymeric resin. FRPs also have good corrosion resistance, high strength-to-weight
ratio allowing their use in places and ways that are not available to traditional
materials.
These unique properties provide significant impetus for their use in rehabilitation
and restoration of historic construction without causing significant changes to the
features of the original structures. Also their performance combined with their light
weight enable their use in strengthening severely degraded structural members, as
well as in the modification of existing structures without egress on available
headroom or open space [9.13].
9.2 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

CONCRETE STRUCTURES
FOR
STRENGTHENING
OF
Strengthening of old and/or deteriorated reinforced concrete (RC) members is often

required due to the following causes [9.27], [9.29]:
The inadequacy of longitudinal reinforcement in beams and columns,

leading to flexural failure. In such cases the bending capacity of concrete
elements can be increased through the use of externally bonded FRP plates,
strips or fabrics. Alternatively near-surface mounted strips or rods with the
fibre direction parallel to the member axis can be utilised.
page 166
The inadequacy of transverse reinforcement, which may have as effect

brittle shear failure in structural members like columns, beams, shear walls
and beam-column joints. The shear capacity of concrete members can be
enhanced by providing externally bonded FRP with the fibres oriented in
the transverse direction to the member axis direction, in the case of
columns and beams, or in the direction of both the column and the beam
direction in the case of beam-column joints.
Poor detailing in the regions of flexural plastic hinges where the flexural
cracking may be followed by cover concrete spalling, failure of transverse
steel reinforcement, and buckling of longitudinal steel reinforcement or
compressive crushing of concrete. This mode of failure is usually
accompanied by large inelastic flexural deformation. By adding
confinement in the form of FRP jackets with fibres placed along the
column perimeter, the spalling of cover concrete is prevented and the
buckling of the longitudinal steel bars is restrained. In this way more
ductile responses can be developed and larger inelastic deformations can
be sustained.
Poor detailing in lap splices. This mode occurs in columns in which the
longitudinal steel reinforcement is lap spliced in the maximum bending
moment regions near the column ends. Debonding may occur once vertical
cracks develop in the cover concrete and progresses with cover spalling.
By increasing the lap confinement with fibres along the column perimeter
the flexural strength degradation can be prevented or limited.
The use of FRP reinforcement cannot modify the stiffness characteristics of

existing RC elements; hence the FRP strengthening technique is not applicable if
the structural intervention is aiming at increasing stiffness rather than strength or
ductility [9.29].
9.3 ADHESIVE MATERIALS FOR STRUCTURAL STRENGTHENING

OF RC ELEMENTS
Adhesives are substances capable of holding two materials together by surface
attachment. The purpose of an adhesive is to produce a strong continuous bond
between the surfaces of the adherends and to ensure that full composite action is
developed by the transfer of shear stress across the thickness of the adhesive layer.
To achieve such a purpose a good adhesion to the surfaces involved must be
achieved and sustained [9.9]. The science of adhesion demands a consideration of
concepts regarding surface chemistry, polymer chemistry, rheology, stress analysis
and fracture mechanics. Most key information about adhesives relevant to their use
must be provided by the manufacturer. The best results in structural strengthening
page 167
have so far been achieved by using two-parts epoxy adhesives specially developed
for use in the construction industry. Depending on the specific application the
adhesive may contain fillers, softening inclusions, toughening additives and others.
Application of an epoxy adhesive system requires the preparation of an adequate
specification, which must include such provisions as mixing/application parameters
and techniques, curing temperatures, surface preparation procedures, thermal
expansion, creep properties, abrasion and chemical resistance.
Three different time concepts must be considered when using epoxy adhesives,
shelf life, pot life and open time.
The unmixed shelf life is the period for which the individual (unmixed)
components may be stored without undergoing significant deterioration. Pot life is
time interval in which one can work with the adhesive after mixing the components
before it starts to harden in the mixture vessel. Open time, when the adhesive has
been applied to the adherends is the time that one can have after the adhesive has
been applied to the adherends and before they are joined together. A typical open
time may be of the order of 30 minutes.
The principal requirements for bonding FRP composites to concrete and other
structural materials are summarized in the following [9.11], [9.17]:
It should have good adhesion to the materials involved.
Two components of dissimilar colour to facilitate complete mixing.
Tolerance to slight variations in the resin and hardener mix proportions.
An ability to be applied in thicknesses of between 1 and 10 mm to

accommodate irregularities of the adherends surface.
A pot life of at least 40 minutes at normal temperature and relatively high

humidity.
Low shrinkage on curing.
Strong bond between the adherends.
Shear and tensile strength compatible to those of the adherends materials.
The adhesive modulus should be high enough to avoid large creep but not
excessively high to cause large stress concentrations.
Acceptable fatigue performance over the use temperature range (-20 to

+40oC).
Long-term durability to maintain the integrity of the system over the

planned life span.
page 168
Epoxy adhesives, the most utilized in civil engineering applications offer several
advantages over other polymers as adhesive agents [9.9]:
High surface activity and good wetting properties.
High cured cohesive strength.
May be formulated to have a long open time.
May be toughened if a dispersed rubbery phase is included.
Low shrinkage due to lack of by-products from curing reaction allowing

the bonding of large areas with only contact pressure.
Low creep and superior strength retention under long term loading.
Can be made thixotropic for application to vertical and inclined surfaces.
Able to accommodate irregular or thick bond lines.
Some typical properties for cold cured epoxy adhesives used in civil engineering
applications are given in Table 9.1 which also provides the same information for
concrete and mild steel [9.25].
Table 9.1 Comparison of typical properties for epoxy adhesives, concrete and steel
Property (at 20oC)

Density (kg/m3)
Young modulus (GPa)
Shear modulus (GPa)
Poissons ratio
Tensile strength (MPa)
Shear strength (MPa)
Compressive strength (MPa)
Ultimate tensile strain (%)
Approximate fracture energy (J/m2)
Coefficient of thermal expansion
(10-6/oC)
Water absorbtion: 7days-25oC(%w/w)
Glass transition temperature (oC)
Cold curing
epoxy adhesive
1100-1700
0.5-20
0.2-8
0.3-0.4
9-30
10-30
55-110
0.5-5
200-1000
25-100
0.1-3
45-80
Concrete
Mild steel
2400
20-50
8-21
0.2
1-4
2-5
25-150
0.015
100
11-13
7850
210
81
0.3
200-220
120-130
200-220
25
105-106
10-15
5
-
0
-
9.4 FLEXURAL STRENGTHENING OF BEAMS

The need for methods of repair and strengthening of RC beams and girders has
been imposed by: degradation due to corrosion of steel reinforcement, cracking of
page 169
concrete due to excessive carbonation, freeze-thaw action, spalling of concrete

cover, effects of alkali-silica reactions and changing in loading patterns [9.13]. In
case of bridges the need for increasing their load carrying capacities requires the
adoption of a cost-effective technology that will not distress the traffic
significantly. In buildings the materials deterioration and changing needs for
building occupancy imposes, in many cases, the strengthening of existing beams.
One of the conventional methods for external strengthening implies the addition of
adhesive-bonded steel plates on the tension side of the RC beams. The use of
epoxy-bonded steel plates is very frequent in Europe and the United States but it
suffers from a number of disadvantages:
Steel plates are heavy and difficult to transport, handle and install.
The length of individual steel plates is restricted to 8-10m to enable

handling and even at these lengths it may be difficult to erect them due to
pre-existing service facilities.
Durability and corrosion effects remain uncertain.
Contaminants on structural members prior to bonding.
Surface preparation including the priming systems.
Steel plate thickness at least 5 mm to prevent distortion during blasting

operation.
Complex profiles are difficult to be shaped with steel plates.
Expensive falsework is required to maintain steel plates in position during

bonding.
Composites fabricated either through wet processes on-site or prefabricated in

strips and then adhesively bonded to the concrete surface provide an efficient
means of strengthening, that can be carried out with no or little disruption in use. In
general, polymeric composites can be applied in three ways as described in the
following section. The efficacy of the method depends mainly on the appropriate
selection of the composite material and on the efficiency and integrity of the bond
between the composite and the concrete surface.
Wet lay-up. In this procedure the polymeric resin is applied to the concrete
substrate and layers of fabric made of carbon, glass or aramid fibres, and then
impregnated in place using rollers (see fig.4.22). The composite and bond are
formed at the same time. The procedure is quite slow and needs more setup.
Adhesive-bonding. The composite plate is prefabricated and cured (using pultrusion
or another manufacturing procedure) and then bonded onto the concrete substrate
page 170
using an adhesive material. FRP plate bonding technique is generally applied into
three strengthening patterns [9.14]: tension face strengthening, shear surfaces
strengthening and tension and shear stress tensioning methods as shown in fig.9.1.
a.
b.
c.
Fibre direction
d.
Fibre direction
e.
Fig.9.1 Strengthening with adhesively bonded prefabricated composite plates:
a-tension face strengthening; b-shear surfaces strengthening; c-tension and shear surfaces
strengthening; d- typical tension face strengthened RC beam; e-typical shear surfaces
strengthened RC beam
Vacuum infusion. Reinforcing fabric is placed over the area under consideration
and the entire area is encapsulated in a vacuum bag.
The polymeric resin is infused into the assembly under vacuum with compaction
taking place under vacuum pressure. This is a closed process (see fig.4.27).
In a variant the outer layer of fabric in contact with the vacuum bag is partially
cured prior to placement in order to assure a good surface. It is a much slower
procedure than the previous ones with significant setup time needed.
page 171
The bond between the composite and concrete whether established through the use
of an adhesive or through the use of the same resin system (used in the wet hand
lay-up) of the composite itself, must be able to perform under ambient conditions.
The bond must also be capable of providing an adequate response under
temperature, the resulting stress and strain conditions and in the presence of
moisture.
If conducted in an appropriate manner, the external application of composites to
concrete beams and slabs can result in significant enhancement of load-carrying
capacity and flexural and shear strength of the original structural member.
Test results show that the use of external composite reinforcing reduces drastically
the ductility at initial failure.
Care must be taken to ensure that the rehabilitation design addresses the possibility
of elastic failure of the system, with a sudden drop in strength when the composite
fails through catastrophic fracture, failure of the composite-concrete bond
interface, limits on capacity increase related to yielding of steel reinforcement, or
the use of an appropriately factored, equivalent energy-based design approach.
9.4.1
Methods of flexural strengthening
9.4.1.1 Unstressed soffit plates

Flexural strengthening of simply supported RC beams using FRP composites is
mainly achieved by bonding a FRP plate to the soffit of the beam, fig.9.2.a.
Before application of the composite plate, the soffit of the RC beam must be
carefully prepared.
The preparation is intended to achieve a good surface preparation by removing the
weak surface layer of the concrete, exposing the concrete aggregate and providing
an even surface for an efficient bond to the FRP plate.
There are a number of variations of the basic procedure. Mechanical anchors, such
as steel bolts, metallic jigs and prefabricated U strips can be installed to prevent
debonding at the ends of the soffit plates, fig.9.b, c, d.
FRP end anchorage strips can also be formed by wet lay-up and they can be
completely or partially wrapped around the RC beam near the ends of the plate.
Experimental works have proved that mechanical anchors may prevent or at least
delay the onset of debonding [9.27].
page 172
1-1
a
f
a.
1
2
2-2
a
c
f
b.
2
3-3
e
a
d
f
c.
3
4-4
a
f
d.
Fig.9.2 Strengthening of RC beams with FRP soffit plates

a- concrete; b-FRP plate; c-anchor bolts;
d, e - elements of the metallic jig; f - adhesive layer
9.4.1.2 Prestressed FRP soffit strips

In certain applications it may be advantageous to bond the FRP strips to the beam
soffit in a prestressed state. The main advantage of prestressing the FRP strip is
that the bonded strip contributes to the load bearing capacity before additional
loading is applied to the structure. Other important benefits are [9.6], [9.29]:
Provides a stiffer behaviour as at early stages most of the concrete is in

compression and contributing to the bending moment capacity.
Crack formation in the shear span is delayed and the cracks when they
appear are more finely distributed.
Closes cracks in RC elements with pre-existing cracks.
Improves durability and serviceability due to reduced cracking.
Improves the shear resistance of the RC member as the whole concrete

section will resist the shear provided the concrete remains uncracked.
page 173
Smaller areas of FRP strips are required to achieve the same strengthening
effect.
Some failure modes associated with peeling-off at cracks at the ends of

FRP plates can be avoided.
A greater structural efficiency can be obtained since the neutral axis

remains at a lower level in the prestressed case than in the unstressed one.
The yielding of the steel reinforcement commences at an increased load

compared to that of a non-stressed RC member.
This technique has, however, some disadvantages:
It is more expensive due to the lager number of operations and equipment

that is required by the process of prestressing.
The duration of the process is longer.
The equipment needed to push the FRP strip to the soffit must be kept in
place until the adhesive layer has become hard enough.
The concept of applying a prestressed FRP plate is illustrated in fig.9.3.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Fig.9.3 Strengthening of RC beams with prestressed FRP plates:
a-prestressing; b-bonding; c-end anchorage and FRP plate release upon hardening of the
adhesive; d-active anchorage [9.6]
page 174
9.4.1.3 Near surface mounted FRP reinforcement inside slits

The use of FRP bars or strips bonded into grooves near the surface of a concrete
element is a relatively new technique for strengthening structures, fig.9.4. These
slits are cut into the concrete structure with a depth smaller than the concrete cover.
FRP strips with a thickness of 2 mm and a width of 20mm are bonded into these
grooves.
Concrete
CFRP strip
Bonding agent
Fig.9.4 FRP strips glued into slits [9.6]
The main benefits of using near surface mounted (NSM) reinforcement over those
existing for an externally bonded reinforcement solution [9.5] are:
The reinforcement is buried beneath the surface of the element and

therefore is protected from damage due to accidental impacts, traction
forces and vandalism.
There is no need for extensive for extensive preparation as required for

externally bonded plates and the surface undulations and roughness are
more easily accommodated.
NSM reinforcing elements give more aesthetically pleasant solutions.
9.4.2
Failure modes of RC beams strengthened in flexure
The failure modes of the reinforced concrete beams strengthened in flexure with
externally bonded FRP strips may be divided into two classes: those where full
composite action of concrete and FRP is maintained until the concrete crushes in
compression or the FRP fails in tension and those where composite action is lost
prior to the previous class failure. A schematic illustration of typical failure modes
identified in experimental tests is summarized in fig.9.5, [9.29], [9.30].
page 175
Concrete crushing
a.
b.
FRP fracture
Concrete crushing
c.
d.
Debonding
Debonding
e.
f.
g.
Debonding
FRP end shear
Fig.9.5 Failure modes of reinforced concrete beams strengthened with FRP in flexure:
a-steel yielding and concrete crushing (steel yields before concrete crushes); b-FRP
fracture (steel yields before concrete crushes); c-concrete crushing (no steel yielding); ddebonding at the outermost crack; e-debonding in flexural crack; f-debonding at the
intermediate shear crack; g-FRP end shear
page 176
Modes (a)-(c) may be treated by standard cross section analysis, assuming that the
FRP strip behaves elastically to failure. Debonding failure modes (d)-(f) require the
determination of the anchorable forces based on the bond length, mechanical
characteristics of FRP and tensile strength of concrete. Mode (g) can be analyzed
by studying the shear capacity at the FRP plate ends.
Bond is necessary to transfer forces from the concrete into the FRP, hence bond
failure modes must be taken into account properly. Bond failure may occur at
different interfaces between the concrete and the FRP reinforcement as illustrated
in fig.9.6.
Concrete
Debonding in
concrete
Adhesive
FRP reinforcement
Debonding between
concrete and
a d h e s i v e
Debonding in adhesive
Debonding between
adhesive and FRP
Debonding line along

embedded reinforcement
Debonding line
near the surface
Concrete
Adhesive
FRP reinforcement
Fig.9.6 Different interfaces for bond failure [9.6]
9.5 SHEAR STRENGTHENING OF BEAMS

When a RC beam is deficient in shear, or when its shear capacity is less than the
flexural capacity after flexural strengthening, the shear strengthening of the
respective beam has to be considered. It has been realized that the FRP bonded to
the soffit of a RC beam does not modify significantly the shear behaviour from that
of the unstrengthened beams, [9.8], [9.24]. Therefore, the influence of FRP strips
bonded to the soffit for flexural strengthening may be ignored in predicting the
shear strength of the beam.
page 177
Strengthening solutions. Various bonding schemes of FRP strips have been utilized
to improve the shear capacity of reinforced concrete beams. The shear effect of
FRP external reinforcement is maximized when the fibre direction coincides to that
of maximum principal tensile stress. For the most common case of structural
members subjected to transverse loads (loads perpendicular to the member axis)
the maximum principal stress trajectories in the shear-critical zones form an angle
with the member axis which may be taken about 45o, fig.9.1.e.
However, sometimes it is more practical to attach the external FRP reinforcement
with the principal fibre direction, perpendicular to the axis direction. Because FRPs
are strong in the direction of fibres only their orientation is recommended to
control the shear cracks best. Shear forces in a beam may be reversed under
reversed cyclic loading and fibres may be thus arranged at two different directions
to satisfy the requirement of shear strengthening in both directions.
a.
b.
c.
Fig.9.7 Shear strengthening schemes with FRP composites

a- FRP bonded to the web sides only; b-U jacketing; c-complete wrapping
The contribution of externally bonded FRP reinforcement to the shear capacity of

RC beams depends on several parameters: the stiffness of the FRP reinforcing
products, the type of resins, the compressive strength of concrete, the strengthening
pattern and the orientation of fibres, [9.21]-[9.26].
Various bonding schemes have been used to increase the shear resistance of RC
beams, fig.9.7, [9.1]. Completely wrapping of FRP system around the section on all
four sides is the most efficient wrapping scheme and is used where access to all
sides of the member is available.
In a beam application where an integral slab makes it impractical to completely
wrap the member, the shear strength can be improved by wrapping the FRP system
around three sides of the member (U-wrap) or bonding to the two sides of the
member. Although all three schemes improve the shear strength of the member,
completely wrapping the section is the most efficient, followed by U-wrap.
page 178
Bonding to two sides of the beam only is the least efficient scheme. In all wrapping
schemes, the FRP system can be installed continuously along the span length of the
beam or placed as discrete strips. The main factors contributing to the selection of
strengthening scheme are: accessibility of the site, type of loading (monotonic or
reversed cyclic), amount of increase required in shear capacity, availability of FRP
materials and economic considerations. The combination of different bonding
configurations, fibre orientations and fibre distributions can result in many
strengthening schemes, fig.9.8. An attempt to organize the notation of shear
strengthening schemes is presented in [9.27].
1. According to bonding configurations the following categories can be
differentiated:
S=side bonding , fig.9.7.a
U=U jacketing (the use of three separate plates is unacceptable), fig.9.7.b
W=wrapping around the cross section, fig.9.7.c
The S configuration is the easiest to apply, needs the least amount of FRP for a
small increase in shear capacity, but is vulnerable to debonding and the least
effective. U jacketing is moderately effective, less vulnerable to debonding and
acts as mechanical anchors for flexural strengthening. Wrapping is the least
vulnerable to debonding, the most effective, but not possible if at least one side of
the beam is not accessible.
2. Fibre distributions can be symbolized as:
S=strips
P=plates/sheets
The distributions in strips has more flexibility in controlling the amount of FRP,
savings in material are possible, uniform adhesive layers can be achieved, but the
system is labour consuming. When plates/sheets are utilized the site application is
ease and the RC is protected from further environmental degradation if fully
covered. However, the amount of FRP cannot be easily controlled and the uniform
adhesive layers are more difficult to be achieved.
3. Fibre orientations:
First fibre/strip orientation, (0o < 180o)
Second fibre/strip orientation, (0o <180o)
Vertical fibres (=90o) are the easiest to apply and effective for strengthening in
case of reversed shear, but less effective than inclined fibres/strips for shear crack
control. The inclined fibres ( = 45o) are more effective for shear crack control.
They can not be applied for U jacketing and wrapping using unidirectional sheets
and wide strips. Bidirectional sheets/strips (mostly 0o/90o or 45o/135o) are the most
effective in shear crack control, effective for strengthening for reversed shear, but
require more reinforcing fibres.
page 179

Shear strengthening of beams
Possible bonding procedure on
cross-sectionof RC beams
Orientation of fibres
h
=90
SS 90
US90
WS90
US
WS
0 <180
SS
h
0 <180
SS/ US/ WS/
0 <180
h
=90
SP 90
UP90
WP90
SP
UP
WP
h
0 <180
0 <180
SP/
0 <180
UP/ WP/
Fig.9.8 Various FRP shear strengthening schemes [9.27]
It must be emphasized that the technique for shear strengthening of RC beams

using FRP composites is still at its early development. A complete plate-bonding
and shear strengthening scheme, realized at the University of Sheffield, UK is
presented in fig.9.9.
page 180
Fig.9.9 FRP strengthened reinforced concrete beam ready for testing

(CCC, University of Sheffield)
There is still considerable uncertainty concerning the total shear capacity of an RC

beam with externally bonded FRP shear reinforcement. Therefore care must be
taken in practical design and expert advice or experimental verification should be
sought wherever necessary [9.27].
9.6 STRENGTHENING OF RC SLABS

In general, the force distribution in each direction is determined by the ratio of the
stiffnesses and the ratio of the spans in both directions. When the stiffness in both
directions is equal, the plate is called isotropic [9.7].
A reinforced concrete plate can be considered as isotropic, since the amount of
internal steel in both directions differs only slightly. The distribution of the
corresponding forces in the plate then only depends on the ratio of the spans, and
the largest part of the load will be taken by the shortest span. Once the force
distribution is known, the calculation of the amount of internal or external
reinforcement is identical to the design of reinforced concrete beams subjected to
bending.
page 181
The advantage of the thin FRP strips is the fact that they can be applied in both
directions. In that way, the strengthened concrete plate remains isotropic, which
means that the relative force distribution will not change. Since reinforced concrete
plates are much thinner than concrete beams the lever arm from the resulting
concrete compressive force to the external reinforcement is much larger than the
lever arm to the internal steel reinforcement. This means that the active tensile
stresses in the external FRP reinforcement can be much higher than in the internal
steel reinforcement and the high resistance of the FRP reinforcement can be
efficiently utilised.
Therefore FRP laminates can often be used more effectively for strengthening
concrete plates than for strengthening concrete beams. However when FRP strips
are utilised, the deformations might be unacceptable, since the contribution of the
externally bonded reinforcement to the plate stiffness is relatively small.
The strengthening of RC slabs is expanding but the results obtained from the
application of composites to beams cannot be directly extrapolated to application
of slabs, especially as related to the selection of the form and positioning of the
external reinforcement.
This application is considered mainly for deficient structures where local punching
shear failures are seen. A common conventional method is the complete
reconstruction of the damaged area, very often at significant cost and with distress
to traffic. FRP composites can easily be applied without any disruption of traffic.
If the repair scheme is designed properly, the external FRP composite
reinforcement will repair the area damaged by punching shear and will also prevent
the opening of the existing cracks. The repair of this deficiency can be easily
performed through the use of adhesively bonded pultruded composite strips and
through wet lay-up of unidirectional fabrics.
Similar schemes can be applied for the strengthening and repair of floor slabs of
parking garages, which often suffer rapid deterioration due to salt-induced
cracking, efflorescence of concrete and corrosion of steel reinforcement.
The use of composite strips provides an efficient mechanism for repair where
installation of liftwells in buildings results in cutting through existing steel
reinforcement to form a cutout. Composite strips or bands can be easily applied
externally to make up the lost reinforcing capacity, and to provide the means for
redistribution of the loads and resulting stresses.
Where preexisting slabs have to be cut for the installation of a liftwell during
changes in building use, conventional methods would result in the construction of
page 182
deep supporting beams, enclosure walls, or columns to support the resulting

weaker structure. These alternatives use valuable space and result in significant
cost and extended inconvenience to the inhabitants.
The FRP composites thus provide not only a means for strengthening and repair
but also an effective change in occupancy or use of structures while allowing rapid
and nonintrusive reconstruction. Appropriate design can assure that failure is
through delamination at the level of cover concrete with local level decreasing to
that of the yield response of the slab with a cutout, thereby ensuring gradual failure.
9.6.1
Strengthening of simply supported plates
When the RC plates are simply supported the one-way plates are strengthened by
bonding FRP strips to the soffit along the required direction, Figure 9.10. For twoway plates strengthening must be applied for both directions, by bonding FRP
strips in both directions, fig.9.11.
Elevation
Cross-Section
RC slab
FRP strip
FRP strip
a.
b.
Fig.9.10 FRP strengthening of one-way simply supported plate:

a- elevation; b- cross section
Cro ss-Sectio n
RC slab
FRP strip
FRP strips
a.
b.
Fig.9.11 FRP strengthening of a two-way slab:

a- slab soffit; b- cross section
The possible collapse mechanism of a two-way slab suggests that the strengthening
of such a plate can be concentrated in the central region, fig.9.11.a, and the FRP
page 183
strips can be terminated far away from the edges [9.27]. The load capacity of such
strengthened plates can be predicted by a yield line analysis, as the part of the slab
without bonded FRP strips has enough ductility for the formation of yield lines.
9.6.2
Strengthening of cantilever RC plates
In case of the cantilever plates the end support is subjected to the largest bending
moment in the slab, and therefore the FRP strips can not be terminated before the
fixed end. If the slab is cantilevered from a wall, the strips may be bent and bonded
onto the wall surface, fig.9.12.a, if the wet lay up process is adopted. Inserting of
FRP strips into slots predrilled in the wall provides a sound anchorage, fig.9.12.b.
For continuous cantilever plates, the anchorage of FRP strips may be achieved by
extending the FRP strips to the inside slab for a sufficient length, fig.9.12.c.
Concrete slab
a.
Epoxy mortar
Supporting wall
Concrete slab
FRP composites strip

Supporting wa ll
FRP composites
b.
Cantilever span
Cantilever slab
Cantilever slab
Supporting beam or wall
c.
Fig.9.12 Fixed end anchorages for cantilever slabs:
a-simple bonding of FRP on the wall; b-insertion of FRP strip in slots in the wall;
c- anchorage for continuous cantilever slab
page 184
9.7 STRENGTHENING OF RC COLUMNS

9.7.1
General
Conventional strengthening measures for RC columns range from the external

confinement of the core by heavily reinforced external concrete sections to the use
of steel cables wound helically around the existing column at close spacing that are
then covered by concrete and the use of steel jackets welded together in the field
confining the existing columns, [9.2], [9.3].
Some of these methods are effective but they have some disadvantages [9.13]:
They are time consuming and labour intensive;
Can cause significant interruption of the structure functioning due to access

and space requirements for heavy equipment;
Rely on field welding, the quality of which is often questionable;
Susceptible to degradation due to corrosion;
Introduce changes in column stiffness, influencing the seismic force levels.
The strengthening of existing RC columns using steel or FRP jacketing is based on

a well established fact that lateral confinement of concrete can substantially
enhance its axial compressive strength and ductility [9.15].
The most common form of FRP column strengthening involves the external
wrapping of FRP straps. The use of FRP composites provides a means for
confinement without the increase in stiffness (when only hoop reinforcing fibres
are utilised), enables rapid fabrication of cost effective and durable jackets, with
little or no traffic disruption in most cases. In FRP-confined concrete subjected to
axial compression, the FRP jackets are loaded mainly in hoop tension while the
concrete is subjected to tri-axial compression, so that both materials are used to
their best advantages. As a result of the confinement, both the strength and the
ultimate strain of concrete can be enhanced, while the tensile strength of FRP can
be effectively utilized [9.3].
Instead of the brittle behaviour exhibited by both materials, FRP-confined concrete
possesses an enhanced ductility [9.28]. For FRP wrapped, axially loaded columns
the design philosophy relies on the wrap to carry tensile forces around the
perimeter of the column as a result of lateral expansion of the underlying column
when loaded axially in compression, [9.18], [9.19]. Constraining the lateral
expansion of the column confines the concrete and, consequently increases its axial
compressive capacity. It should be underlined that passive confinement of this type
requires significant lateral expansion of the concrete before the FRP wrap is loaded
page 185
and confinement is initiated. In case of columns rectangular or square in cross

section the confinement is effective at the column corners only with negligible
resistance to lateral expansion being provided along the flat column sides [9.16].
9.7.2
Methods of strengthening
A number of different methods (based on form of jacketing material or fabrication

process) have been tested at large or full-scale many of which are now used
commercially all over the world. A suitable classification of FRP composite jackets
is given in fig.9.13, [9.12], [9.13], [9.27].
a.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Fig.9.13 Methods of FRP strengthening for RC columns:

wrapping of fabric; b.partially rapping with strips; c.prefabricated jakets
d. spiral rings; e. automated winding; f. resin infusion.
page 186
Wrapping. The most common technique for column strengthening using FRP
composites has been in situ FRP wrapping. In this technique woven fabric sheets or
unidirectional fibre sheets are impregnated with polymer resins and wrapped
around the RC column. In the wet lay-up process the main fibres are orientated in
the hoop direction, with cure taking place, generally, under ambient conditions. A
column can be fully wrapped with FRP sheets in single or multiple layers,
fig.9.13.a. It can also be partially wrapped using FRP straps in a continuous spiral,
fig.9.13.b, or discrete rings. This method is very flexible in coping with different
column shapes, ease in site handling and does not require special equipment. It is
the most labour intensive and enables the least quality control.
Filament winding. In filament winding, fig.9.13.e, the process is automated but
essentially follows the same patterns with the difference being that the ensuing
jacket has a nominal prestress due to the use of winding tension. The process can
be automatically controlled using a computer controlled winding machine. A FRP
membrane with imposed thickness, fibre orientation and fibre volume fraction can
be achieved in this process. The use of prepreg tows has the advantage of using
standardized and uniform materials that are easy for the structural designer to
specify and it also presents the opportunity for elevated temperature cure.
An improved quality control and reduced on-site labour are among the advantages
of this technique. However this method has less flexibility in coping with different
column shapes and requires special equipment.
Prefabricated shell jacketing. In case of adhesively bonded shells, prefabricated
single or dual-section jackets can be assembled in the field through bonding and
layering. The shells are fabricated in half circles, fig.9.13.c, or half rectangles and
circles with a slit or in continuous rolls prior to field installation, so that they can
be opened and placed around the column. For effective FRP confinement to be
achieved, a full contact between the column and the FRP jacket is needed. This can
be achieved by bonding the shell to the column using adhesives or injecting
shrinkage-compensated grout or mortar into the space between the shell and the
column [9.4], [9.20].
The process affords a high level of materials quality control due to prefabrication
of the elements under factory conditions, requires least on-site labour, enables
column shape modification but as in the case of external strengthening relies on the
integrity of the adhesive bond and has limited flexibility in coping with different
column shapes.
For rectangular columns to be strengthened by wrapping, their corners must be
rounded. This rounding is needed to reduce the detrimental effect of the sharp
corners on the tensile strength of FRP wraps and to enhance the effectiveness of
confinement. If rectangular prefabricated shells are used, the shells are generally
page 187
slightly oversized and their corners are rounded, with the small gap between the
jacket and the concrete core filled with expansive cement grout. One or more
vertical joints generally exist in the FRP whether wrapping or prefabricated shell
jacketing is used.
These joints should be made strong enough so that joint failure does not become
the strength controlling failure mode, as otherwise the strength of the FRP is not
fully utilized. When a FRP shell with a vertical slit in each layer is used, either an
additional FRP strip should be bonded over the vertical seam, fig.9.14, [9.2] or the
slits should be staggered (in case of shells consisting of a large number of FRP
layers.
Reinforced Concrete Column
Adhesive
FRP Strip
Composite Jacket
Fig.9.14 Prefabricated FRP square jacket with additional strip
In most cases the FRP confinement obtained is passive in nature, with hoop tensile
stresses in the FRP developing as the concrete expands. Active confinement
methods with FRP jackets have also been applied [9.20].
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9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
ACI 440.2R-02. Guide for the design and construction of externally bonded
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Ciupala, M.A., Pilakoutas, K., Mortazawi, A., Taranu, N RC Lateral
prestressing with composites. In: Advanced Polymer Composites for
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9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.15
9.16
9.17
9.18
International Conference, held at the University of Surrey, Guildford, UK on

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Guadagnini, M., Shear behaviour and design of FRP RC beams. PhD
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Hollaway, L. C. and Leeming, M.B. Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete
Structures. CRC Press, Woodhead Publishing Limited, Cambridge, 1999.
Hollaway, L. C., The evolution and the way forward for advanced polymer
composites in the civil infrastructure. Constr. and Build. Mat. 17, 2003, 365378.
Hutchinson, A. R. and Quinn, J. Materials. In Strengthening of
Reinforced Concrete Structures. Hollaway, L.C. and Leeming, M.B. eds.,
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Karbhari, V. M., Civil Infrastructure Applications. In: Composites Vol. 21,
ASM International, Ohio, 2001.
Karbhari, V.M., Seible, F. Fiber reinforced composites-advanced materials
for renewal of civil infrastructure. Appl. Comp. Mater. 7, 95-124, 2000.
Lau, T.K., Zhou, L.M., Tse, P.C., Yuan, L.B. Applications of composites,
optical fibre sensors and smart composites for concrete rehabilitation: an
overview. Appl. Comp. Mater. 9: 221-247, 2002.
Mander, J.P., Priestley, M.J.N., Park, R. Theoretical stress-strain model for
confined concrete. Journ. of Struct. Eng., ASCE, Vol. 114, No 8, 18041826, 1988.
Masia, M.J., Gale, T.N., Shrive N.G. Size effect in axially loaded squaresection concrete prisms strengthened using carbon fibre reinforced polymer
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9.19 Monti, G. Confining reinforced concrete with FRP: behaviour and
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9.20 Mortazavi,A., Behaviour of concrete confined with lateral pretensioned
FRP, PhD Thesis, University of Sheffield, 2003.
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concrete beams with carbon fibre reinforced polymer plates. In Bull. of the
Polytechnic Inst of Iasi, Tom XLIX, Fasc. 3-4, 2003, 97-106.
9.23 Pellegrino, C., Modena, C. Fiber reinforced polymer shear strengthening of
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comp. for constr., Vol. 6, 2, 104-111, 2002.
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10
REHABILITATION OF
TIMBER STRUCTURES
10.1. INTRODUCTION
Timber, with rough stone, is the oldest building material the man used, also the
most complete before steel was available, because it can be solicited both to
compression and to tension, therefore to bending. Its use was continuous up to the
present time.
Load bearing timber structures are exposed during their life to some degradation
factors which lead, in the absence of appropriate maintenance interventions, to the
loss of their structural integrity and serviceability. But the consequences are even
more when the structures are parts of historical and/or artistic buildings because
their cultural evidence also could be endangered or completely lost. Due to the fact
that old timber structures account for a large part of our architectural heritage,
mainly in the form of roofs and floors, a reliable, effective and economic procedure
for their in situ evaluation is particularly needed [10.4].
The heritage of timber structures we belong is immense and the oldest specimens
date back to millennia ago, some of them still in good shape and performing their
duties. Ancient timber load-bearing structures are the ancestors of the modern
framed structures therefore they deserve special attention and careful conservation.
The acquaintance of an ancient timber structure is an extensive analysis, from its
ideation to the present conditions, which include the general characters like
paternity and chronology, configuration and loading, construction technique and
process, innovations, and the peculiar characters as environmental factors, quality,
defects and decay of the materials, failure, and regimen of the loads [10.1].
The load bearing capacity of a new considered timber structure needs in certain
cases to be improved through appropriate structural consolidation, in order to
comply with increased performance requirements (modifications in use of the
structure, for example).
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Rehabilitation of timber structures
Timber originally has considerable advantages as a structural material. In

particular, its great use for decreasing global warming effect is well known. Also,
as a structural material, timber scores high with the strength ratio for the same
weight, reaching six times higher than that of steel, thus lightening the weight of a
building could be attempted. On the other hand, quite a few issues are remained to
be solved partly because timber is a natural material and its material characteristic
is easily changed due to its surrounding environment. Further, the stiffness and
deformation capacity of moment resisting joints has never been calculated
decisively without a full-scale experimental process.
Timber structures, whether old or new, must periodically undergo a thoughtful
inspection and evaluation of their safety and serviceability. Conservation and
rehabilitation of existing timber structures is a relatively new idea, the implementation
of which requires a multi-disciplinary approach.
Structure is a system of members with assigned relations, deputed to fulfil a given
task; some of them are designed to carry loads and ensure stability to buildings.
The geometry designed by elements which occupy a limited and well defined part
of the three-dimensional space, their position, the evidence of the hierarchy of the
components present (structural units, structural systems, connections), the relations
between the same components and the other parts of the buildings (which may
occasionally give a contribution to the balance and to the stability of the structure if
not to the strength), reveal easily which is the organization that has been given to
the elements, in other words they allow the understanding of the pre-established
relations.
The repair and strengthening of timber structures is a more comprehensive
intellectual, technical and scientific activity (including the concern and the search
for cultural implications in the ideation of the structure) to collect all the necessary
data to allow the formulation of a judgment on the reliability of the structure to
perform its bearing function in safe conditions. The aims of investigation are to
determine the general and the particular characters. In general, no two identical
situations exist in damaged timber structures, therefore restoration works and
repairs need to be chosen, designed and implemented case by case [10.3].
For timber structures the accomplishment of this difficult task implies the involvement
of different experts: wood technologists, engineers, architects and possibly other
experts co-operating to check the condition of each structural element, evaluate the
serviceability of the whole structure and prevent future degrade.
Through a careful examination of each structural member and joint, the team duty is
to derive accurate information concerning to the properties, performance and
condition of the material, and also to determine realistic boundaries within which the
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designer shall make his calculations. The constituting materials are usually left in
sight, also to fulfil physiological conservation requirements, hence it is possible to
perceive the botanic species, the workings, the degradations occurred etc.
Timber structures, more than those made of other materials, show a very
complicate rheologic (deformational) behaviour, mainly because of the property of
the visco-elasticity that wood belongs, in an accentuated way if compared to other
materials, due to the nature of the tissues and the longitudinal position of the fibres.
Therefore often it is difficult to assess the cause, the kind and the entity of the
stresses which are responsible for the deformations detected.
10.2. INSPECTION AND EVALUATION

10.2.1 Objectives of the inspection
Essential aims when studying a timber structural complex is the identification of
the kind of hierarchic organization existing between the systems, the units, the
members and the connections present. Configuration of a structural unit (frame,
truss, floor) as part of a structural system is an abstract concept related to the
geometry of the mechanical device and of its components (as span, bay, height,
number, shape and position in the space of the members, dimensions and ratio
between them), the connections of various nature between the members, which
determine the relations between the elements and any other structural system
connected.
The configuration is devised to bear a given system of forces and withstand the
foreseen actions thus ensuring strength, equilibrium, stability to the architectural
organism [10.1]. Indeed the configuration, the result of an ideation activity, is the
essence of the structure, it carries its most exclusive and characterizing features; it
is the element that deserves deeper investigation and more careful conservation.
The member components and the connections must be identified.
Other important elements to determine are the relations of the timber structural
complex with the other structural systems present in the building as the bearing
walls for a covering, the soil for a timber framed construction; these are started,
performed, settled by the external ties. This means to recognize and to classify the
various structural systems present in a building and to determine the relations
between them.
Bearing, joints, connections are other very important elements of the structure and
of the configuration. It is essential to determine design, nature, and degree of
movement freedom they allow to the concurring members.
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The environment has great influence on the conservation of a timber structure. The
most relevant factors are pollution and, of course, humidity and temperature
because of the dimensional variations they produce, the variations in the same
strength of the wood, the predisposition to biotic attacks.
Occasional factors as malfunctioning of the gutters, humidity in the bearing walls
of a covering, lack of aeration and ventilation as well as scarce use of the room,
presence of water-proof and insulated covering or caps of the structures as well as
occasional condensations, exposure, heating systems and conditioning are
responsible of damages, also to the metallic components of the structure, that need
detection and survey.
For each member, the peculiar characters as the botanic species, the quality of the
timbers (with specification of the ring thickness, the grain, the defects, the effects
of the shrinkage and other damage), the position of the piece in the shaft, the
workings, the mechanical and biotical decay, investigations must be carried out.
Natural defects must be assessed also. Knots too big, too numerous in a restricted
area, dead and loose knots, ring-shakes, irregularities of the direction of the fibres,
ill-formed tissues, brittle heart are the most common defects of the wood.
The shrinkage of the wood, which occurs because of the hygroscopicity of the
tissues when the rate of internal humidity decreases, is a process which starts
internal tensions and produces solutions in the continuity that are called checks or
shakes. These are not a defect of the wood. They become, anyhow, a defect of the
timber when this is used as a construction material because their presence reduces
the mechanical strength of the member, predisposing to fracture.
The assessment of the strength of the materials, although in a statistic and
probabilistic way, is one of the most difficult tasks because it is not possible to
deduce one or more members from an ancient structure from direct testing on
structural scale samples, as it would be advisable. Mathematical instrument can
help considerably with verifications of the strength of the material in the most
solicited sections of the members, of the balance of the units, of the stability of the
whole system.
The detection of the mechanical deformations of the structure is a fundamental
task: the manifestations must be looked for with the maximum care. The most
important and recurring are semi-permanent or permanent deformations (twisting
or lateral buckling, sinking, sagging, contraction, dilatation, elongation, crushing,
embedding, folding), rupture, tear, splitting, crack at the level of members,
displacements (translations and rotations) at the member and unit level;
disconnections, deformation (changes in geometry, rotations, piling up), loss of
equilibrium etc. at the unit level; loss of stability at the general level of the system.
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The cracks of the members are quite different according to the nature of internal
stresses caused by compression or tension or bending, shear, or torsion, and also to
the absence or presence of decay agents such as beetles and fungi.
When the structure is in poor conditions further analyses are requested to ascertain
whether the failure is still active or it is extinguished, the factors of decay or
failure, the period in which it occurred, the mechanical processes of failure, the
members and the joints affected, the extension of the decay, the measures taken etc.
Failure of the structures can also occur because of the progressive malfunctioning
of the connections, a disease which can affect every element of the hierarchic
organization. Loosening of the joints, twisting or breaking of the ends of the
members are the usual disconnections.
Timber structures belong on peculiar aesthetic values such as: bi- or tridimensional geometry, proportions of the members, weight, colour, decorations,
and others.
All these values are to be investigated and recorded, also interpreted, and attempts
are to be made to imagine and give, by means of restoration (descriptions,
drawings, audiovisuals etc.), the look that the structure had at the beginning of his
life.
Generally, the inspection of an existing timber structure has the following main
objectives:
to provide the information needed by the structural engineer in order to assess

if the strength and the stiffness of members and of connections are
satisfactory for structural safety in the intended use;
to point out parts, which may need specific reinforcement, substitution, or

other types of intervention;
to evaluate decay factors which may have affected the structure, and which
may affect it in the future;
to acquaint the acknowledgement of the cultural values they carry and, at the
same time, a primary measure of safeguarding.
The means to achieve these objectives (concerning all load-bearing elements) are the
following:
to assess the timber quality: ascertain the wood species and its main physical
and mechanical properties, including defects and anomalies;
to detect existing decay or damage suffered in service;

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to assess the risk of decay or damage in the future;
to assess the effective cross section(s) and their strength and stiffness.
10.2.2 Investigation methods

According with the aim of the research, the methods and the level of investigation
vary considerably. The same progression of investigation is completely modified
when the decay and the structural failure are severe and the risk of sudden collapse
is high. Due to the number of members in a structure, all the aforesaid
investigations must have a statistic character. The investigation range, the methods,
the instruments and the same number of tests varies accordingly.
There are two methods of investigation which are used individually or together.
These methods are:
visual analysis;
instrumental analysis.
The acquaintance of the timber structure is progressively achieved with inspections

in situ; unavoidably, in a professional approach, the first concern is for stability and
configuration. During the inspections, observations and analyses are made, those
eases the first assessments and allow planning the following instrumental analyses.
Mathematical calculations and models follow; due to the statistic methods used to
collection the data, the mathematical models have no deterministic value. In the
most general cases, once the structural units have been determined, it is advisable
to examine analytically the structural units, which are the real basic reference of
every further investigation.
The further phase is the determination of the relations between the units, the other
sets presented and the structural complexes of a different nature like the soil, the
masonry bearing structures and similar. Essentially, the cited relations are the
transmitted strains and the reactions to them.
10.2.2.1 Visual analysis
It is of fundamental importance to recognize that the visual analysis approach is the
most important. The high level of deformability of the timber structures, more than
the others, is mainly due to two factors, the elasticity of the members and also the
ductility of the connections.
Therefore deformations, dislocations could be essential symptoms of a general
disease of the structure or, simply, they can put it in a critical situation. It is also
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possible to maintain, even only roughly and in a general way, that the more
deformed the members are the more they are stressed; besides, that the more
deformed members are more stressed than others of the same size but less
deformed. On the other hand the presence of severe deformations in some regions
of the member is enough to foretell that breakings will occur and that this will
happen in those regions.
Forecasting the whole behaviour of the member and the real position of the cracks
can be disturbed by biotic decay, especially fungal, which cuts down the strength
of the wood affected and even alters the character of the cracks.
10.2.2.2 Instrumental analysis
Application of the instrumental analysis (exact methods) of the wood anatomy on
small samples must follow the visual determination, using the Scanning Electronic
Microscope which allows, with close observation of the tissues, to find out the
status of them and the species.
About the design of the connections, the new approach is by means of
Radiography. The use of this method is well attested for the study of the paintings,
specially, on wood. Present favourable circumstances as the availability of small
size portable equipment give many opportunities to develop the study of the
connections.
In the last decades the method of the elastic waves has been widely tested and
extensively applied for the grading of new timber; many applications have also
been made to the ancient structures, with the aim of determining a dynamic
modulus of elasticity from which, in a very approximate way, the static one is
deduced, and finding out discontinuities.
Several non-direct methods have been proposed so far and used for the
determination of the mechanical strength of the timber; they are based on the
measurement of the superficial hardness of the wood or the superficial resistance to
penetration. With the latter, as application to wood of the sclerometer-type
instruments (Pylodin) [10.1], the strength to compression of the wood is deduced
by the depth reached by the probe.
The depth and the shape of the internal surfaces are measured with needle-probes.
The concavities are evidenced by means of skimming or grazing light side-light
and rulers.
In the timber structures, mostly the fungal attacks hit the parts which are in contact
with wet masonry walls or other elements of the building where the ambient
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moisture produces condensation water, besides in the depth of the connections.

Therefore the parts affected are not always in sight so that they are not detectable;
it is necessary to carry out inspections planned on a probabilistic ratio, with
adequate instruments, starting from the parts of the structure which show higher
moisture content.
10.2.3. Evaluation of the existing timber structure
Evaluation is the final report, including information about structure typology and
dimensions, wooden species, strength grade, location and quantification of
mechanical damages and residual load bearing cross-sections.
The whole set of data is compiled in tabular form and/or graphic representations by
using colour or black and white codes and symbols in order to facilitate and speed
up the subsequent work of the technicians (architects, engineers) and of the
carpenters.
The step-by-step analysis requested relies on experimental observations with
models and on mathematical modelling.
Safety assessment of the structure and design of the restoration plan could be
performed on the basis of the collected data.
Repairs may basically deal with one or more of the following levels of the structure
[10.3]:
individual structural timber member;
structural units;
whole structure;
connecting joints;
external constraints or connections.
After the repair works the original timbers may fulfil:
the same structural functions they were originally assigned;
an improved structural function, although in conjunction with newly added

members;
the materials historical authenticity, the structural functions being totally

fulfilled by other load bearing members, such as substitution timbers, steel
or concrete.
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10.3 PRINCIPLES FOR THE PRESERVATION OF HISTORIC TIMBER

STRUCTURES [2]
(Adopted by ICOMOS at the 12th General Assembly in Mexico, October 1999)
The aim of this document is to define basic and universally applicable principles
and practices for the protection and preservation of historic timber structures with
due respect to their cultural significance. Historic timber structures refer here to all
types of buildings or constructions wholly or partially in timber that have cultural
significance or that are parts of a historic area. For the purpose of the preservation
of such structures, the principles:
recognise the importance of timber structures from all periods as part of the
cultural heritage of the world;
take into account the great diversity of historic timber structures;
take into account the various species and qualities of wood used to build
them;
recognise the vulnerability of structures wholly or partially in timber due to

material decay and degradation in varying environmental and climatic
conditions, caused by humidity fluctuations, light, fungal and insect
attacks, wear and tear, fire and other disasters;
recognise the increasing scarcity of historic timber structures due to

vulnerability, misuse and the loss of skills and knowledge of traditional
design and construction technology;
take into account the great variety of actions and treatments required for
the preservation and conservation of these heritage resources;
note the Venice Charter, the Burra Charter and related UNESCO and
ICOMOS doctrine, and seek to apply these general principles to the
protection and preservation of historic timber structures.
And make the following recommendations:

10.3.1 Inspection, recording and documentation
1. The condition of the structure and its components should be carefully recorded
before any intervention, as well as all materials used in treatments, in accordance
with Article 16 of the Venice Charter and the ICOMOS Principles for the
Recording of Monuments, Groups of Buildings and Sites. All pertinent
documentation, including characteristic samples of redundant materials or
members removed from the structure, and information about relevant traditional
skills and technologies, should be collected, catalogued, securely stored and made
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accessible as appropriate. The documentation should also include the specific

reasons given for choice of materials and methods in the preservation work.
2. A thorough and accurate diagnosis of the condition and the causes of decay and
structural failure of the timber structure should precede any intervention. The
diagnosis should be based on documentary evidence, physical inspection and
analysis, and, if necessary, measurements of physical conditions and nondestructive testing methods. This should not prevent necessary minor interventions
and emergency measures.
10.3.2 Monitoring and maintenance
3. A coherent strategy of regular monitoring and maintenance is crucial for the
protection of historic timber structures and their cultural significance.
10.3.3 Interventions
4. The primary aim of preservation and conservation is to maintain the historical
authenticity and integrity of the cultural heritage. Each intervention should
therefore be based on proper studies and assessments. Problems should be solved
according to relevant conditions and needs with due respect for the aesthetic and
historical values, and the physical integrity of the historic structure or site.
5. Any proposed intervention should for preference:
a) follow traditional means;
b) be reversible, if technically possible; or
c) at least not prejudice or impede future preservation work whenever this
may become necessary; and
d) not hinder the possibility of later access to evidence incorporated in the
structure.
6. The minimum intervention in the fabric of a historic timber structure is an ideal.
In certain circumstances, minimum intervention can mean that their preservation
and conservation may require the complete or partial dismantling and subsequent
reassembly in order to allow for the repair of timber structures.
7. In the case of interventions, the historic structure should be considered as a
whole; all material, including structural members, in-fill panels, weather-boarding,
roofs, floors, doors and windows, etc., should be given equal attention. In principle,
as much as possible of the existing material should be retained. The protection
should also include surface finishes such as plaster, paint, coating, wall-paper, etc.
page 200
If it is necessary to renew or replace surface finishes, the original materials,

techniques and textures should be duplicated as far as possible.
8. The aim of restoration is to conserve the historic structure and its load bearing
function and to reveal its cultural values by improving the legibility of its historical
integrity, its earlier state and design within the limits of existing historic material
evidence, as indicated in articles 9 13 of the Venice Charter. Removed members
and other components of the historic structure should be catalogued, and
characteristic samples kept in permanent storage as part of the documentation.
10.3.4 Repair and replacement
9. In the repair of a historic structure, replacement timber can be used with due
respect to relevant historical and aesthetical values, and where it is an appropriate
response to the need to replace decayed or damaged members or their parts, or to
the requirements of restoration. New members or parts of members should be made
of the same species of wood with the same, or, if appropriate, with better, grading
as in the members being replaced. Where possible, this should also include similar
natural characteristics. The moisture content and other physical characteristics of
the replacement timber should be compatible with the existing structure.
Craftsmanship and construction technology, including the use of dressing tools or
machinery, should, where possible, correspond with those used originally. Nails
and other secondary materials should, where appropriate, duplicate the originals. If
a part of a member is replaced, traditional woodwork joints should, if appropriate
and compatible with structural requirements, be used to splice the new and the
existing part.
10. It should be accepted that new members or parts of members will be
distinguishable from the existing ones. To copy the natural decay or deformation of
the replaced members or parts is not desirable. Appropriate traditional or welltested modern methods may be used to match the colouring of the old and the new
with due regard that this will not harm or degrade the surface of the wooden
member.
11. New members or parts of members should be discretely marked, by carving, by
marks burnt into the wood or by other methods, so that they can be identified later.
10.3.5 Historic forest reserves
12. The establishment and protection of forest or woodland reserves where
appropriate timber can be obtained for the preservation and repair of historic timber
structures should be encouraged. Institutions responsible for the preservation and
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conservation of historic structures and sites should establish or encourage the

establishment of stores of timber appropriate for such work.
10.3.6 Contemporary materials and technologies
13. Contemporary materials, such as epoxy resins, and techniques, such as
structural steel reinforcement, should be chosen and used with the greatest caution
and only in cases where the durability and structural behaviour of the materials and
construction techniques have been satisfactorily proven over a sufficiently long
period of time. Utilities, such as heating, and fire detection and prevention systems,
should be installed with due recognition of the historic and aesthetic significance of
the structure or site.
14. The use of chemical preservatives should be carefully controlled and
monitored, and should be used only where there is an assured benefit, where public
and environmental safety will not be affected and where the likelihood of success
over the long term is significant.
10.3.7. Education and training
15. Regeneration of values related to the cultural significance of historic timber
structures through educational programs is an essential requisite of a sustainable
preservation and development policy. The establishment and further development
of training programs on the protection, preservation and conservation of historic
timber structures are encouraged. Such training should be based on a
comprehensive strategy integrated within the needs of sustainable production and
consumption, and include programs at the local, national, regional and international
levels. The programs should address all relevant professions and a trade involved
in such work, and, in particular, architects, conservators, engineers, crafts persons
and site managers.
10.4 EXAMPLES OF DETERIORATION

The thickness of the rings, the grain, the position in the shaft, the defects of the
wood are generally recognized with simple observation, may be with the help of
some samples (transversal cores, especially for the rings). The close observation of
the solutions of continuity aims to recognize cracks from checks or shakes. The
checks are identified by the elements of the formation process mentioned before:
long and continuous line along the grain even if with some transitions to other
fibres, V-shaped cross sections, concavity of all the external surfaces (fig.10.2).
With the checks also the grain and its irregularities can be detected. The operations
have to be repeated in several sections, fig.10.1.
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Fig.10.1 The aspect of a beam of chestnut affected by several ring shakes

(from Macchioni and Mannucci, 1999) [10.1]
Fig.10.2 Inside view of the roof structure:

lateral view of one of the outermost trusses (all the ties are concealed by a service wooden
floor supported by the ties located all over the roof base) [10.4]
Failures of the structures, from complexes to single members, show manifestations

which are peculiar to the hierarchic level and to the configuration, fig.10.2.
Fig.10.3 The evidence of localized water penetration over time in timber structures
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Symptoms of bad conditions are the sinking of the top and the slopes of the roof,
that means depression of the ridge and of the joists, the disorder of the coating, of
the gutters etc., what means that rain water enters under the coating of the roof and
in the walls: the probable affection of the timber carpentry by biotic attacks is to be
detected looking for the presence of spots, fig.10.3.
In the frames and the trusses typical failure manifestations are the loss of planarity
and verticality (rotation on the horizontal axe passing trough the bearings), fig.10.4,
the cracks in the more advanced phases of the degradation, the sagging of the chord
combined with its sliding along the masonry seat and rotation, the disconnection of
the joints (especially those rafter-chord), the sliding of the rafter along the chord,
with consequent rotation of the rafter in the vertical plane and deviation of joists
and small joists, the rotation of the rafter-ends on the bearings, even bigger than
that of the chord, when the collar-ties are missing or not in the right position, the
loss of strength at the heads of the connections caused by rottenness when wood is
encased into the masonry or cups.
Fig.10.4 The trusses typical failure manifestations: cracks in the members with sliding
ABLE-ROOFCARE Co. http://www.roofcare.co.za/problems.html
Fig.10.5 Timber-framing: posts and beams are too rotten to repair

(http://www.thisoldhouse.com/../houseproject/overview)
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Symptoms of failure of the structure are the loss of elasticity of the whole unit, the
sinking of some parts, some ruptures of the wood members, the deformation of the
principal and secondary members which can be caused by insufficient dimensions
in relation not only to the loads acting but also to the span or the bay, fig.10.5.
In very ancient structures, visco-elastic deformations can have occurred.
Fig.10.6 Typical rot damage with consequent building settlement and ineffectual repairs
attempted over the years (photo shows Marlowe Restorations)
Beams of large and very large section, usually of mature wood obtained by old
trees, can be affected by brittle heart and undergo size effect cracks, fig.10.6.
In the light vaults, made with lathing kept in the desired shape by ribs of packaged
boards, depressions at the key along with longitudinal cracks are rather frequent
and are the effect of the deformability of the board centrings which, is caused by
the small section of the centrings and the high number of joints with progressive
loosening, figure.
Besides, at the side sections of the centrings, where bending is inverted, some
breakings at the extrados of the boards may occur. The arch-braced roof, a popular
late medieval form for the open hall, is also ease damaged by extra loads or
modification of roof coverings, fig.10.7.
Addition and replacement timbers are recognizable by differences in colour,
quality, size, working, often botanic species too. In these cases the investigation
must be enlarged to include also the iron fittings and the other elements of
connection to the ancient members and the results are to be put in the general frame
page 205
for appropriate, extensive interpretation. Their importance, in general, is given by

the information they can supply on the past behaviour and failures of the structure.
Fig.10.7 Timber arch-braced roof

http://www.lookingatbuildings.org.uk/
The decay of the materials is, in general, perceptible as it happens for the attacks
by beetles; detection is made possible by the presence of emergence holes and of
the bore dust or by the special noise made by some insects. Manifestations of
fungal attacks are the changes in colour, as the whitening (white rot, the white
colour is due to the taking away of all the components of the wood included the
lignin), the change to brown combined with the formation of cubes on the
surface of the wood, the change to pink or to grey in the softwoods, the silvering
which is usually the result of exposition to UV radiations. The fibrous appearance
of the wood, the evident loss of strength to compression, the presence of lachrymal
drops, the presence of white mycelium in the shape of felts of fluffy filaments etc.
are the signs also.
10.5. TIMBER STRUCTURE REPAIR AND STRENGTHENING METHODS

10.5.1 Repair by means of traditional joints
Decayed or badly damaged segments may be replaced by new parts made of solid
wood, connected by means of traditional joining or repairing techniques, fig.10.8.
However, original strength may seldom be fully recovered. Only traditional methods
and material are used. Appearance and authenticity of original material are lost.
page 206
a.
d.
b.
e.
c.
f.
Fig.10.8 Replacement of inefficient segments of original members

by means of traditional joints [3]:
a. splice joint covered by bolted wooden plates; b. nailed spliced bevelled joint; c. bolted end
joint with steel channel; d. reinforcement with nails or steel clamps; e. splice joint covered by
bolted steel plates; f. shear reinforcement with nails or steel clamps
10.5.2 Repair by gluing new parts

Decayed or badly damaged segments (often beam ends) may be replaced by newly
added parts usually connected by glued rods made of steel or fibreglass.
In fig.10.9 are presented some procedures developed by companies which are using
these techniques (http://www.timber-repair.co.uk/): a new pre-treated softwood
page 207
piece, with the connectors factory fitted, is attached to the end of the damaged
piece via slots, which are filled with the epoxy grout in different manners.
Principally, in the case of timber joist ends affected by rot, the procedure steps are:
I Floor joist ends affected by rot.
II Slot cut from floor joist, before or after the end was cut off, and being
cleaned out with an auger.
III Timber-Resin Splice unit fitted with face sealant in place, being
finally aligned.
IV - Epoxy pouring grout used to fill the slot.
Technological procedure no.1

II
III

II
III
IV

II
III
IV
page 208
IV

III
II
IV

II
III
IV

II
III
IV
Fig.10.9 Timber Resin Splice, a patented technology for timber repairing

(http://www.timber-repair.co.uk/)
10.5.3 Repairing by using tie-rods

Steel cable or rods may be used in order to strengthening or stiffening timber
individual members or trusses, fig.10.10.
This method improve the strength structure by prevent de turnbuckles, excessive
deflections or to adjust the tension. In this case special attention must be accorded to
the structural conception which may be different.
Therefore, the modified structure requires verifications and the execution must be
realised under the designer co-ordination.
page 209
10.5.4 Repairing by changing the wood beam ends

Decayed beam ends are moved to locations where timber is sound; this may also
result in reducing the span of the beams. The decayed beam end is cut and replaced by
additional load-bearing member (side steel truss or timber member), fig.10.11.
Structural conception is altered. Appearance and authenticity are partially lost.
a.
b.
Fig.10.10 Tie-rods replacing:
a. timber beam strengthening using tie-rods [7]; b. timber truss with tie-rod
a.
b.
Fig.10.11 The replacements of inefficient timber beam ends:
a. replacement with wood pieces; b. replacement with side metal truss
page 210
10.6 MAINTENANCE AND CONSERVATION MEASURES

Maintenance work should always carry out with a view to the continued conservation
of the structure. The action of potential deterioration agents should be anticipated and
prevented [10.3]. Moisture, in its forms and origins, should be considered a major
threat to the conservation of timber structures, including those which have undergone
recent or earlier repair work.
Special case should be taken to ensure the proper execution of recommended repair or
prevention works.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
10.1 Tampone G. - Acquaintance of the ancient timber structures in Historical
Constructions, P.B. Loureno, P. Roca (Eds.), Guimares, 2001, 117.
10.2 International Council and Monuments and Sites, Documentation Centres
UNESCO-ICOMOS Principles for the preservation of Historic Timber
Structures (1999), http://www.international.icomos.org/
10.3 Blass H.J., Aune P., Choo B.S., et all, editors - EUROCODE 5 : Timber
Engineering-Step 2, Design-Details and Structural Systems, Centrum
Hout, Netherlands, 1995.
10.4 Lauriola M., Mannucci M., Oschi M., Macchioni N. - A reliable inspection
procedure of existing timber structures: the case of Guarini's Towers roofs Racconigi Castle (Italy),
http://www.ndt.net/article/wcndt00/papers/idn.
10.5 Macchioni N., Mannucci M. - Inspection techniques for ancient wooden
structures: state of the art and research needs. 6th International Conference
on "Non Destructive Testing and Mycroanalysis for the Diagnostics and
Conservation of Cultural and Environmental Heritage" (ART'99), Rome
17-19 May 1999, 2155-2165.
10.6 Macchioni N., Mannucci M., Zanuttini R. - Non-destructive evaluation of
ancient wooden structures. 2nd International Congress on "Science and
technology for the safeguard of cultural heritage in the mediterranean
basin", Paris 5-9 July 1999, 161.
10.7 Arsenie G., Voiculescu M., Ionascu M. Solutii de consolidare a
constructiilor avariate de cutremure, Editura Tehnica, Bucuresti, 1997.
10.8 Isopescu Dorina Timber Structures, Ed. Gh. Asachi, Iasi, 2002.
page 211
11
HYGROTHERMAL REHABILITATION
OF BUILDINGS
11.1 GENERAL ASPECTS
In order to ensure the best temperature values inside the buildings in cold periods
thermal energy is required to compensate for the heat loss through the closure
elements, dependent on their insulating capacity.
The application of efficient solutions to limit heat loss during the exploitation of
buildings requires knowledge of heat transfer ways from rooms towards the
outside during cold seasons , as well as of the weight of the attached energy of
these ways in the overall heat loss.
In the case of ordinary buildings, heat losses towards the exterior in winter are
released in the following proportions:
40...50% by air exchange between the rooms and the exterior,
20...25% through the opaque zones of external walls,
10...25% through windows, skylights and external doors,
5...10% through the roofing structure,
5...10% through the basement floor toward the ground.
This repartition depends on the form, structure and plane sizes of building, the
number of storeys, the surface and structure of the envelope, the size and thermal
insulation qualities of different component zones, as well as on the intensity of air
exchange between rooms and environment.
There must be a direct connection between the thermal insulation qualities of
building elements and energy consumption for heating in order to achieve thermal
comfort in rooms [11.1], [11.2]:
a lower thermal insulation capacity of closure elements requires higher

thermal energy consumption in exploitation to maintain the hygrothermal
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parameters of interior climate at the level of comfort values; inversely, a

higher thermal insulation degree of building envelope allows the obtainance of
the same thermal effects with lower energy consumption;
the higher the energy reserves, the more insulation qualities of envelope may
be diminished, the heating system having the dominant role; inversely, the
less energy reserves available for various reasons, the more decrease in heat
loss is required by ensuring higher thermal insulation qualities of external
closure elements.
The option for one or the other of the two variants is first determined by
economical, energetical and environment protection reasons, as well as by the
effect of the connection between the physical factors that characterize the interior
of rooms and comfort, along with the inherent subjectivity in estimating the
microclimate conditions by various categories of people.
In the case of new buildings, the assurance of thermal comfort in rooms using
reduced energy consumption can be achieved quite easily by means of a correct
design, based on technical prescriptions that stipulate high standardized values for
the thermal protection of envelope components in order to provide them with an
adequate level of thermal insulation , as early as the initial design phases.
Old buildings, which suffered a diminution of thermal insulation qualities of
external protection elements during exploitation, because of cumulated cyclical
action of some environmental factors (high temperature and moisture variations,
solar radiation, freeze-thaw phenomenon etc.) as well as of improper exploitation
conditions, are generally characterized by thermal insulation capacity below
thermal comfort requirements.
In the case of old buildings, there is also the problem of the low efficiency of their
physically and morally worn out heating systems, which are often unsuitable for
modernization. Besides that, the thermophysical degradations and depreciation of
installations conveying the thermal agent determine excessively high heat losses on
the route in cold weather.
These problems may be solved by applying some adequate technical actions, meant
to increase the thermal insulation capacity of existing envelopes, or at least that of
the main structural elements with inadequate thermal qualities.
This is what is called thermal rehabilitation, a radical technical intervention which
must take into account all the ways in which the building loses heat, both toward
exterior and interior unheated spaces. Simultaneously with heat loss diminution it
is important to have in view some measures to fight the negative effects due to
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Hydrothermal rehabilitation of buildings
vapour diffusion trough closure elements, mainly condensation. That leads to the
hygrothermal rehabilitation of old buildings.
If there are also other physical aspect which may be solved along with the
interventions for supplementary thermal protection (e.g. the diminution of
excessive air change, the improvement of natural lighting etc.), and require some
specific interventions in order to ensure the overall comfort and hygiene conditions
in the existing buildings, the notion of thermophysical rehabilitation can be
defined.
Besides the thermal component of hygrothermal rehabilitation, ventilation
rehabilitation can also be mentioned, that is the rationalization of air exchange
between the rooms and the exterior to ensure normal hygiene and sanitary conditions,
and the least possible heat losses from rooms in cold periods [11.2], [11.3]. Thus, if
the heat lost through the closure elements is low, the amount of heat losses due to air
exchange increases. However, they must be accepted up to the level corresponding to
the minimum hygiene and health requirements.
Consequently, if the thermal qualities of closure elements can be improved up to
very high performance levels to diminish heat transmission, as regards the way of
air exchange it is necessary to limit the air flow decrease for hygiene and sanitary
reasons. From a hygrothermal point of view this means a minimum flow of energy
losses required, which must be accepted unconditionally.
Even though the opaque closure elements may be ensured high performances of
thermal resistance, the increase in insulation performances of some component
zones (like glazed elements) is limited. These limitations are determined by their
functional role as well as by the thermal qualities of materials utilized.
If the interventions to improve the thermal insulation are not applied to the entire
envelope of the building, the partial rehabilitation results in the change of the
repartition of heat losses through the component zones of the closure elements
and through the air exchange between rooms and the exterior, in favour of the
hygrothermally untreated or insufficiently treated ways, who thus become
preferential ways for thermal transmission.
Consequently, it is necessary to approach and treat all the ways the building loses
heat in winter very seriously, even if a first analysis points that some areas on the
envelope are less involved in thermal exchange with the environment than others,
which are thermally less effective and thus considered to be more important.
The overall thermo-physical rehabilitation presupposes high consumption of
efficient materials, highly qualified labour, long execution duration as well as a
page 214
considerable financial effort. That is why such an action performed on a large scale
to all hygrothermally damaged buildings, or at least to the most important ones is
very difficult to carry out in unfavourable economic conditions.In this case, it is
recommended that the buildings whose exploitation is absolutely necessary should
take priority over the others.
Another rational thermal rehabilitation manner of a great number of buildings is to
phase the works on categories of envelope elements in order of degradation
condition and their importance within the assemblyso that the building could
continue to be exploited in adequate conditions.
Temperature represents the main stimulant for the thermal regulator system of the
human body, and influences other sides of hygrothermal behaviour as well as the
energy consumption during exploitation. Therefore, the thermal aspect will be
further dealt with in detail.
11.2 THE NEED FOR THERMO-PHYSICAL REHABILITATION

After a certain exploitation period, the hygrothermal rehabilitation of some
elements making the envelope of the buildings with thermal comfort problems in
cold periods may become necessary due to:
i.
the decrease in thermal insulation qualities of component materials;
ii.
the increase in exigencies level concerning the hygrothermal comfort;
iii.
the increase in exigencies concerning the thermal insulation degree;
iv.
the modernization of some existing buildings.
11.2.1 The decrease in thermal insulation qualities of materials

During exploitation, the elements making the building envelope, particularly the
exterior walls and the roofs, are subjected to the cyclic action of environmental
factors, as well as of some microclimatic factors in the rooms. These actions
determine the diminution of thermal characteristics of the component materials in
time and implicitly of the thermal insulation degree of elements.
The climatic factors that determine the degradation of materials in time are:
temperature variations,
recurrent frost-thaw,
infiltration of rainfall water,

page 215
solar radiations.
In addition to these climatic factors, certain acids, such as sulfuric acid, the
carbonic acid and the nitric acid, which are formed from some pollutant substances
in combination with water vapors in the air also have destructive chemical effects.
Degradation may also be caused by some interior microclimatic factors like the
condensation of exfiltrated water vapors through the exterior building elements in
cold periods. The water accumulated in materials determines the increase in their
thermal conductivity , which combined with the low temperatures gradually leads
to the depreciation of materials with capillary-porous structure, due to the repeated
frost-thaw phenomenon.
Other less important factors determining the diminution of the qualities of thermal
insulation are:
the vibrations during the earthquakes and those caused by the wind,
the dynamic loading of exploitation, which can settle the materials,
the action of rodents and microorganisms, which damage some organic

insulation materials.
11.2.2 The increase in exigencies concerning the hygrothermal comfort

After a certain period of exploitation, or sometimes because of some changes
occurred in the destination or functional requirements of the building, the level of
exigencies concerning the hygrothermal comfort in rooms may increase.
In order to satisfy the increased requirements of hygrothermal comfort, two types
of interventions meant to reach the optimal values for the physical parameters of
the microclimate in rooms may be applied:
supplementary energy input necessary for heating the rooms,
increasing the thermal insulation qualities of the closure elements.
At present the increase in energy consumption to heat the rooms in buildings is not
possible on a large scale.The only viable solution remains the hygrothermal
rehabilitation by technical measures meant to improve the thermal insulation
qualities of the building elements forming the envelope.
11.2.3 The increase in exigencies concerning the thermal insulation degree
The increase in exigencies concerning the thermal insulation of the elements of the
envelope has become necessary as a result of the world energetic crisis, as well as
page 216
of the recent preoccupations to reduce the air pollution caused by classic fuel
burning.
In the advanced countries, the tendency to rationalize the energy consumption
requires that the closure elements of buildings should be apparently thermally
oversized, For these elements, values like 3-4 m2K/W for thermal resistance are
very frequent.
In Romania, most buildings in exploitation were built betwwen 1960 and 1980.
The closure elements of these buildings had very low values of standardized
thermal resistance, whose adoption was based on economic criteria that seem
completely irrational nowadays.
The current wall systems applied to these buildings contain large prefabs panels or
monolith reinforced concrete diaphragms, with an insulating core made of less
thermally efficient water-sensitive materials (cellular concrete, mineral wool,
lightweight concrete etc.), with extended networks of thermal bridges, made of
reinforced concrete ribs. These types of walls are thermally inadequate nowadays,
as they allow excessive heat losses, which are economically unacceptable.
The low level of thermal insulation of the closure elements determines extremely
high energy consumption for heating the rooms as well as considerable decrease
in hygrothermal comfort inside rooms in cold periods.
The tendency towards increasing the comfort level by consuming the lowest
amount of energy possible will certainly determine the alignment to the practice
of the developed countries, which proved to be rational and efficient. Therefore,
some increased standardized values of thermal insulation may be foreseen for
Romania as well, that is up to:
2,5...3 m2 K/W for the opaque parts of exterior walls and
3,5...5 m2 K/W for flat-roofs,

values that are 2...3 times higher than the current standardized values.
This orientation will further result in the execution of new buildings with low
energy consumption in exploitation and the appliance of thermal rehabilitation
measures to the old buildings, which will ensure the diminution of heat losses up to
an acceptable level, satisfying the requirements of thermal comfort as well.
11.2.4 The modernization of some existing buildings
The necessity to modernize some existing older buildings, determined by various
reasons mentioned below, may also constitute an opportunity for the application of
page 217
some thermal rehabilitation measures.

Numerous buildings, particularly those that have been exploited for a log time,
have suffered from the negative effects of some earthquakes, some environmental
and inner microclimatic factors, as well as alterations occasioned by repairs,
maintenance, restoration works etc., which have affected their mechanical strength
and insulation capacity.
At the same time, functional reasons may determine the need for new division and
distribution of rooms, floor addition, extension etc., corresponding to new
exigencies or functions.
In order to ensure the harmonious framing within a modern building assembly,
some older buildings may require aesthetic rehabilitation works, meaning
numerous other technical operations besides finishing works.
In these cases, the suitability of hygrothermal rehabilitation works on the closure
elements of the existing buildings is also sustained by the following reasons:
the structural and auxiliary works required are not different from those
corresponding to the main objective, except in some special situations,
they may coincide to a large extent with the works destined to improve the
aesthetic aspect of the building, with minimal specific interventions,
the increase in overall cost due to the supplementary rehabilitation works

is reasonable, as it generally includes only the cost of the thermal
insulation,
they may also physically and mechanically protect other closure elements,
whch have been rehabilitated for other reasons.
Normally, even if at a certain point the financial effort seems difficult to accept, it
is necessary that along with the thermo-physical rehabilitation general technical
revisions should be carried out.
If required, improvement works should be performed on structural elements and
installations, particularly on those that will to be concealed by thermo-physical
rehabilitation works.
The general thermal rehabilitation works on the existing older buildings are
usually time-consuming and expensive. Therefore, they should be preceded by a
minute technical and economical analysis. For the same reasons it seems rational
to combine the thermo-physical rehabilitation with other rehabilitation works,
such as mechanical, functional, architectural, installation rehabilitation etc.
page 218
11.3 THE PRINCIPLE OF HYGROTHERMAL REHABILITATION BY

INCREASING THE INSULATION CAPACITY
The general principle of thermal rehabilitation measures applied to the closure
elements of buildings [11.4] consists of increasing their thermal resistance,
corresponding to the envisaged standardized performance exigencies, by
applying addtional thermally insulating layers made of highly hygrothermally
efficient and durable materials, fig.11.1.
a.
b.
c.
Fig.11.1 The principle of thermal rehabilitation using supplementary insulation layers

a. masonry wall, b. sandwich wall made of concrete and thermal insulation,
c. compact flat-roof
For the envelope areas that have a special structure, such as the glazed portions,
the zones with untight joints etc., thermal rehabilitation may be performed
according to other principles as well, but always pursuing to decrease heat losses
and preserve thermal energy inside the rooms.
These solutions can be applied either as part of a general rehabilitation, or
independently, depending on the extent of the envisaged rehabilitation action.
In order to apply the hygrothermal rehabilitation solutions to the existing buildings,
which have become inadequate in time, the following aspects should be taken into
account:
constructive particularities of the analyzed building: framed structure, the

structure of closure and separation elements, as well as of finishing,
protection and decoration elements etc.,
page 219
specific conditions of the area: the likely seismic action, wind intensity
and other dynamic actions,
typical climatic conditions of the area: air temperature and temperature

differences, solar radiation, air movement etc.,
the conditions of exploitation, specific to the building: the number of

occupants, the preponderant age category, life styles, exploitation and
maintenance manner, hygrothermal conditions etc.,
technical, technological, economic, functional and maintenance aspects.
The application of the general thermal rehabilitation principle presented above to

various closure elements forming the envelope of a building brings about some
solutions for several categories of elements, which will be discussed below.
11.3.1 Rehabilitation in the opaque zones of external walls
The thermal improvement of the opaque zones of external walls should be
performed by attaching an additional thermally insulating layer, fixed by soldering
with adhesive or/and mechanical fastening and properly protected or finished
against physical and mechanical actions during exploitation, fig.11.2.
The new thermal layer may be applied on any side of the wall, having the same
thermal effect.
The choice of best way to apply thermal insulation is determined by hygrothermal,
mechanic, technological, aesthetic, economic and social factors.
The application of thermal insulation on the external face is the most frequently
chosen variant due to some advantages compared to other variants.
11.3.1.a Rehabilitation on the inner face
The application of new insulation layer on the inner face of the wall is
recommended for buildings like hostels, hotels and schools, which are not
exploited for long periods of time, as well as for small buildings or those that are
being only partially rehabilitated.
In Romania, rehabilitation on inside face was applied in the 1970s and 1980s with
remarkable thermal effects for some dwellings made of prefab concrete panels
situated in the towns of Baia Mare and Cluj,
Dwellings of shear walls (monolith concrete walls) were rehabilitated in Iasi and
Bacau, and of efficient masonry walls in Botosani and Suceava.
page 220
a.
b.
c.
Fig.11.2 Application of an additional thermally insulating layer

to rehabilitate the opaque zones of exterior walls
a. on outside face, b. on inside face, c. on both faces
The solutions adopted for the rehabilitation works consisted of:

i.
a thermally insulating layer made of expanded polystyrene plates, stucked

with adequate glue paste directly on the inner face of the wall and finished
with vapourproof tapestry;
ii.
additional thermal insulation made of expanded polystyrene plates, fixed

on the wall surface by melted bitumen, covered with water vapour barrier
made of bituminous cardboard then protected by mortar plaster reinforced
with wire net;
iii.
a simple plaster layer made of mortar with polystyrene or other light

granules.
However, this solution also has some secondary effects, mainly moisture and
mould stains caused by condensation on the edges of the additional thermal
insulation system, as well as the sensitivity of the expanded polystyrene to shocks.
These negative effects have diminished the interest in this variant, limiting its use
to isolated cases.
11.3.1.b Rehabilitation on the exterior face
The application of the supplementary thermal insulation on the exterior face of
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exterior walls, fig.11.2.b, is the most preferred solution due to its significant
hygrothermal, technological and social advantages. It is suitable mainly for blocks of
flats, institutions with offices, hospitals, hostels etc., characterized by monotonous
faades and large surfaces.
11.3.1.c Rehabilitation on both surfaces
The application of the supplementary thermally insulating layer on both surfaces
of the walls, fig.11.2.c, may be a good solution when the additional thermal
resistance needed requires thick thermal insulation. In this case technical,
economic and protection reasons make the application of insulation on one side
of the wall seem unreasonable. Another case would be when thermal insulation
has already been applied to one side.
11.3.2 Rehabilitation in the glazed portions of the exterior walls
Thermal transmission in the glazed zones of the exterior walls may be diminished
by decreasing the direct heat transmission corresponding to the transparent
portions and the opaque elements, as well as by reducing the intensity of air
exchange through the untight joints of joinery [11.6].
11.3.2.a Thermal rehabilitation of transparent zones
The thermal improvement of the transparent zones of exterior walls is absolutely
necessary as part of the general rehabilitation of a building, since a great amount of
heat is lost through these zones (about 25%). The possibilities of improving the
hygrothermal performances of external glazed joinery are still limited and
relatively reduced compared to the opaque zones of walls due to their functional
and structural particularity.
For ordinary windows, the best results can be obtained by increasing the number of
thin air layers (1...5 cm), closed between the glass panes, on the existing window
frames or on supplementary frames, as thickening the glass panes on the existing
frames does not produce a significant thermal effect. Although the thermal
resistance of the glazed zone increases by at least 40% for only one additional air
layer, the application of thermal rehabilitation by using more supplementary
window panes is limited because of both increase in window weight and the
difficult access between the glasses, which prevents maintenance.
An advantageous variant from the economic and technical viewpoint in winter time
only is obtained by sticking or mechanically fastening thin transparent sheets made
of cellophane, polyethylene etc on the existing jambs, which, together with the
window panes, entrap some air spaces, thus doubling the thermal insulation
page 222
capacity of ordinary windows. In warm periods, the transparent sheets can be

removed or rolled, enabling the normal maintenance of the glass panes.
11.3.2.b The thermal rehabilitation of frames
The thermal rehabilitation of frames is more difficult to do to ordinary windows,
and the effects that could be obtained by applying some technical solutions are
reduced and are not really worth the effort. Theoretically, the thermal rehabilitation
of these components would consist of attaching the thermal insulation material.
As the joinery of older buildings often presents degradations and deformations
caused by the utilization manner, as well as by environmental factors, their
rehabilitation must also take into account the decrease in air exchange through
joints. Therefore, the thermal rehabilitation of a building must also include
technical measures meant to decrease the air exchange through the leakness of the
windows, which is usually bigger than hygiene conditions require because of the
degradations of the tightening systems and the wear of the closure systems.
The existing joinery needs overhauling to remedy the deformed or degraded
elements. They are repaired by: completion wits wood slates, replacing some
components, completing or replacing the affected tightening systems (putty
cordons, slats, fixing systems and devices) etc.
It is also possible to apply some tightening systems without the risk of air exchange
diminution below the limit imposed by hygiene requirements. Such systems might
be covering slats on the joints; fittings of adhesive bands made of expanded plastic
materials or thick textile materials and fixed in the profiles of the jambs; special
fittings made of rubber, neopren or other elastic materials etc.
11.3.3 Flat-roof rehabilitation
Most buildings requiring thermo-physical rehabilitation works are equipped with
compact flat-roofs, which have thermal insulation and bituminous waterproof
covering [11.3]. The interventions for rehabilitating these solutions can be
applied only to their upper part, partly because of economic reasons.
11.3.3.a Flat-roofs rehabilitation by thorough replacement
This rehabilitation consists of replacing the entire structure on the last floor with a
new structure, which must also contain a thermally insulating layer, whose
dimensions are established in accordance with the thermal protection requirements.
The solution is more expensive but it is necessary if the old structure is very
damaged or permits the accumulation of water produced by condensation or
infiltrations, with intense and frequent unfavourable effects on the last floor.
page 223
11.3.3.b Flat roof rehabilitation by using additional layers

The rehabilitation solution consists of keeping the entire structure and increasing
the thermal resistance of the roof using a supplementary thermally insulating layer,
well protected against various factors, applied directly on the existing waterproof
system of the roof, which thus becomes a supplementary water vapour barrier.
This rehabilitation alternative is advisable when the qualities of the materials
included in the existing roof are well preserved and condensation is slow, that is it
does not produce water accumulations over the evacuation capacity or thermal
insulation moistening over the admissible values. This type of rehabilitation also
requires the verification of the load bearing capacity of the last storey.
11.3.3.c Rehabilitation of roofs using roof trusses
The solution consists of making a small classic roof, with a low garret, a light roof
truss and a continuous covering or one made of plates, previously improved
thermally with a supplementary insulating layer.
This variant of rehabilitation excludes all the shortcommings of compact flat-roofs,
particularly the condensation risk within the structure and the negative effects of
microclimatic factors due to the efficient evacuation of water vapours. The
verification of the load bearing capacity of the last floor is necessary in this case as
well.
11.3.4 Rehabilitation of floor over basement
The floor over basement of most buildings erected between 1960 and 1980,
especially those of blocks of flats, is not equipped with thermal insulation. This
allows high heat losses from the rooms on the ground floor towards the unheated
spaces in the basement and hence to the soil or outwards.
Since heat losses through the basement floor are far lower than through walls or
the roof, the thermal improvement may also be done by using average quality
thermally insulating materials, such as plates of foamed concrete, lightweight
concrete or semirigid mineral wool plates and even granular materials (placed
below the floor layers).
11.3.5 Rehabilitation of basement walls
Like the basement floor, the exterior basement walls of the existing buildings are
not endowed with thermal insulation. As the air temperature in the basement spaces
is decisive for the heat losses from the rooms situated on the ground floor, it seems
page 224
obvious that the aim is to ensure that the heat transmission through the closure
elements of the basement is as low as possible by thermally insulating them as
efficiently as possible.
a.
b.
Fig.11.3 Thermal rehabilitation of floor over basement

a. using thermally insulating layer below the concrete floor, b. with thermally insulating
layer below the floor layers
A radical solution for rehabilitating the basement walls thermally and physically
is thermal insulation of the entire inside surface with adequate plates made of
insulating material, fig.11.4.a.
In addition to the high material consumption, which determines a high cost of
work, an important disadvantage is the risk of condensation under the additional
thermally insulating layer, at least on the colder zone of the wall over the ground.
Applying a vapourproof protection on the inner side of the thermal insulation the
works would become even more expensive without obtaining a significant
hygrothermal effect.
A more economical and hygrothermally rational variant is to treat the exterior
basement floor only on the zone situated over the ground, fig.11.4.b, with rigid
thermal insulation resistant to specific actions and properly protected.
11.4 THERMAL INSULATION MATERIALS FOR THE THERMOPHYSICAL REHABILITATION OF BUILDINGS

In order to perform efficient and durable hygrothermal rehabilitation works, it is
essential to choose the right thermal insulation materials, taking into account
some special conditions and requirements concerning:
page 225
a.
b.
Fig.11.4. The thermal rehabilitation of basement walls

a. from inside; b. from outside, on the portion over ground
the thermo-physical qualities and their preservation in time,
the optimal thickness required for the insulation layers,
the possibility of safe fastening on the existing structure,
the finishing and protection systems of the additional thermal insulation.
The choice of materials for thermal rehabilitation works must be preceded by a

qualitative, technical and economic analysis specific to works performed long after
the execution of the building and in different conditions.
The main exigencies that should be taken into account when choosing the materials
necessary for the thermal rehabilitation works are presented below:
a. thermal conductivity should be as low as possible so that the
additional thermally insulating layers would be as thin as possible, thus
becoming advantageous from both mechanical, technical and economic
viewpoint;
b. technical weight should also be as low as possible, so that the load
added to the structure by the additional layers would be as small as
possible;
c. low sensitivity to water action, to make the necessary hygrothermal
protection systems as simple and light as possible;
d. good behaviour to recurrent freeze-thaw, to provide high durability. It is
advisable to use closed pore materials or with low water permeability, such
page 226
as:
expanded polystyrene,
foam glass,
PVC foam etc.
or the compound structures with high tightness to water and vapour like:
plates with metal sheet faces,
asbestos-cement plates,
plastic plates (veral, tbal, rompan, azbopan, polyalpan);
e. high strength and stiffness to bear the loads brought by other layers (the
case of flat-roofs), by the protection and finishing systems or the wind (the
case of exterior walls), as well as some casual mechanical impacts (the
case of the socle) without high deformations;
f.
good resistance to fire, without releasing noxious substances and without

high deformations to affect their thermo-physical qualities;
g. low sensitivity to temperature variations, meaning very low linear thermal

dilatation coefficients () to avoid the deformation of the protective
elements with negative effects on tightness, stability and aesthetics of
rehabilitation systems;
h. convenient cost in accordance with the financial possibilities of the users of
old buildings, particularly dwellings.
Since thermal rehabilitation works are performed after long time periods and are
quite expensive, the economic aspect would come second when choosing the best
materials and solutions. At the same time it is important to know that the
inexpensive solutions often bring about important subsequent expenses, as they
require more frequent repair and maintainance works later.
The necessary thickness of the additional thermally insulating layer will be
established by hygrothermal calculus, assuming steady conditions, taking into
account the role, the importance and the position of the closure elements to be
improved thermally [11.1], [11.5].
These calculations will be made having in view the following parameters:
i.
the real values of the overall thermal resistance of the elements to be

rehabilitated (R0,ef), which are calculated by taking into account the
diminution of the thermal qualities of the component materials in time, due
to moisture, temperature variations, settlements etc.
page 227
the stipulated level (Rn) of the overall thermal resistance of elements after
the application of the rehabilitation solution, imposed by comfort, energy,
economic and environment protection conditions.
ii.
11.5 TECHNICAL SOLUTIONS FOR

REHABILITATION OF BUILDINGS
THE
THERMO-PHYSICAL
11.5.1 The application of additional thermal insulation

The application of supplementary thermal insulation, necessary to correct the
insulation deficiency, may be achieved in various ways, depending on [11.2], [11.4]:
the type of thermal insulation material utilised,
the condition of the elements,
the exposure of the surface to be treated with insulation (inner or outer),
the position of the surface of the element (horizontal or vertical),
the level of the surface finishing
economic reasons etc.
As a rule, the supplementary thermal insulation for rehabilitation may be applied in

two ways:
by sticking directly to the surface of the treated element, if its

rigidity/stiffness and the condition of the surface are adequate;
by fixing on an intermediate structure with supporting role, which may

have other functions as well (the solution can be applied especially to the
exterior walls of buildings with imperfections and/or which are subjected
to various hygrothermal and mechanical actions in time.
11.5.1.a Exterior wall opaque zone

If the supplementary thermally insulating layer is applied to the inner surface of
the wall, the following variants may be regarded:
by sticking the thermally insulating layers made of light efficient materials

(polystyrene, polyurethane, mineral wool etc.) directly on the inner surface
of the existing wall, prepared beforehand with a view to ensure the
adherence, by means of adhesive paste, e.g. gypsum-aracet or highly
adhesive mortar;
by sticking the additional thermally insulating layers with bitumen or

adhesive paste and ensuring them with stainless wire, fixed on steel bolts
page 228
introduced in the wall beforehand; the finishing may be reinforced plaster on

steel net, fixed on the same bolts, or various types of plates;
by fixing on a wooden slates net, attached to the wall by metal systems

(clips, bolts, screws), which prevents the risk of water accumulation due to
condensation, and the air space between the thermal insulation and the wall
allows vapour migration and their release inside the room, thus enabling
the drying.
If the supplementary thermally insulating layer is applied to the outer surface of the
wall, fixing may also be done by sticking or mechanical attachment, in the
following ways:
sticking the insulation layer by means of a paste of adhesive mortar

(1:0.5:1.5 - cement:aracet:sand), or other adhesive pastes resistant to the
actions of environmental factors, where the anchorage of the insulation
layer and its protective system with metallic connectors is also
recommended
by mechanical fixing of supplementary thermally insulating layer with

metallic elements, which usually sustain the protection system of the
insulation layer as well.
11.5.1.b The exterior wall glazing zone

The supplementary glass panes necessary to make some closed unventilated air
spaces with thermal insulation qualities may be fastened to the windows in the
following way:
on the existing frames, by using some wooden spacers, fixed with nails and
putty or with triangular wooden slats,
on their own new frame, attached to the existing jamb, being practically a
supplementary new window; this solution permits the access between the
panes of glass for maintenance.
For the rehabilitation of glazed zones with special window-panes having high
thermal insulation qualities (like the termopan), the fastening on the existing
frames would require expensive transformation works. Therefore, it is better to use
new frames.
11.5.1.c The flat-roof
Whether rehabilitation includes or not the complete or partial restoration of roof
structure, due to the very reduced slope of the surfaces that will be treated with
supplementary thermal insulation (p < 8%) there is no need for special fixing
measures.
page 229
if rehabilitation is performed by maintaining the existing structure, the

sticking the supplementary thermally insulating plates on the support with
melted bitumen, together with the weight of the covering layer, provide
good fixing. One of the simplest rehabilitation solution consists of applying
the thermal plates directly on the existing covering system by discontinous
sticking. Thus the cover becomes a barrier against water vapours;
if the flat-roof is completely or partially restored, by replacing the thermal

insulation, its stability is ensured by the weight of the layers above.
In all these cases it is recommended to use vapour evacuation devices every

80100 m2 of roof surface, to efficiently evacuate the water vapour infiltrated up
to the thermal insulation.
11.5.1.d The floor over the basement
If the insulation layer is applied to the upper part of the floor, fixing consists of
plain laying, stability being ensured by the weight of the floor layers.
If the insulation layer is applied to the lower part of the floor, fastening is done in
accordance with the type and weight of the thermal insulation material, by sticking
it with adhesive paste and/or by upholding it with 5...6 mm steel bars net, which is
hung on the floor by stainless steel wire connected to metallic bolts fixed
beforehand in the concrete floor, fig.11.5.
Fig.11.5 Thermal rehabilitation of basement floor
11.5.1.e The basement exterior wall

If placed on the outside face, the thermally insulating plates are fixed by sticking
with bitumen, adhesive mortar or other paste and ensured with metallic
connectors on the wall, at least every one m2.
In the case of thermal insulation made of blocks or heavier plates (light concrete
etc.), a linear foundation element is required at the base of the wall to uphold the
page 230
weight of thermal insulation as well as that of the protection and finishing

system.
From inside, the supplementary insulation is achieved by fixing the insulation
plates with adhesive paste and/or with local metallic connectors, just like for the
exterior walls.
11.5.2 The protection of the supplementary thermally insulating layer
The protection systems of supplementary thermal insulation are different,
depending on the element that will be rehabilitated, its surface position and the
insulation type and structure. Theoretically, the protection of the supplementary
thermal insulation of vertical elements may be achieved in two ways: with plaster
or with plates, fig.11.6.
11.5.2.a Exterior walls
In the case of supplementary thermal insulation on the inner face of the wall, the
following solutions may be applied:
reinforced plaster on steel net bars, fixed on the wall with stainless steel
wire and connectors. To hinder water vapour infiltration in the rooms and
to ensure the normal hygrothermal behaviour of the treated element it is
absolutely necessary to have a vapour barrier made of bitumen cardboard
or cloth, or plastics sheets, without holes and with well tighten joints,
fig.11.7.a;
washable tapestry with synthetic support, having high vapour tightness,

applied by sticking with adhesive directly on the surface of
supplementary thermally insulating plates, which has been rectified
beforehand with gypsum-aracet layer or other adhesive paste, fig.11.7.b.
This kind of finishing is very suitable in the case of additional thermal
insulation made of expanded polystyrene plates;
plates made of reinforced gypsum, industrial wood etc., whose surface is

treated to act as a vapour barrier (by painting, lacquering, with tapestry
etc.). They are fixed on the thermal insulation by sticking and ensured with
mechanical devices, fig.11.7.c. This variant allows the prefabrication of the
insulation-protection-finishing ensemble, with important advantages for the
rehabilitation works.
If the supplementary thermal insulation is applied on the outer face of the exterior
walls, the technical solutions for protecting the supplementary insulation layer
may be the following:
page 231
Fig.11.6 Solutions for the thermal rehabilitation of walls

a. with plaster; b. with plates.
1. exterior wall, 2. supplementary thermal insulation, 3. adhesive mortar, 4. steel
reinforcement, 5. finishing layer, 6. slates, 7. protection plates, 8. clips for fixing the
slates, 9. clips for the plates
thick plaster (3...5 cm) made of water-proof mortar, applied on a wire net
support fixed on a steel bars net, and fastened to the wall with stainless
wire or connectors, fig.11.8.a,
very thin plaster (4...6 mm), made of cementfree paste, which resists to
physical and chemical actions and reinforced with a thin net of glass or
carbon fibre, fig.11.6.a and fig.11.8.b,
thin light plates (aluminium, asbestos, plastics, treated industrial wood,

thin compound structures), fixed on a sustaining net of wooden slates,
rigid plastics bars and metal profiles, fig.11.8.c.
The air layer between plates and thermal insulation, which communicates with the
exterior through the joints between plates or through air orifices, collects the water
vapour and efficiently throws it outside, decreasing the risk of condensation inside
the thermal insulation.
11.5.2.b The basement walls
The protection of supplementary thermal insulation applied on any face of
basement walls may be achieved in the following variants:
fixed on the wall like in the previous cases, and applicable to both inside
face and exterior surface,
page 232
10
1
1.
2.
2.
3.
2
3
2
3
10
8
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
a.
b.
existing structure,
wire anchor,
adhesive paste,
supplementary
thermal insulation ,
steel bar net,
thin wire net,
plaster,
tapestry,
precast lightweight
plate,
slates,
finishing system
c.
Fig.11.7 The protection of supplementary thermal insulation applied on the outer face
of exterior walls
a. with plaster, b. with tapestry, c. with lightweight plates
1.
a.
b.
2.
3.
3.
4.
4.
5.
6.
existing
structure,
supplementary
thermal
insulation,
steel bar net,
glass fiber,
thick plaster,
thin plaster,
slate net,
plywood plates
c.
Fig.11.8 The protection of thermal insulation applied on the outside face of the prefab
concrete panels
a. with thick plaster, b. with thin plaster, c. with plates
page 233

1
1.
2.
3.
4
3
5
4.
5.
6.
6
6
a.
b.
existing wall,
thermal
insulation,
protection
masonry,
reinforced
plaster
concrete plates,
metal
connectors
c.
Fig.11.9 Protection solutions for the supplementary thermal

insulation applied to basement walls: on the inside face (a, b); from outside (a, b, c)
masonry layer made of clay bricks or other blocks with various

aggregates (except for the cellular light concrete, which is water sensitive),
resistant to moisture and mechanical actions. This solution may be applied
on any face of the basement wall,
prefab concrete plates finished with mosaic, fixed on the exterior face, on
the over ground area of the basement wall, by means of metal anchors.
11.5.2.c The flat-roof

The protection of the flat-roof hygrothermally rehabilitated with a supplementary
thermally insulating layer does not raise any special technical problems, if we take
into account the succession of the layers if execution is correct and materials have
proper qualities [11.3], [11.6] Two thermal insulation protection categories can
generally be adopted:
classical protection, by ordinary bituminous water-proof insulation or

using modern water-proof systems, applied on cement mortar support,
covering system based on plane or corrugated sheets or plates made of

varied materials, disposed on lightweight structure, which constitutes a
low height roof.
11.5.3 Modern hygrothermal rehabilitation systems for exterior walls

At present there are numerous new thermal insulation materials as well as modern
technologies, which are easy to apply and enable efficient rehabilitation works.
page 234
In other countries, building rehabilitation is not an action of large proportions, since

the initial execution of buildings has been based on high exigencies towards comfort
requirements and the thermal insulation of closure elements. However, there are also
many situations necessitating the modernization of old buildings. This is a good
occasion to improve the thermal insulation performances of certain elements, exterior
walls in particular.
Rehabilitation works are usually performed on the exterior, avoiding the humid
processes and following the well known principle: supplementary thermal
insulation attached to the wall and protected by plates or thin plaster. Most systems
use a net made of wood, metal profiles (steel, aluminium) or plastics, which ensure
the fixing of the protective system usually at some distance from the thermal
insulation to create a slightly ventilated air space.
Protection by thick plaster is not usual but it has been applied and the variant with
very thin plaster reinforced with thin carbon or glass fiber net is also used,
fig.11.6.a and fig.11.8.b.
Three of the most frequently used protection systems in several European
countries will be presented below. Some of them have been applied
experimentally in Romania as well.
11.5.3.a The LOBA system (VS, C-EL, M-EL, Mcanique) for thermal insulation
on the faades of older buildings, without special finishing, is applied in
Germany and France by the LOBA company, having the French technical
agreement.
This system is based on expanded polystyrene plates, whose thickness corresponds
to insulation requirements. They are fixed on the outside surface of exterior
masonry or concrete walls of the new or already existing buildings by means of an
adhesive paste made of cement or polymeric resins. The protection of the thermal
insulation consists of a thin cementfree paste with mineral components and
synthetic binder or with cement and special polymeric additions, reinforced by a
thin glass fiber net, with 34 mm mesh, protected against the alkalis.
11.5.3.b The ALUCOBOND system, attributed to the Swiss company
ALUSUISSE, is different in the manner supplementary thermal insulation is
achieved.
This solution consists of thermally insulating plates made of very efficient
materials (polystyrene, polyurethane etc.), stuck directly to the exterior face of the
wall and protected with plane or special panels made of a composite material called
ALUCOBOND. This material consists of two 0.5 mm aluminium sheets glued on
page 235
the faces of a 27 mm polyethylene core. The outer face can be treated in various
manners and colours.
11.5.3.c The POLYALPAN system, attributed to the German company with the
same name differs from others in the protection of the thermally insulating layer
applied on the wall by means of rigid polyurethane panels, which are finished on
both faces with aluminium sheets. These panels, having special profiles on the
long vertical sides, are easily fixed with nails on a wooden slates net against the
wall, which also ensures the air space required to collect and eliminate the water
vapour.
11.5.4 The economic effects of hygrothermal rehabilitation of buildings
11.5.4.a Energy savings due to thermal rehabilitation
By applying some of the hygrothermal rehabilitation measures presented above
(by supplementary insulation), room climate parameters may rise to a satisfactory
level of comfort and energy is saved - two important advantages [11.4].
The annual net energy savings that can be obtained by improving the thermal
insulation qualities of closure elements having the areas S k and whose initial
'
average overall thermal resistances R0,k have increased to R0,
k may be
established with the relations:
E=
l
Nt
r
1
E = Nt
r
1
1
R0 ,k R '
0 ,k
(K
0 ,k
Sk
(11.1)
K 0 ,k ) S k
where:
K 0 ,k and K 0 ,k are the average thermal transfer coefficients of the distinct zones
with different envelope structure before and after rehabilitation,

R0 ,k = 1 K 0 ,k and R0' ,k = 1 K 0' ,k are the corresponding thermal resistances,
N t - the number of the degrees-hours for the locality the building is situated in.
r the efficiency of heating installations, thus:
r = 0,95
r = 0,85
heating by thermal station;

heating by personal thermal installation;
page 236
r = 0,99
r = 0,65...0,85
electric heating;
wood, coal or methane gas heating;
In order to evaluate the primary energy savings ( E p ) it is necessary to take into

account the efficiency of the distribution network ( rd ) as well as that of the thermal
station ( rc ), so that:
1 1
E
rd rc
Ep =
(11.2)
The values of the outputs (rc) and (rd) are found by using the data in the technical
literature or the information provided by the producers.
To evaluate energy savings, the average hygrothermal characteristics of the
component elements of envelope ( K k , R 0 ,k ) may be selected in the following
way:
for the opaque zone of exterior wall, whose overall surface area is ( S p 0 )
and which consist of distinct zones with ( S k ) areas, having the thermal
transfer coefficients ( K k ) e.g. for the thermal bridge zone ( S p ) and
( K p ), for the connection zones ( S i ) and ( K i ), for the current zones ( S c )
and ( K c ) etc. the average thermal transfer coefficient on the entire wall
may be calculated as:
K p0 =
or:
R p0 =
K .S
S
S p0
1
=
Sk
K p0
Rk
k .Sk
S p0
=
S p0
(11.3)
k .K k
for glazed zones, whose overall area is ( S v ), made of transparent zones

with ( S v ,t ) area and thermal transfer coefficient ( K v ,t ), the thermal
resistance ( Rv ,t ) respectively, as well as from the sum of the opaque zones
(frames, jamb) with the overall area ( S v , 0 ) and the thermal characteristics
( K v ,0 ) and ( R v ,0 )respectively, the flow of the air exchange between the
joints after rehabilitation being ( J a ), the average equivalent thermal
page 237
transfer coefficient is calculated with one of following relations:
Kv =
Rv =
1
(K
Sv
v,t
. S v,t + K v, 0 . S v, 0 ) + c a . J a . a
Sv
1
=
S v,t
S
Kv
+ v, 0 + c a . J a . a
R v,t
R v, 0
for the flat-roof, with the overall area (St), which consists of zones of
variable thickness, the average thermal transfer characteristics can be
adopted considering average thickness values ( d k , med ) for the
component variable layers, so that:
Rt =
1
1
+
+
i e
d k,med
(11.5)
1
Kt =
Rt
(11.4)
for the basement wall, with the overall over ground surface area ( S s ) and
the average characteristics ( K s ) and ( R s ), calculus is done just like for the
opaque zones of exterior walls of the building.
For the envelope elements or zones consisting of several layers of different

materials, ( d k ) thick and having the thermal conductivity coefficients (i) and
quality coefficients ( bk ), the total thermal transfer resistance is the sum of thermal
transfer resistances, using the equation:
R0 =
1
+
i
dk
+
k k
1
K0 =
R0
a,k
1
e
(11.6)
where ( Ra , k ) are resistances of air layers that may be in the structure of the
envelope element to thermal permeability.
These characteristics can be computed also using the initial values ( R0,i ), adding
the supplementary thermal resistance of the rehabilitation layers (R):
page 238
R0 = R0 ,i + R
K0 =
1
R0
(11.7)
where:
R =
R =
d iz,s
biz iz
a,s
- for opaque zones,

- for glazed zones.
The annual net energy savings (E) may be also evaluated by means of the overall
heat loss coefficient of the building ( G ), calculated for the initial state of the
building ( G0 ) and after the execution of hygrothermal rehabilitation works ( Gr ):
E=
1
N t (G r G 0 ) V
r
(11.8)
where the overall heat loss coefficient of the building (the total thermal insulation
coefficient) G is calculated for the overall heat loss, from:
G =
1
R0 M
S
+ ca n
V
(11.9)
where:
R0, M is the average thermal resistance of the envelope,
n - the air exchange rate per hour of the building (h-1),

S - the total area of the building envelope (m2),
V - the interior volume of the building (m3),
c a = c p - the specific heat capacity of the air (W.h/m3K).
11.5.4.b The retrieve period of the investment in case of thermal rehabilitation
In the case of the partial rehabilitation, the value of the total investment (I) needed
for the hygrothermal rehabilitation of a building or of a building envelope element
is established according to the current norms and estimated prices, considering all
the expenses required by the execution of afferent works, less the finishing upkeep
works in the ulterior exploitation period.
The net energy savings obtained through rehabilitation can be evaluated with the
relation:
page 239
E = E p
(lei/an)
(ROL/year)
(11.10)
where:
E is the annual net energy saved for that particular building as a consequence
of the application of thermal rehabilitation measures
p the cost of the net energy unit at the beneficiary (ROL/W.h), corresponding
to the heating type and to the valid prices at the time of execution.
In order to evaluate the expenses retrieve period, the social expenses associated to
the immobilized investment funds as well as the estimated future increase in energy
cost need to be calculated. The following coefficients are thus established:
i
j
- the updating coefficient of the investment funds (%);

- the coefficient of the annual increase in energy price (%),
depending on price policy and the fuel utilized.
The updating coefficient of the investment funds (Y) is expressed by:

Y = ( i j ) / (1 + j )
(11.11)
The retrieve standing (in years) of the investment for the thermal rehabilitation of a
building (n) may be calculated using the relation:
R
n = ln
ln (1 + Y )
(11.12)
R Y
where:
R - is the ratio between the estimated annual energy savings and the
investment value:
(11.13)
R=E /E
BIBLIOGRAPHY
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
Bliuc, I., Elemente de fizica construciilor, Tipar Rotaprint, I.P. Iai,

1993.
Gavrila, I., Fizica construciilor. Reabilitarea higrotermic a cldirilor.
Editura Cermi, Iai, 1999.
Gavrila, I., Reabilitarea acoperiurilor cldirilor civile, Editura Cermi,
Iai, 2000.
Velicu, C. (coordonator), Protecia termic a cldirilor. Elemente de
specializare, Editura Experilor Tehnici, Iai, 1998.
* * *, STAS 6472/3-89, Fizica construciilor. Termotehnica. Calculul
page 240
11.6
termotehnic al elementelor de construcii ale cldirilor, IRS, Bucureti,

1989.
* * *, Volumul Simpozionului Reabilitarea termic a cldirilor, Iai,
1996.
page 241
CC
Colectia: CONSTRUCTII CIVILE

ISBN 973-7962-26-5

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BUILDING

Matei-Teiu Botez Academic Society Publishing House

Matei-Teiu Botez Academic Society Publishing House

Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naionale a Romniei

Replacing or partially altering the building may mean permanently eliminating

1.2. CASE STUDIES

Fig.1.1 Concrete aging as a result of its subjection to high

Serious building damages are encountered in industry, particularly in chemical

FOUNDATION AND COLUMN

Fig.1.3 The effects of groundwater aggressiveness on the platform

INTERMEDIATE SECTION - MACHINERY HALL

Fig.1.4 The bracing failure into a boiler in the thermoelectric station

CAISSONS FROM THE ROOF

DEFORMED AND FISSURED COLUMNS

Fig.1.6 Failure of foundation soil due to sewage water infiltration

MECHANIZED DIGGING WITHOUT

Fig.1.7 Foundations made exclusively by mechanized digging

Foundations built over the frost level

RETAINING WALL FAILURE

Fig.1.9 Retaininging stone wall failure caused by the additional pressure

The analysis of the buildings performed on modern designing and technological

FLEXIBLE GROUNDFLOOR WITH

Fig.1.11 Failure of insufficiently reinforced columns of a block of flats

1.3 NEW DEVICES USED IN STRUCTURAL REHABILITATION

Fig.1.12 The behaviour of a structure with supplementary damping [1.11]

Element dettaching is accompanied by energy consumption and the result is a

Fig.1.13 A structure with dettaching elements [11]

Fig.1.14 A structure with temporary stiffening elements [1.11]

By making some elements effective, structural stiffness continuously changes with

Fig.1.15 An additional mass tied to the structure [1.11]

Fig.1.16 The principle of seismic base isolation

Lately, construction rehabilitation has been enriched with solutions using

consolidation is not accompanied by the increase of the building mass;

high mechanical resistance with respect to the unit weight;

simple application, without any difficulty, in limited spaces;

consolidation works take a shorter time.

1.4 HYGROTHERMAL REHABILITATION

decrease in effectiveness of the thermal insulations due to the repeated

increase in exigency towards the inner hygrothermal microclimate

increase in exigency regarding the insulation level of the existing envelope

request for a complete modernization determined by aesthetic, functional

Skinner, R.I, Robinson, W.H., McVerry, G.H., An Introduction to

Structural assessment of buildings

Structural assessment of buildings

the destination and the site of the building;

the description of the building spans, bays, number of storeys, structure

the description of the technology used, the duration and technological

the building service period, any interventions, repairs or alterations made

Structural assessment of buildings

a brief presentation of the geotechnical report.

2.2.3 Qualitative evaluation

vertical elements: plain concrete, reinforced concrete or masonry

prefabs and their joining;

stairs and staircases;

closing and dividing elements;

the foundation system;

finishing and coating elements if they are fixed to the structural

the building axes;

all element axes, both horizontal and vertical;

spans, bays, heights;

shapes and sizes of element cross-sections;

reinforcement of the reinforced concrete elements;

position and structure of metallic joints.