Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Economical Structural Steel Work 1
Economical Structural Steel Work 1
steelwork
student edition - 2004
economical structural
steelwork
student edition - 2004
FOREWORD
While every effort has been made and all reasonable care taken to ensure
the accuracy of the material contained herein the Authors, Editors and
Publishers of this Publication shall not be held to be liable or responsible in
any way whatsoever for any loss or damage costs or expenses howsoever
incurred by any person whether the purchaser of this work or otherwise
including but without in any way limiting any loss or damage costs or
expenses incurred as a result of or in connection with the reliance whether
whole or partial by any person as aforesaid upon any part of the contents of
this publication.
Preface
metre for sections and cost per square metre for plates, depending on
the size, in lieu of cost per tonne. The reasoning behind this is presented
in a paper entitled: A Rational Approach to Costing Steelwork by T Main,
K B Watson and S Dallas. This paper was presented at the International
Cost Engineering Council/The Australian Institute of Quantity Surveyors
International Symposium, Construction Economics -- The Essential
Management Tool, Australia, May 1995.
We wish to thank all those who have contributed to this publication and
special acknowledgment goes to all AISC Staff who submitted comments
on the technical and editorial content of this publication.
BScCE,
MScCE, CP
Eng.
AISC State
Manager--N
SW
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.
Preliminary Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
2.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Factors influencing Framing Cost . . . . . . . . . . . .
Integrated Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Steel Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1.
2.1.2.
2.1.3.
2.1.4.
2.1.5.
2.2.
2.2.1.
2.2.2.
2.2.3.
2.2.4.
2.3.
STEEL PRICING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SCRAP AND WASTE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.1.
2.3.2.
2.3.3.
2.3.4.
2.4.
STRUCTURAL STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
WEATHERING STEEL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HOLLOW SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
QUENCHED AND TEMPERED STEEL . . . . . . . . .
CHOICE OF STEEL GRADE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BEAM AND COLUMN FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . .
GIRDER AND TRUSS FABRICATION . . . . . . . . . .
SUMMARY FOR ECONOMIC FABRICATION . . .
Erection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1
2
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
6
6
6
7
7
7
7
8
8
9
2.4.1.
2.4.2.
2.4.3.
2.4.4.
2.4.5.
2.4.6.
2.5.
Surface Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.1.
2.5.2.
2.5.3.
2.5.4.
2.5.5.
2.5.6.
14
2.5.7.
14
2.6.
12
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . .
MATERIALS FOR FIRE PROTECTION . . . . . . . .
Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7.1.
2.7.2.
2.7.3.
2.7.4.
2.7.5.
2.7.6.
2.7.7.
9
10
10
11
12
12
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
STEEL PERFORMANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
SURFACE PREPARATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
PAINT SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
HOT--DIP GALVANIZING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
DESIGN AND DETAILS FOR CORROSION RESISTANCE .
Fire Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.1.
2.6.2.
2.6.3.
2.7.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HANDLING AND TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIELD BOLTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FIELD WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BRACING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
WORKMANSHIP STANDARDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TOLERANCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CAMBERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
TEMPORARY BRACING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SUMMARY FOR SPECIFICATION WRITERS . . .
15
15
15
16
16
16
17
17
18
19
19
20
3.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Connection Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1.
3.2.2.
3.2.3.
3.3.
3.3.1.
3.3.2.
3.3.3.
3.3.4.
3.3.5.
3.4.
4.
MULTI--STOREY BUILDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SINGLE--STOREY INDUSTRIAL BUILDING . . . .
Framing Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5.1.
3.5.2.
3.5.3.
3.5.4.
3.6.
3.4.1.
3.4.2.
3.5.
SYMMETRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RATIONALISATION OF MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . .
STANDARDIZATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SIMPLICITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Industrial Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.
4.2.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Warehouse and Factory Buildings . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1.
4.2.2.
4.2.3.
4.2.4.
4.2.5.
4.2.6.
4.2.7.
4.2.8.
4.3.
4.3.1.
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
STANDARDIZED PORTAL FRAMES . . . . . . . . . . .
CUSTOM DESIGNED PORTAL FRAMES . . . . . .
BRACING OF PORTAL FRAMES . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CRANES IN PORTAL FRAME BUILDINGS . . . . .
PURLINS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FLY BRACING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SHEETING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SPANS OF 45--70 METRES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
4.3.2.
4.4.
21
21
21
22
23
24
4.4.1.
4.4.2.
4.4.3.
4.4.4.
5.
24
24
25
26
27
5.3.
31
32
32
32
5.4.
5.5.
33
5.6.
34
34
34
35
36
37
40
41
42
43
43
43
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FULLY RIGID FRAME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FULLY BRACED FRAMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
STABILITY BY MEANS OF SERVICE CORES . .
5.5.1.
5.5.2.
6.
FULLY STEEL--FRAMED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COMPOSITE FRAMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.1.
5.3.2.
5.3.3.
5.3.4.
31
34
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Low--Rise Commercial Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1.
5.2.2.
30
31
ERECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SITE WELDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BOLTED CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
FUNCTIONAL CONSTRAINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Commercial Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.
5.2.
29
FLOOR SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COLUMNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bolting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.
6.2.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bolt Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1.
6.2.2.
6.3.
6.4.
COMMERCIAL BOLTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HIGH--STRENGTH STRUCTURAL BOLTS . . . . .
Bolting Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Factors Affecting Bolting Economy . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4.1.
6.4.2.
6.4.3.
6.4.4.
6.4.5.
6.4.6.
BOLT GRADE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BOLT DIAMETER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BOLTING CATEGORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THREADS IN OR OUT OF SHEAR PLANE . . . . .
BOLT FINISH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
44
45
45
45
45
46
46
46
46
47
47
47
50
50
51
52
54
54
55
56
57
57
57
57
57
58
59
59
59
59
60
60
60
6.5.
6.5.1.
6.5.2.
6.5.3.
7.
Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1.1.
7.1.2.
7.2.
7.3.
7.4.
Welding Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Cost Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.1.
7.4.2.
7.4.3.
7.5.
Types of Welds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.1.
7.2.2.
7.2.3.
8.
CHECKLIST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BOLT USAGE -- FLEXIBLE JOINTS . . . . . . . . . . .
BOLT USAGE--RIGID JOINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
WELD CATEGORIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
WELDING SPECIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
WELDING INSPECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
8.2.1.
8.2.2.
8.2.3.
8.2.4.
8.2.5.
61
62
63
64
8.3.
64
Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.1.
8.3.2.
8.3.3.
8.3.4.
8.3.5.
8.3.6.
64
64
65
65
66
66
8.4.
8.5.
67
68
8.6.
CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PORTAL FRAME PRE--SET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Connection Detailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.6.1.
8.6.2.
70
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COLUMN BASE PLATES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
HOLDING--DOWN BOLTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COLUMN SPLICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
COLUMN STIFFENERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
BUILT--UP COLUMNS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trusses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Portal Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.5.1.
8.5.2.
68
69
69
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PLATED SECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
WEB PENETRATIONS IN BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CASTELLATED BEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
THREE--PLATE GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
SPECIFIC CONNECTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
76
76
76
77
78
80
80
80
82
82
84
85
87
90
90
91
92
92
93
75
9.
103
75
76
10. Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
105
List of Tables
4
5
7
10
13
16
52
58
59
60
65
89
List of Figures
10
11
11
18
22
24
24
25
26
27
28
28
29
30
31
31
32
35
35
36
37
37
38
38
39
39
40
40
40
41
42
42
42
43
43
44
46
47
47
49
50
50
51
51
52
52
53
54
54
54
55
56
56
11
66
66
67
68
68
72
72
73
73
74
74
75
76
77
77
78
79
80
81
81
82
83
83
83
85
85
86
86
87
87
87
88
89
89
89
90
91
91
91
92
92
94
94
95
96
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
102
1.
Preliminary Considerations
1.1.
Introduction
cost. That is, the designer substitutes the more straightforward criterion of
mass minimisation for the more involved criterion of minimum cost.
In regard to steel structures, a minimum mass solution does not necessarily result in a minimum cost solution. Connection detailing and
the resulting cost of fabrication and erection are more often the major
influences affecting overall cost. Undue preoccupation with the minimisation of the mass of a steel structure can lead to serious errors of
judgement.
This publication is intended to highlight the manner in which a number of
factors affect the cost of fabrication and erection. It will also highlight the
influence these costs have on the total final cost of a steel structure.
1.2.
1.3.
Integrated Design
2.
2.1.
Steel Grades
2.1.1.
STRUCTURAL STEEL
Throughout the world the least costly and most commonly used grades of
steel for structural purposes are those generally referred to as normal
strength structural steel.
In Australia such steel is covered by AS 3678 or AS 3679 (Parts 1 & 2). It
has a typical design yield strength of 250/300 MPa (varying above and
below this figure depending on thickness), a tensile strength of at least
410/430 MPa, a minimum elongation of 22% and a carbon equivalent of
0.43/0.44 so as to assure good weldability.
AS 3678 and AS 3679 (Parts 1 & 2) are omnibus standards covering a
family of structural steel grades including variants of the main grades
having superior low temperature toughness.
Plates, rolled sections, welded sections and bars are all produced to these
standards, although not every product is available in every grade. This is
explained more fully in Table 2.1.
2.1.2.
WEATHERING STEEL
AS 3678 and AS 3679 (Parts 1 & 2) also deal with so--called weathering
steel. Weathering Steel contains alloying elements which cause it to
weather to a uniform patina after which no further corrosion takes place. By
nature of the chemical composition the steel is high strength (Grade 350)
steel. However in Australia it is available in only a limited number of
products----see Table 2.1.
2.1.3.
HOLLOW SECTIONS
TABLE 2.1 -- AVAILABILITY OF PRODUCTS BY GRADE (check currency of information with steel suppliers)
--
= not manufactured
Notes:
2.1.4.
Steel Grade
Plates (or
Floor plates)
Rolled
Sections
Welded
Sections
Structural
Hollow Sections
Grade
AS
3678
AS
3679.1
AS
3679.2
AS
1163
200
--
--
250
Y (1)
--
250L0
--
--
250L15
--
--
300
Y (2)
300L15
--
2.1.5.
350
--
350L0
--
--
350L15
--
--
400
--
Table 2.1 lists the availability of various products by steel grade. The
indicative relative cost of grades is shown in Table 2.2. For most structures
the greatest economy will be achieved by the selection of the least costly
and most readily available steel, i.e. Grade 300.
400L15
--
WR350/1
--
--
WR350/1 L0
--
--
Australian Standard AS 3597 covers these steel plates for structural steel
applications and for use in pressure vessels.
Heavy plate members such as bridge girders are one instance where
higher grades may prove economical. Other applications include:
Y
C350
C450
Y
AS 3597
60
70
80
= regular grade not commonly produced, availability subject to time limitations and order size
In large structures with longer lead times the use of higher grades will often
be worth considering at least for parts of the frame.
Grade C250
Quenched &
Tempered Structural
Steel
Plates
Rolled
Sections
Welded
Sections
Grade 250
100
100
--
250L0
--
105
--
250L15
105
105
--
300
100
110
130
300L15
105
--
140
350
110
120
--
350L0
--
130
--
350L15
120
--
--
400
115
--
150
400L15
120
--
155
WR350/1
125
--
--
WR350/1 L0
135
--
--
AS 3678, AS
3679.1 & AS
3679.2
AS 1163
Grade C250
130
C350
130
C450
130
AS 3597 Quenched
& Tempered Steel
Grade 60
150
70
160
80
160
2.2.
2.2.1.
STEEL PRICING
Mill prices are expressed in terms of a base price and various extras. The
base price relates to the type of mill product such as plate or sections, while
extras relate to specifics of the particular product or section.
The most common extras for structural quality steel include the size or
designation, standard or non--standard lengths, quantity extras or
discounts related to the total mass of individual order items, and the grade
extras which apply to the quality specification for the material chosen.
able to offer prompter delivery than would be available through the normal
steelmakers rolling programs.
On the other hand, the larger fabricators are able to meet the mill
requirements for direct purchase and prefer to procure their material this
way. In recent years there has been a trend among some larger fabricators
to limit their mill purchases to main material, and to obtain low--volume
ancillary material from steel merchants as and when required.
In Australia there is not much difference in the cost of steel procured in one
way or the other if all expenses are truly accounted.
The argument about using, wherever possible, the preferred grades and
sizes applies equally to steel obtained from a steel merchant, because
these firms naturally tend to concentrate their stockholding on popular,
fast--moving, items.
2.2.2.
PLATES
Quality extras for structural steel relate to the material specifications and
reflect the costs of alloying elements, of tighter controls on such elements
as carbon, manganese, phosphorus and silicon, and of tighter controls on
manufacturing techniques to meet the specified chemical and mechanical
properties. The cost of additional tests and greater frequency of testing,
necessary for increased stringency of yield strength and notch ductility, are
also reflected in increased quality and testing extras.
Designers should recognise that the more exotic the requirements of the
steel specification, the greater is the probability that other costs associated
with its use, ranging from procurement through all stages of fabrication, will
also be increased. Unnecessary demands by specifiers for mill heat
certificates for standard sections to be used on routine projects is another
example of unnecessary costs added onto projects.
Similarly there are preferred lengths and widths of plates which should be
borne in mind. Major plate elements should be dimensioned as far as
possible so that they can be cut from standard plates with a minimum of
scrap. Smaller plate details such as brackets and gussets should be
considered in the same way, especially when there is a large number of
them. The most common sizes for plates up to 25 mm thick are 1.8m x 6m,
2.4m x 6m, 2.4m x 9m, and 3m x 9m.
The foregoing relates to purchases made direct from the steel mill, but in
Australia most fabricators obtain their steel through steel merchants.
These steel merchants aim to carry comprehensive stocks and are thus
For practically all structures the designer should operate within this
standard range. Non--preferred thicknesses incur cost premiums and
extended delivery times, and should only be considered on major projects
where the overall saving in using a special thickness is greater than the
direct and indirect cost penalties.
(Note: Small plate components may be substituted by flat bars which are
considered as Sections.)
25
70
28
80
32
90
36
100
40
110
10
45
120
12
50
140
16
55
160
20
60
180
2.2.3.
SECTIONS
2.2.4.
The real cost of material is affected by the quantity of scrap and waste, and
designers should be receptive to suggestions for minimising and
controlling the generation of waste. This may include greater
standardisation of structural sizes, or of plate widths and thicknesses, in
order to take advantage of size and quantity discounts. It might also include
a more liberal approach to the splicing of beams or other structural sections
using standard lengths.
Random splicing, which involves welded splices anywhere within the
length of a rolled structural member, can be particularly effective when
material is sawn to length and fabricated on a conveyorised production
line. When carefully controlled, it can dramatically reduce the accumulation
of shorts and thus reduce the total cost. The only real restriction to random
splicing applies to its use for beams subject to severe dynamic loads. Of
course the savings in scrap have to be balanced against the welding costs,
and the designer should be receptive to this technique where it is
appropriate.
2.3.
2.3.1.
Fabrication
GENERAL
(g) Facilities available for handling, lifting and moving the structural
components.
Fabrication costs are sensitive to simplicity or complexity of detail, and the
degree to which production line techniques can be applied. They are
controlled by the quality of the shop detail drawings, which must reflect the
designers concept for the structure, but must also permit the optimum
utilisation of the fabricators facilities and equipment. Shop drawing
preparation should be guided by the basic principle that they must provide
for economy of fabrication and for economy of erection.
Shop operations basically involve cutting material to size, hole--making for
mechanical fasteners, and assembling and joining. Other operations
include handling, cleaning and corrosion protection. All shop operations
require facilities for lifting and for moving or conveying the structural steel.
Cutting operations include shearing, sawing and flame cutting;
hole--making operations include punching and drilling; assembly
operations include welding and bolting. Increased use of computer
numerically controlled (CNC) fabrication processes is changing the
economics of steel fabrication. Cutting, drilling and welding operations can
now be undertaken by the CNC fabrication process. Information from
computer drafted shop drawings can be fed directly into CNC fabrication
equipment to further improve operational efficiency. Some fabricators are
now bar coding steelwork to facilitate control and monitoring of projects.
Generally welding is the preferred method for shop assembly, with bolting
for field assembly. There are, however, some fabricators with sophisticated
hole--making equipment, who prefer shop bolting to shop welding for
standard connections. Some steel merchants also provide basic cutting
and drilling services to the steel fabricators.
2.3.2.
2.3.3.
Fabrication of plate girders and trusses differs from beam and column work
in that it involves assembly in the shop, and calls for adequate space and
handling facilities. Both girders and trusses require special fit--up jigs for
assembly and welding, and the availability of heavy lifting equipment.
Just as with beam and column work, however, the key to productivity and
economical fabrication is the use of simple standard details for stiffeners,
splices, gussets, etc.
For plate girders all details should be designed for automatic welding,
allowing adequate clearances for the welding machines to pass and for
termination of welds at the ends of web stiffeners. Maintaining constant
width flanges within a shop fabricated length of girder permits splicing of
multiple width plate and subsequent stripping to finished width. This will
reduce weld set--up time, eliminate weld starts and stops, and require only
one set of run--on and run--off tabs. Reductions of flange widths, web
depths and plate thicknesses purely to reduce mass should be considered
very carefully as they can significantly increase fabrication costs.
Control of distortion in plate girder fabrication is a major problem, which can
be helped by design which minimises the amount of welding and avoids the
use of significantly non--symmetrical sections. It is false economy to design
for minimum web thickness only to require web stiffeners, thereby
increasing the amount of welding and distortion; or to use very light top
flanges in composite girders only to compound the problem of camber
control. See also Clause 8.2.5.
Trusses can be designed in a large variety of configurations which depend
on the truss span, depth and loads to be carried. Therefore, it is impossible
to make general statements regarding the most economical design for
fabrication, other than to stress again the importance of simplicity of detail.
Designers should avoid situations that can cause weld restraint and
problems resulting from weld induced distortion. As far as possible trusses
in the one project should have the same configuration so that they can all
be fabricated from the one jig.
In truss work, the correct selection of chord members can often remove the
need to turn the truss over during the fabrication (see Clause 8.4). This will
enable the fabricator to complete the entire welding on the truss
component without further handling.
2.4.
2.3.4.
The key to economic fabrication is the use of standards at all stages. This
includes standard procedures, standard schedules, standard drawings,
and above all standard connections and details. Non--standard details are
usually handled as special job standards; however, the net effect of any
specials is to slow production with some loss of fabrication economy.
In the selection of connections the designer should observe the following
principles:
(a) Select members and connections to provide a maximum of repetition throughout a structure. This provides the fabricator with the
opportunity to make up jigs and fixtures to speed up the fabrication process.
(b) As far as possible, select connections so that the assembly of
fitments on a member can be carried out in one position. This will
reduce the number of handling or rotating operations during fabrication.
(c) Keep the number of components in a connection to a minimum.
(d) Select connections so that assembly of components occurs on
the least number of members.
(e) As far as possible use connections that are standard in the industry (see Standardized Structural Connections, Ref 1).
(f)
(g) Most importantly, keep an open mind on the selection of members and connections. Before finally committing a design to the
detail design phase, communicate with the industry and try to
2.4.1.
Erection
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
2.4.2.
10
handling on site and also reduce the cost of site storage and possible
damage.
The virtue of designing for repetitive components has already been
stressed. The gains can be partly lost on site if interchangeable parts are
given individual mark numbers. This will require the erector to search for a
particular number mark on a member when any one of a considerable
number of members would fit. After completing a design it is worth looking
at marking plans with this idea in mind.
Indicative transportation costs are given in Table 2.4. Costs include the
loading of steelwork onto and off the truck.
TABLE 2.4 TRANSPORTATION COSTS
Transport
Fabrication Shop to
Site (see Note)
$/member
15
60.6 to 160
56
160.1 to 455
225
Note:
Allow for twice the cost of transportation if the surface treatment
is applied at premises other than the fabrication shop.
2.4.3.
CONNECTIONS
It is in the final fixing of members that the greatest scope for erection
economy lies. Connections selected to permit flexibility in fit up should be of
prime concern to designers. The use of one type of bolt and one bolting
procedure throughout a structure will allow the use of a minimum variety of
tools on site and provide for speedy erection sequence (see Section 6).
Similarly where site welded connections are required, cleats should be
incorporated to allow mating members to be held together in place for
actual welding.
Angle seat, angle cleat and web side plate connections (see Clause 8.6.2)
provide considerable flexibility in fit--up, and are preferred in braced frames
from a purely erection viewpoint. The flexible end plate connection is not
quite so easy to erect, although its selection may be decided by other
considerations.
In rigid frames, the following should be taken into consideration for the
design of bolted connections:
(a) The end plate depth should be kept to a minimum to reduce the
tendency to jam during installation (Fig. 2.1).
(b) The tolerance between the face of the end plate and the face of
the column should either be tightly controlled so that the building
plumbs itself automatically, or allowance should be made for
shimming in order to plumb the building. Shimming, however, can
be expensive.
(c) In end plate connections for portal frames careful consideration
should be given to access for installing and tensioning bolts, (see
Table 8.1).
If welded connections are preferred, the following should be taken into
consideration:
(a) Welded connections are normally erected using a bolted erection
connection. The same criteria should apply to the design of these
connections as described above.
(b) Substantial erection clearance between the end of the girder and
column face should be provided where permitted by the design of
the connection.
(c) Field welding should be kept to a minimum and overhead welding should be avoided.
(d) Attention should be paid to access for welding and welding inspection.
(e) Consideration should be given to plumbing the building.
The most significant time delays in the erection of a girder can be expected
to occur when it is installed with the end connection against a column web.
The girder can normally only be manoeuvred in a vertical plane and
frequently jams. Gusset plates, stiffeners, and other members tend to
interfere with its installation. Access for bolting is usually difficult and
sometimes impossible. Every effort should be made to get the connection
outside the flanges of the column, or at least as far out from the web as
possible. This is especially important when the column section is compact.
Consideration should always be given to excluding direct girder/web
11
2.4.4.
FIELD BOLTING
economic to design for threads included in the shear plane. This then
means that bolt lengths can be selected so as to avoid excessive
stick--through. However the two systems (threads--in, threads--out) should
not be mixed on the one job (see Ref 6.1).
Generally, the smaller the bolt the easier it is to install. Bolt diameters
should therefore be kept small if this can be done without compromising the
objective of keeping the number of bolts to a minimum. M12 bolts are
normally adequate for stairs and girts, while M20 bolts are the maximum
size which should be considered if access for tensioning is poor; otherwise
M24 bolts are acceptable.
Bolts should be specified as snug--tight unless there are compelling
reasons why fully tensioned bolts are necessary. The cost of full tensioning,
including associated inspection, is very high and can double the cost of
each installed bolt. Access for wrenches is also less critical where only
snug tightening is to be carried out. Care should be exercised, however,
where a project is designed to overseas codes because some of these
require high strength structural bolts to be always fully tensioned.
It is preferable that only one bolting category (see Section 6) be used on
any one structure. When a departure from the general category (e.g. to fully
tensioned bolts, to threads excluded from shear plane, etc.) is
unavoidable, this should be highlighted on erection and detail drawings to
reduce the possibility of the requirement being overlooked by erection
crews.
More information on structural bolting is given in Section 6 and Ref 6.1.
2.4.5.
FIELD WELDING
Where site welding is used for connections the total amount of welding on
the job should be sufficient to justify the cost of bringing and setting up
welding equipment on the site.
2.4.6.
BRACING
2.5.
2.5.1.
Surface Treatment
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
Otherwise the normal rules for economic welding apply. Fillet welds are
preferred to butt welds, and down--hand welding to any other position. In
Heavy steel construction such as for power stations usually averages out
with comparatively less surface area (despite the higher tonnage) than a
12
2.5.2.
STEEL PERFORMANCE
Bare steel will corrode only in the presence of both oxygen and moisture.
Corrosion will be accelerated if traces of pollutants such as sulphur dioxide
or chlorides are present -- the so--called aggressive environments.
Steel inside a building is rarely a corrosion risk except in the occasional
case where the building houses an aggressive atmosphere as a result of its
purpose, e.g. a fertiliser factory. It follows therefore that steel needs no
corrosion protection whatsoever in most interior applications such as
multi--storey buildings where the steel framing is eventually concealed.
Where the steelwork remains exposed to view as in a factory or warehouse
the same negligible risk applies but in these instances the owner may
require a surface finish for a more attractive appearance. The designer
should distinguish between treatment specified to achieve protection from
corrosion and that specified merely to provide decoration. In practice, of
course, any surface finish will attempt to do both.
Detailed advice on the classification of environments and the selection of
appropriate surface treatment systems is contained in AS 2312 Guide to
the protection of iron and steel against exterior atmospheric corrosion (see
Section 10).
2.5.3.
Galvanize
ROZP
ALKYD
GLOSS
ZnSi
MIO
$/sq m
$/sq m
$/sq m
$/sq m
$/sq m
18
17
60.6 to 160
16
23
160.1 to 455
14
33
(kg/m)
Notes:
2.5.4.
PAINT SYSTEMS
13
Hot-- dip
Mass
SURFACE PREPARATION
Paint Types
Section
There is a very large selection of paint systems available for structural steel
-- too many to be discussed within the scope of this publication. However,
2.5.6.
Probably the most commonly used paint is red oxide zinc phosphate
primer, often referred to as ROZP, which is applied over a wire brushed
preparation. Paints of this type provide an economic base for possible
further decorative coats of conventional oil paint. However being
permeable, ROZP cannot be expected to last if left in the open for more
than normal construction periods.
2.5.5.
HOT--DIP GALVANIZING
14
2.5.7.
1. The required level of surface treatment and/or corrosion protection should be decided at the very earliest stage of the design, so
that all design decisions can be made with this in mind.
2. In benign atmospheres such as the interiors of most buildings, or
exposed steelwork in non--polluted non--marine environments,
corrosion rates are generally so low as to not require corrosion
protection. Any painting carried out would therefore be only for
aesthetics.
3. Where corrosion protection is required, the extent needs to be
carefully evaluated to ensure that it is appropriate to the circumstances. Too much protection is a waste of money, as also is too
little. Obviously professional judgement is needed.
4. The degree of surface preparation should match the surface
treatment system to be applied (see Clause 2.5.3).
5. As painting is substantially a labour intensive process, the current trend is to replace multi--coat (3 or 4 coat) systems with one
or two coat systems. Zinc--rich paint systems are consequently
increasingly used, particularly on blast cleaned surfaces. In these
systems, however, film thickness build is vital to a satisfactory
performance.
6. Good design practice is essential -- e.g. avoid pockets where water and debris can lodge and accelerate coating failure, (see
Clause 2.5.6).
7. Allowance should be made for easy future repainting.
8. Shop painting is always cheaper and more effective than site
painting, but no steel can be handled, transported and erected
without damage to the coating from crane slings, etc. Touching
up of the base coats and the final top coat must therefore be
done on site.
9. Hot--dip galvanizing is a high performance protective system
which is not prone to damage during transport and handling. In
some circumstances it may cost the same as an alternative paint
system (see Table 2.5).
10. Recent developments in the field of corrosion protection have
evolved protective systems greatly superior to those available
some years ago. These systems are expensive but are invaluable when appropriate, as in exposed structures in severe industrial or marine environments. However, this has led to waste of
money by the specification of such sophisticated treatments in
circumstances where they are not necessary.
11. Some paint systems require special application techniques, controlled temperature and humidity when being applied, long drying
times or may have a tightly constrained time interval between
successive coats. Designers should be careful of such sensitive
systems, as experience has shown that they are almost impossible to apply correctly in normal construction industry conditions.
2.6.
Fire Resistance
2.6.1.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
All structural material can be damaged in severe fire conditions and steel,
although non--combustible and making no contribution to a fire, can have
its function impaired. For this reason, building regulations require it to be
protected, usually by a non--combustible insulation, when used for certain
elements of construction in some types of building. Building regulations
15
2.6.2.
REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS
demonstrated that bare steel will not reach a critical temperature should a
car catch fire (Ref 2.5).
Another example is composite steel deck floor systems utilising fire
emergency reinforcement (Refs 2.6, 5.4, 5.5).
2.6.3.
Vermiculite Spray
Vermiculite Spray
60 min
120 min
180 min
(kg/m)
$/sq m
$/sq m
$/sq m
108
27
37
60.6 to 160
106
23
35
160.1 to 455
104
17
33
Section Mass
Notes:
16
2.7.
2.7.1.
Specifications
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The specification should not repeat material that is already in the relevant
codes or standards. Nor should it become a repository for information
which should more properly be shown on the drawings -- nowadays most
design offices use standard notes on their drawings in order to handle this
aspect more efficiently. A set of guideline notes are provided in AISCs
Steel Construction Journal, Volume 29, Number 3, September 1995 (Ref
2.1). However, such standard notes should always be checked as each
drawing is prepared to ensure that they are relevant.
A specification should be precise so that both parties to a contract know
what is required, and should clearly state what the contractor is required to
do and what he/she is to refrain from doing. Great care must be taken in the
wording, with definitive requirements being stated and all allowable
alternatives clearly specified. Vague general statements which could mean
different things to different people should be avoided.
The requirements specified should be designed only to produce work of
appropriate quality to the building requirements, while avoiding
unnecessarily tight requirements which only add to the cost.
Experience has shown that short and precise specifications help
considerably in the smooth flow of the work, and thus have a beneficial
influence on costs. Conversely, long and repetitious documents can easily
lead to misunderstanding, contractual arguments and expensive delays.
2.7.2.
2.7.3.
TOLERANCES
Tolerances on the ex--mill dimensions of steel sections and plates are listed
in AS 3678 and AS 3679 (Parts 1 & 2). The necessity for these tolerances
arises because of factors in the steel--rolling process, including rolling
speed, roll wear, roll adjustment and differential cooling.
A study of the Standards shows that these dimensional tolerances can be
significant enough to warrant consideration in detailing and fabrication; Fig
2.3 gives some examples.
(a) allow for variation in beam depth in flange splice and for off-centre of webs in web splice.
WORKMANSHIP STANDARDS
17
(b) any connection to column web or column flaange must make allowance for out of square, especially end plate connections -- allow for shimming where necessary (may involve tapered shims).
(c) web side plate connection -- allow for out of square of column
flange and off centre of beam web.
2.7.4.
CAMBERING
18
2.7.5.
TEMPORARY BRACING
Problems often arise when the specification requires the erector to supply
temporary bracing for a structure. Sometimes the erector is required to
design this bracing and be responsible for its performance. In line with new
occupational health and safety regulations, erectors should develop
erection plans including temporary bracing requirements with the principal
contractor. These plans may need to be checked by the design engineer.
AS 2312
AS 4100
Steel Structures
(a) Erection Bracing -- the bracing or guys required to support individual members during their erection.
(b) Temporary Bracing -- required in order that the steel skeleton remains plumb and in a safe condition after erection is completed,
until permanent bracing elements such as shear walls are built.
2.7.6.
INSPECTION
19
2.7.7.
20
3.
3.1.
Introduction
The framing system and framing layout chosen for a particular application
will be influenced by:
(a) Nature and level of the loads to be resisted
(b) Requirements and restrictions on useable space within the
framework, and
(c) Constraints imposed by architectural requirements.
One advantage of steel framing is the diversity of solutions that are
possible for any given application.
There are available to the designer two basic connection types, namely:
Flexible connections.
The above connections may be used in the three basic framing systems
available:
1. Two--way rigid frameworks
2. One--way rigid/one--way braced frameworks, or
3. Two--way braced frameworks.
Judicious selection of the appropriate framing system and connection
types is a prerequisite to an economical structural design. Once a framing
system is selected, the connection types to be used follow directly, thus
setting bounds to the final cost of the structure. Economy in detailing,
fabrication and erection can only serve to move the final design towards the
lower bound of cost established by the framing system.
21
3.2.
3.2.1.
Connection Types
DESIGN METHODS IN AS 4100
AS 4100 allows the use of three different design methods, wherein the
behaviour of the connections is fundamental to the design method. These
methods are:
(a) Rigid Construction, in which it is assumed that the connections
have sufficient rigidity to hold the original angles between the
members unchanged.
(b) Semi--Rigid Construction, in which the connections may not have
sufficient rigidity to hold the original angles between the members unchanged, but are assumed to have a capacity to furnish a
dependable and known degree of flexural restraint.
(c) Simple Construction, in which the connections are assumed not
to develop bending moments. The stability of the structure is
therefore provided by triangulation (i.e. bracing) or by separate
shear walls -- see Section 3.3 et seq.
Clearly from these brief descriptions it is seen that connection behaviour
has a significant influence on design.
Allied to design methods (a) and (c) above are the basic connection types
noted in Clause 3.1, namely:
Flexible connections.
3.2.2.
FLEXIBLE CONNECTIONS
Flexible connections are used in steel structures designed using the simple
design method of AS 4100. These connections offer low restraint to beam
rotation, being close in behaviour to that of an ideal pin.
Typical flexible connections are shown in Fig 3.1. The most common
flexible connections in use in Australia are the flexible end plate (Fig 3.1
(c)), the angle cleat (Fig 3.1 (d)), and the web side plate (Fig 3.1 (e)).
Such connections are:
22
3.2.3.
RIGID CONNECTIONS
Rigid connections are used in steel structures designed using the rigid
design method of AS 4100. These connections offer very high restraint to
beam rotation, being close in behaviour to fully fixed (or encastre)
connections.
Typical rigid connections are shown in Fig 3.2. The most common rigid
connections in use in Australia are the stub girder connection (Fig 3.2 (b))
and the bolted moment end plate connection (Fig 3.2 (c)). These are also
covered in the AISC Standardized Structural Connections publication (Ref
1).
Rigid connections are:
(a) More complex in fabrication
(b) More difficult to erect where tight tolerances are involved, and
(a) Field welded moment connection -- with erection cleat (also use fillet
welded web cleats in lieu of beam web welds).
(b) Stub girder connection -- fully shop welded beam stub, pliced on site.
23
3.3.
3.3.1.
24
3.3.2.
One--way rigid framework has been used quite extensively for the simple
reason that the most commonly employed structural sections, (namely,
universal sections) exhibit high bending resistance about the x--axis and
inferior bending resistance about the y--axis.
The relatively more expensive rigid beam--to--column connection is
required in the unbraced plane, while simple connections of the flexible
type can be utilised in the braced plane. In comparison with the two--way
rigid framing system, there is slightly more restriction in planning the floor
layout since space must be reserved for the stabilising elements. However,
this is seldom a problem since the bracing can be arranged within the
thickness of the perimeter walls or alternatively be tied back to a bracing
element.
25
3.3.3.
Typical applications that may use this type of framing are Iow to
medium--rise rectangular frames (up to 50--storeys -- especially using
cores, either steel framed or slip--formed concrete).
26
3.3.4.
Framing
System
Two--way rigid
Advantages
Disadvantages
No stabilizing elements
required for lateral
forces in any plane.
Freedom of layout planning.
Plastic design methods
can be used if desired -economical in material.
Continuous beam design leads to reduced
beam size.
Restriction on planning
layout because of requirement for provision
of stabilizing elements.
Little interaction between elements.
Heavier beam sizes.
3.3.5.
STABILISING ELEMENTS
27
28
3.4.
The type of framing system selected to satisfy all the design constraints will
have a profound effect on the structural cost. The labour cost in the
fabrication of a fully braced system employing simple flexible connections
is much less than the labour cost in fabricating a fully rigid system using
more complex moment connections. On average the rigid framework
requires about 2.5 times the labour cost input in the fabrication process.
(i) Lateral force transmitted to foundation at every column -- no horizontal
bracing
29
To achieve the most economical final structure the designer has to find a
solution which, within the various constraints, will provide for maximum
cost effect in both material and fabrication labour input.
3.4.1.
MULTI--STOREY BUILDING
The following example illustrates the way in which cost effective solutions
can be achieved and the importance of selecting a framing system of least
cost to serve function. A minimum mass solution may not always produce
the best cost effect-- in this case the minimum mass fully rigid frame
requires substantial additional labour input for connections in comparison
with the simpler flexible connections used in the braced system. Thus the
apparent savings in material cost are less than the increase in labour costs.
The adoption of a fully rigid frame, although of significantly lower mass of
material, will not produce the best economical solution unless such a
system is demanded by constraints such as freedom of layout or
architectural bias against cross bracing.
In structures such as city buildings even greater benefit in cost is achieved
by using the service core as a stabilising element in lieu of cross bracing.
30
= 52.5
= 76.4
3.4.2.
Similarly in other types of structure the framing system will influence final
cost. In typical factory buildings, for instance, which were once framed by
column--and--truss systems, it is quite clear that the rigid portal frame is the
most economical system. Fig 3.11 shows that truss systems are obviously
more efficient on a mass/ unit area basis. However, on a cost basis, the
inherent simplicity of the portal frame renders it less costly to fabricate and
shows up as the economical solution within the range shown (see Fig
3.12).
3.5.
Fig 3.11 Relationship between mass/unit area and span
Framing Details
3.5.1.
SYMMETRY
31
3.5.2.
RATIONALISATION OF MEMBERS
The grouping of members in a framework with respect to type and size will
also have advantages in fabrication and erection economy. Series of
members of the same size and length will be processed more efficiently in
the shop. At the erection stage the greater number of identical items will
provide for speedy erection.
Obviously in grouping of members considerable skill is required of the
designer. Too much grouping of member size can be wasteful of material
and too little will add to detailing, fabrication and erection costs. In general it
is advisable to minimise the number of highly individualised members and
thus provide for maximum repetition and interchangeability.
3.5.3.
STANDARDIZATION
Connections
The AISC publication Standardized Structural Connections (Ref 1)
contains highly standardized data for both simple flexible connections and
rigid connections. The use of such a system, with constant dimensional
criteria, allows for efficient fabrication by optimising the use of modern
automated equipment in the fabrication shop.
It is also recommended that the designer consider the various suitable
alternatives within a particular connection group (i.e. either flexible or rigid).
This will allow the fabricator to select from the Standardized Structural
Connections publication the connection type which can most economically
be fabricated with the equipment available and which will satisfy the
designers requirements.
The important thing to remember is that the greater part of the fabrication
process is involved in preparing members to be connected to one another
and the more standardization, especially with respect to connection
geometry, which can be incorporated in a design, the better will be the final
economy.
Finally, in selecting connection types, try to consider groups of members
requiring only one operation in the shop. This can be accomplished by
arranging for a series of members (e.g. primary floor beams) to require only
32
cutting to length and holing, while another series (e.g. beams connecting to
primary beams) to require only cutting and welded fitments (see Fig 3.13).
3.5.4.
SIMPLICITY
Structure A
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
Structure B
1.00
2.08
1.22
1.67
1.25
It can be seen therefore that for two structures performing similar function
the final cost of structural steel is sensitive to the complexity of work
required. For example, the introduction of truss work into the framing
system together with more complex connections has more than doubled
the shop labour component for Structure B. Also costs are higher for shop
33
3.6.
Conclusion
The selection of the system for a steel framework is the most fundamental
determinant of the final cost of the erected structure. Once the basic
framing system is selected, the connection types which may be used are
chosen. Thus, the basic cost of the erected framework is predetermined,
recognising that this cost may vary within a certain range. Economic
detailing, fabrication and erection can only move the final cost towards the
minimum possible within this range.
It is essential that at the preliminary design stage the full range of
alternative framing systems are evaluated and compared before making
the final selection. This comparison of alternatives must be done on the
basis of erected cost -- not on the basis of mass.
Good design i.e. economical design, should take into account all the
influences which have an effect on the form and cost of the final structure.
The economics of design must be considered in this context since the client
is mainly concerned with what he/she pays for-- a complete building which
meets his/her needs at least cost.
4.
4.1.
Industrial Buildings
Introduction
34
4.2.
4.2.1.
be focused on cost components that can reduce the overall cost. Figure
4.1 shows the various cost components in relation to a warehouse.
4.2.2.
Steel Supply =
20%
Fabrication = 15%
Purlins & Girts
Supply & Fix =
24%
Surface treatment 2%
Steel erection 2%
35
4.2.3.
36
4.2.4.
The selection of either bolted or shop--welded knee and apex joints will be
governed by the span of the frame and the transport and erection facilities
available for a particular job.
Bracing Disposition
For shorter buildings (up to 60--80m), a single end braced bay is all that is
necessary to stabilise the building structure. However, this arrangement
requires wind forces on the opposite end to the braced bay to be
transferred along the building length by way of longitudinal eave and ridge
struts. This may require heavy struts, and it is often more economic to
provide braced panels in each end bay and remove the necessity to
provide these substantial struts.
37
(a) Use of central expansion joint for buildings over 60--80m long
Elevation
Plan
Fig 4.6 Bracing panels
38
For wide frame spacing, rod bracing will tend to sag over the longer span
involved and may present some problems in effectively bracing the roof. As
well, rod bracing in the walls may become subject to physical damage
during occupancy. Angle bracing can overcome these difficulties.
Tubular sections are efficient members for bracing in larger structures.
Their inherent properties provide high load carrying capacities for low
mass of material and make circular and rectangular hollow sections (CHS
and RHS) very attractive from a design point of view. However, for these
advantages to be reflected in the overall economy of the fabricated
structure attention should be paid to the end connections since their
preparation involves the largest part of the fabrication cost, (see Ref 4.7).
Economic connection details for bracing members are shown in Figs 4.8,
4.9 and 4.10.
(b) Typical
intersection
39
4.2.5.
The most common crane type used in portal frame industrial buildings is
the electric overhead travelling crane. The crane bridge travels on two
longitudinal girders which are supported at each portal frame of the
building structure. The design of a crane runway girder must be considered
as an integral part of the whole building. At the same time, it must be
recognised that because of the dynamic forces imposed on the runway
girder, extreme economy in member and connection design is not
recommended and is considered unwise. The best solution may be a
40
The cost of continuous girders is usually higher than for simply supported
girders since the efficiency of the member is offset by higher erection costs.
However, the most economical compromise is often to design and detail
the girder as continuous over two frame spans. This allows the fabrication
of either rolled members or plate girders from stock material and therefore
minimises fabrication costs while still reducing the total number of girders
to be erected.
4.2.6.
Fig 4.13 Commonly used sections for crane runway girders and
their relative fabrication cost
The method of supporting the crane runway girder depends on the
magnitude of the crane wheel reactions (i.e. on the crane capacity and the
crane classification) and upon the structural characteristics of the portal
frame column. Fig 4.11 shows some typical arrangements as follows:
(a) Separate crane column, acting with the frame column
(b) Combined frame and crane column
(c) Separate crane column, acting separately from the frame column
(d) Light frame column bracket, with the frame column acting as both
frame and crane column.
Generally types (a), (b) and (c) in Fig 4.11 will be chosen for heavier
capacity cranes as classified in AS 1418. In most factory type buildings,
cranes will be of low to medium capacity (up to 5 tonnes) in which case the
crane runway girders could be supported on a column bracket (type (d)).
This bracket should be proportioned to minimise stiffening of the frame
column (see Fig 4.12).
Ref 4.4 is a publication on the design of crane runway girders and outlines
the factors which affect the overall economy of both the crane girder and
the enclosing structure. Fig 4.13 shows the most commonly used crane
girder sections in portal frame industrial buildings, and gives an indication
of their relative fabrication cost. Ref 4.4 gives more detail and discusses
other types of runway girders.
41
PURLINS
4.2.7.
42
FLY BRACING
In a portal frame building either flange of both the rafters and the columns
can be a compression flange depending upon the assumed magnitude and
direction of wind loading. The exterior flanges are normally adequately
laterally braced by the purlins and girts, but sometimes the design may
require the provision of bracing to the otherwise unrestrained interior
flanges.
It can be seen that the choice of cladding determines the purlin spacing
which in turn can influence some of the basic design parameters such as
purlin size and bay length.
Steel sheeting is readily fixed to cold--formed purlins by means of
self--tapping screws. Special heavy duty self--drilling self--tapping screws
with in--built neoprene seals are normally used.
Concealed--fix profiles are secured by separate clips or straps which are
normally attached to the purlins. On the finished job these straps are
hidden and there is no piercing of the cladding surface.
Where sheeting is to be painted for decorative purposes or to provide
added protection, considerable economy can be gained by the use of
pre--painted cladding. The factory--applied finish avoids costly site painting
and provides far superior paint adhesion and quality.
Full details of steel sheet cladding profiles, accessories, design and fixing
data etc., are obtained from manufacturers literature.
4.3.
Fig 4.17 Method of fixing fly bracing to standard punching
4.2.8.
SHEETING
Coated steel sheeting are the most popular and economic cladding
material for both the roof and walls of industrial buildings. (There may in
some circumstances be regulatory constraints on its use in walling).
4.3.1.
When buildings of over 45m clear span are required for such purposes as
container storage, etc., consideration should be given to the use of
portal--truss systems for economy. Spans of 45 to 70m are economically
satisfied with such systems (Fig 4.18).
43
4.3.2.
Spans greater than 70m are required for structures such as aircraft
hangars, large stadia or storage buildings. Several buildings have been
built in recent years using a space frame system of the flat double layer
type (Fig 4.19), although other types are also available.
The success of space structures, as in all structures, greatly depends on
the use of an efficient jointing method (or connection). In Australia there are
several proprietary joints readily available and a full discussion of space
frame systems may be found in Refs 4.5 and 4.6.
The inherent economy of space structures lies in the fact that the frame is
made up of a large number of similar elements which can be fabricated in a
mass production operation. The erection of the frame can be often
accomplished by assembling the frame on site at ground level and jacking
it into position on the column supports.
From an overall economy point of view, however, space frames should be
considered only for applications where extremely large clear spans are
required to satisfy building function. They may be selected for other
applications purely for architectural reasons.
Fig 4.19 The basic square grid double layered space frame
4.4.
44
4.4.1.
ERECTION
4.4.2.
SITE WELDING
4.4.3.
BOLTED CONNECTIONS
Although the general rule for economy is to design bolted connections with
threads included in the shear plane, this may not apply in projects with a
45
4.4.4.
FUNCTIONAL CONSTRAINTS
5.
5.1.
Commercial Buildings
Introduction
5.2.1.
FULLY STEEL--FRAMED
5.2.
46
5.2.2.
For the case shown in Fig 5.2 it should be remembered that the steel frame
must be effectively temporarily braced during erection and properly
plumbed before the brickwork or blockwork can be laid. If the temporary
bracing has to be removed after stability is provided by the infill panels it
could be placed on the inner flange of the columns in order to facilitate later
removal and in order not to interfere unduly with the masonry work.
COMPOSITE FRAMES
5.3.
5.3.1.
47
architectural feature this results in the least flexibility in bay size selection.
Bay sizes should be selected to produce minimum storey height. It is
noteworthy that a saving of 75 mm per floor in a 20 storey building will save
1500 mm of exterior and interior wall, partitioning, columns, lifts, etc. On the
other hand, columns cannot be spaced so closely as to detract from the
usefulness of the space through which they pass. Selection of bay sizes is
always a compromise between these two considerations.
In a way similar to low--rise commercial buildings, high--rise commercial
buildings can be sub--divided into:
(a) Fully steel--framed structures, and
48
Fig 5.4 -- Optimum steel framing systems for buildings of various heights
49
5.3.2.
From a planning and layout point of view this system obviously creates
maximum freedom since no stabilising elements are required in the vertical
planes of the building framework.
The system is suitable for buildings up to 30 storeys in height but should be
considered only when constraints of planning and layout are unavoidable.
It has the advantage of allowing efficient use of material because of the
considerable interaction between beams and columns due to the use of
rigid connections with resultant continuity in beams. However, in todays
situation, rigid connections are more costly to fabricate and this will often
offset any savings in material. In addition columns will generally be more
expensive because equal stiffness about both axes is required.
In view of the relative costs of shop and field welding, the stub girder shop
welded to the column will generally prove a more economic solution for
rigid framework.
5.3.3.
Fully braced frames of the type mentioned below are braced tubes where
stability against lateral forces is provided by the braced action of the
external building wall framing.
In the USA where frames of this type have been in use for many years, the
basic method was to erect columns and field--weld beams at floor levels -see Fig 5.5.
50
If the total facade width of the building can be considered as a vertical truss,
the resulting frame offers maximum stability against lateral forces and this
system can be used for almost unlimited storey height.
The advantages of braced frames lie in the use of simple flexible
connections throughout and these are the most economical to fabricate. In
addition, smaller columns can be used, often merely rolled sections. The
floor beams on the other hand will tend to be heavier because no beam
continuity is available but this mass addition will almost always be more
than compensated by the less costly fabrication required.
5.3.4.
51
The position of the concrete core within the building has a significant effect
on its structural behaviour under lateral loads. If the core is asymmetrical,
rotation in addition to translation will be generated under lateral loads. This
is an important consideration when the core is situated at the extreme end
of a rectangular shaped building -- see Fig 5.10.
connection of the floor beam to the concrete core must also be executed
economically and methods of making such connections are discussed in
Section 8.
Table 5.1 summarises situations where the use of shear walls or cores are
advantageous, and also lists situations where steel lattice bracing may be
more appropriate.
TABLE 5.1 SHEAR WALL vs LATTICE BRACING
5.4.
52
Hybrid girders
Castellated girders.
Hybrid girders are plate girders using a stronger grade of steel on the
tension flange of the beam and possibly part of the web. One economical
way of fabrication is to cut two universal sections of different grades
symmetrically and reweld them with a central web butt weld. The beams
may be made castellated or can have a solid web. These girders are
particularly suited where the beam is to be made composite with a concrete
floor slab, but have been rarely used in Australia.
The profiled cutting and rewelding of a universal section to form a
castellated girder containing web openings results in a girder which is
deeper, stronger and stiffer than the original section. The web openings
can be used for ducts and piping. Consequently, castellated girders can
permit a reduction in the overall mass of the floor system, leading to
savings in total building cost. The savings in material must, however, be
considered against the increased cost of fabrication with this type of girder.
Computer numerically controlled (CNC) cutting and welding equipment
has improved the economic viability of castellated beams.
Further discussion of these beam types is contained in Section 8.
One other type of floor support system deserves some mention -- the stub
girder system. This is a novel system reported from its use in the United
States to increase the economic span limit for steel beams while, at the
same time, providing space for mechanical ducts without any increase in
floor height. The system consists of short lengths (stubs) of rolled section
welded at intervals to the top flanges of the girder, the stub beams being
spaced at intervals which allow secondary floor beams and ducts to pass
between the floor slab and the girder.
Fig 5.11 Floor support members
53
5.5.
Composite Construction
The current trend to steel framing for commercial buildings has been due to
a large extent to the development of composite construction techniques.
This concept is based on designing a structure to rely on some degree of
interaction between elements of different materials. The economical use of
materials should be the keynote in all modern building design. Composite
steel--concrete construction in slabs, beams and columns, using both steel
and concrete to maximum advantage, is one of the most effective means of
achieving this objective.
5.5.1.
connection between the beam and slab at the interface. These elements
are known as shear connectors, of which the most economic type is the
welded stud (see Fig 5.13).
FLOOR SYSTEMS
54
The use of composite steel decking provides for double economy. Firstly, it
provides a low cost and efficient floor slab by eliminating the need for all or
most of the lower reinforcement. Secondly, it has the benefits of permanent
formwork such as speedy installation, a weather and safety cover, and an
immediate working platform for other trades.
Steel decking is used to its optimum advantage in steel framed buildings
because full advantage can be taken of sheet continuity to increase slab
load capacity and because the resultant slab can also be made composite
with the steel beams. This means that composite action is achieved in two
ways:
(a) Within the slab, and
Design methods for composite floors are readily available (see Refs 5.3,
5.4, and 5.5).
5.5.2.
COLUMNS
55
5.6.
Summary
56
Fabrication
= 8%
Surface Treatment = 13%
Slab = 23%
6.
6.1.
Bolting
Introduction
The selection of a bolt for use in a structural steelwork connection will need
to have regard to a variety of factors including:
(a) Load capacity of available bolt types
(b) Cost of the installed fastener
(c) Amount of joint slippage
(d) Nature of the forces to be resisted
(e) Degree of flexibility/rigidity desired in the joint;
6.2.
Bolt Types
The two basic metric bolt types in use in structural engineering in Australia
are:
(a) the commercial (Strength Grade 4.6) bolt;
(b) the high--strength structural (Strength Grade 8.8) bolt.
The identification of high--strength structural bolt and nut assemblies can
be readily made from the bolt head and nut markings (see Ref 6.1). In
addition, a distinguishing feature is the larger bolt head and nut of the
high--strength structural bolt compared to the commercial bolt.
6.2.1.
COMMERCIAL BOLTS
M16
6.2.2.
4. Cost of inspection.
Every bolt specified should be a bolt that is needed -- bolt numbers should
be kept to the minimum needed from strength considerations.
The cost of installing bolts can vary considerably, depending on the bolting
category.
57
M16
6.3.
Bolting Categories
In Australia a standard bolting category system has been adopted for use
by designers and detailers. This system is summarised in Table 6.1.
Category 4.6/S refers to commercial bolts of Strength Grade 4.6
conforming to AS 1111 tightened using a standard wrench to a snug--tight
condition.
Category 8.8/S refers to any bolt of Strength Grade 8.8, tightened using a
standard wrench to a snug--tight condition in the same way as for category
4.6/S. Essentially, these bolts are used as higher grade commercial bolts in
order to increase the capacity of certain connection types. In practice they
will normally be high--strength structural bolts of Grade 8.8 to AS 1252, but
any other bolt of Grade 8.8 would be satisfactory.
Category 8.8/TF and 8.8/TB (or 8.8/T when referring generally to both
types) refer specifically to high--strength structural bolts of Strength Grade
8.8 conforming to AS 1252, fully tensioned in a controlled manner to the
requirements of AS 4100.
The system of category designation identifies the bolt being used by using
its strength grade designation (4.6 or 8.8) and identifies the installation
procedure by a supplementary letter (S -- snug; T -- full tensioning).
Method of
Tightening
Snug
Snug
8.8/TF
(Friction type
joint)
8.8/TB
(Bearing type
joint)
830
660
830
660
Bolt Name
Commercial
High Strength
Structural
High Strength
Structural
High Strength
Structural
Standard
Specification
AS1111
AS1252
AS1252
AS1252
For 8.8/T categories, the type of joint is identified by an additional letter (F -friction--type joint; B -- bearing--type joint).
the level of tensioning being, of course, the same for both 8.8/TF and
8.8/TB categories.
Two symbols have been added to the bolting category designations 4.6/S,
8.8/S, 8.8/TB.
58
N:
X:
In practice 8.8/S category would mainly be used in flexible joints where the
extra capacity of the stronger bolt (compared to 4.6/S category) makes it
economical. It is recommended that 8.8/TF category be used only in rigid
joints where a no--slip joint is essential. Note also that 8.8/TF is the only
category requiring attention to the contact surfaces.
A summary of the usage of Grade 4.6 and 8.8 bolts is contained in Clauses
6.5.2 and 6.5.3.
6.4.
6.4.1.
BOLT GRADE
For a given diameter, and assuming snug--tight category, Grade 8.8 bolts
offer far better structural economy than Grade 4.6. This is because a Grade
8.8 bolt costs only around 30% more than Grade 4.6, but has over twice the
shear capacity; moreover the installation labour cost is the same for both.
TABLE 6.2 INDICATIVE COST RATIOS OF DIFFERENT BOLT DIAMETERS
Bolt Diameter
Of course where fully tensioned categories are used; Grade 8.8 bolts to AS
1252 are mandatory -- see Clause 6.4.3.
One application for Grade 4.6 is in foundation bolts, especially where
welded cages are used.
6.4.2.
BOLT DIAMETER
6.4.3.
Table 6.3 shows that snug--tightened bolts of Grade 8.8 (i.e. 8.8/S
category) offer the best value in terms of cost per kN of shear capacity. This
is therefore the preferred bolting method.
90
1.4
M20
100
1.0
M24
170
1.2
M30
360
1.6
M36
670
2.1
59
For this reason Grade 8.8 bolts are rapidly taking over as the standard
grade for structural engineering.
M16
Notes:
1. The indicative cost ratios quoted are valid only within this
table
BOLTING CATEGORY
6.4.4.
The plain shank area of a bolt is approximately 30% greater than the core
area at the threads. Thus an apparent gain of 30% in shear capacity is
available if the threaded part of the bolt can be kept out of the joint shear
plane.
However, this benefit can often be illusory, especially on average
connections with up to only 10 or so bolts. Any savings in bolts must be
measured against the cost of longer bolts required, possible installation
problems and the higher cost of supervision needed to ensure threads
out.
On the other hand on major structures with joints of around 50 bolts or
more, a good case can be made for basing the design on threads excluded.
Savings accrue from fewer bolts, fewer holes, smaller gusset plates and
reduced installation time, while there is usually already a high level of
supervision on these large projects to ensure correct installation.
Shear
Capacity (kN)
Cost
Index Cost Index per
(installed)
kN of Shear
Capacity
4.6/S
44.6
80
1.66
8.8/S
92.6
100
1.00
8.8/TB
92.6
200
2.00
Notes:
One final point to be borne in mind is that there is never a case for
considering 4.6/S category with threads excluded, i.e. Category 4.6X/S. It
will always be more economic to use Category 8.8N/S.
The topic of threads in vs. threads out is discussed in more detail in Ref 6.1.
6.4.5.
BOLT FINISH
60
1. The indicative cost ratios quoted are valid only within this
table.
6.4.6.
INSPECTION
Part of the cost of bolt installation is the necessary inspection. With 4.6/S
and 8.8/S categories such inspection is minimal, and requires only a visual
check that the correct type and number of bolts have been installed. Since
the level of tightening is only snug, and this is achieved in the normal
course of erection, no further checking is required.
In contrast fully tensioned bolts (8.8/TF and 8.8/TB categories) require
detailed inspection in accordance with AS 4100 to confirm that the
tensioning procedure has been carried out. The inspection cost is a big
component of the total in--place cost of a bolt. Inspection procedures are
outlined in AS 4100 and are discussed in Ref 6.1.
6.5.
6.5.1.
CHECKLIST
61
(j)
The following flow chart is for bolt usage with flexible joints:
6.5.2.
Structural Joints
Not calculated or
very low stress levels
Commercial Bolts
Property Class 4.6 to AS
1111 -- Snug tightened
Commercial Bolts
Property Class 4.6 to AS
1111 -- Snug tightened
Category 4.6/S
Category 4.6/S
Threads in shear or
bearing plane is most
common situation
Low capacity
GENERALLY PREFERRED
(See Clauses 6.4.4)
62
Category 8.8/S
The following flow chart is for bolt usage with rigid joints:
6.5.3.
Friction Type
Bearing Type
Category 8.8 / TF
Category 8.8 / TB
No slip
Slip occurs
Threads included
in shear plane
Threads excluded
from shear plane
No stick--through problem
Possible stick--through
problem
63
Maximum Capacity
7.
Welding
7.1.
Introduction
7.1.1.
8. Responsible specification
9. Inspection.
7.1.2.
COST COMPONENTS
Cost of actual
welding =
Time to weld
Length of Cost per
per unit length weld hour
OperatingFactor
where:
Time to weld
Weld Volume
per unit length = Deposition Rate
Operating Factor =
(b) Allowing for the use of high deposition rate processes; in some
connections, the detailing can restrict the use of a particular process thus forcing the fabricator to use a less efficient process
64
(c) Considering other factors which influence the deposition rate. For
example, downhand welding is far more productive than over-
Weld strength
relative to 4mm
size
Increase in
weld area for
next size (%)
(e) Aiming to permit as much welding in the shop as possible, because the cost per hour and the operating factor are both more
favourable in the shop than in the field
Increase in
weld strength
for next size
(%)
1.00
1.00
25
56
1.25
1.56
20
44
(f)
1.50
2.25
33
78
2.00
4.00
25
56
10
2.50
6.25
20
44
12
3.00
9.00
33
78
16
4.00
16.00
7.2.
Types of Welds
7.2.1.
(g) If more than a single pass fillet weld is used, the cost of the weld
can increase significantly.
65
The cross--sectional area of a fillet weld varies as the square of the leg size
while the strength of a fillet weld (which is based on the effective throat)
varies only linearly with the leg size. As indicated in Table 7.1, there is a
heavy cost penalty in over--welding.
Automatic processes can reduce the cost of a fillet weld since, in addition to
improving productivity, the increased penetration allows a reduced leg size
for the same throat thickness.
Cruciform
Fig 7.1 Types of fillet welds
7.2.2.
66
than complete penetration, although attention is needed to ensure that the specified depth of penetration is achieved in practice. These welds are permitted to carry only shear and compression loads and have low ratings for fatigue conditions.
Typical details of both types are shown in Fig 7.2.
Butt welds usually require special edge preparation which (depending on
the preparation type and the cutting practice) can add to the cost. Types of
edge preparation normally in use are:
1. Square (no special preparation)
2. Single or double bevel
3. Single or double V
4. Single or double J
5. Single or double U.
When selecting joint preparations for butt welds, prequalified preparations
should be used wherever possible to obviate the need for qualification
testing of the weld geometry.
In selecting the included angle in a butt weld preparation, it has been
demonstrated that, in general terms, the smaller the included angle in the
preparation the less is the weld volume (Ref 7.2). There is a need to temper
this provision with a consideration for leaving sufficient angle for electrode
access -- the requirements will vary between processes.
It is therefore probably better for the design engineer to specify the
requirements (e.g. complete penetration butt weld or partial penetration
butt weld, depth of penetration 12mm) and allow the fabricator to select the
best weld geometry/welding process combination to achieve the desired
result. All such proposals can be submitted to the designer for approval if
necessary.
7.2.3.
It is important to note that the volume of weld metal in a butt weld (partial
penetration or complete penetration) depends on the type of preparation
used as well as the depth of penetration. In contrast, the fillet weld
increases in weld volume as the square of the leg size.
In comparing the relative costs of butt welds and fillet welds, these differing
relationships should be borne in mind, in addition to the fact that the butt
weld usually requires edge preparation while the fillet weld does not.
The relative economics of the two will depend on the application and on the
fabricators equipment and methods, and it is quite feasible for individual
fabricators to cost various sizes of both types and plot a graph which will
look something like Fig 7.3. The crossover point of weld size below which a
fillet weld is the cheaper solution lies generally in the range 12--16 mm for
many applications.
since it is necessary that a design is realistic in terms of both weld cost and
weld quality.
Manual metal arc welding (stick electrode welding) is the simplest and
most flexible of all the processes and is suitable for welding in all positions
both in the shop and in the field. However, it is capable of only low
deposition rates and has an intrinsically poor productivity because of the
stop--start nature of the process. It is gradually being superseded by more
efficient and economic continuous wire processes.
Flux cored arc welding employs a continuous hollow electrode which
contains the flux. It is capable of relatively high deposition rates, is suitable
for all positions and in its gasless form is ideal for field welding.
Gas metal arc welding uses a continuous solid wire electrode shielded by
inert gas. It too is a high productivity flexible process, and is replacing
manual metal arc welding in many fabrication shops.
7.3.
Welding Processes
Stud welding.
67
Submerged arc welding is another continuous wire process, where the arc
is submerged under a layer of flux. It is essentially a very high deposition
method intended for automatic or semi--automatic set--ups in the shop;
automatic machines for welding plate girders use this process. Some
specialised field applications have also been developed.
Electroslag welding is a special automatic process normally used by the
larger fabricators to butt weld plates. It is a single pass vertical process and
is economic for plates 25 mm thick and above.
Stud welding uses special equipment for the attachment of shear studs to
steel members in composite construction. It is a portable process suitable
for field use, but can be readily adapted to an automatic or semi--automatic
set--up in the shop.
These welding processes are described in greater detail in Ref 7.1.
There can be startling savings in the cost of welds produced by the more
modern processes. For example, considering a 6 mm downhand fillet weld
made by manual welding using traditional rutile electrodes, the cost can be
halved if iron powder electrodes are employed. This cost in turn can be
halved again by adopting a suitable continuous wire process.
Thus the designer should take great care to avoid introducing unnecessary
costs in a job by restricting, through the details or the specification, the use
of the optimum welding process.
7.4.
7.4.1.
WELD CATEGORIES
SP -- Structural Purpose
The difference between the two arises from the more stringent quality and
inspection requirements of the SP category over the GP category.
The Steel Structures Design Code AS 4100 has been used as the
reference standard from which the permissible levels of imperfections for
GP and SP welds have been set. In other words, AS 1554 and AS 4100 are
compatible.
Category GP
The GP weld is the less stringent of the categories. It is intended for use in
joints which are statically loaded, and where the design load on the weld is
significantly below its full design capacity. It should be noted that for GP
Category, the capacity factor is 0.6 as compared to a range of 0.70 to 0.90
for the SP Category (see Table 3.4 of AS 4100 -- 1990).
The web--flange fillet welds in a three--plate girder (Fig 7.5) may have
stress levels which vary along the beam such that an SP category weld
may be required at the ends of the beam, while GP category welds are
sufficient elsewhere. Obviously, in this case an SP category weld should be
specified for the full length, but weld inspection should be concentrated at
the ends of the beam. If a length of weld which does not comply with the SP
category was found in the central portion, it could still be accepted if it
complied with GP category.
Category SP
The SP category is the full--strength structural weld for use in static
applications where the higher range of capacity factors is used. SP
category is also mandatory for dynamic (fatigue) applications -- see AS
4100 and AS 1554.
68
7.4.2.
WELDING SPECIFICATIONS
69
7.4.3.
WELDING INSPECTION
Fabrication costs are very sensitive to the required weld quality and the
type and standard of inspection. Modern equipment and techniques for
welding and testing of welds make it possible to provide near perfect
weldments if so required. However, this also adds considerably to the cost.
If such standards are not necessary, the benefits previously gained by
careful economic design are frequently negated. It rests with the design
engineer to determine the critical areas of a structure requiring close
inspection and then to set a realistic standard for the inspector to follow.
In setting guidelines for the inspector, the best results are achieved by
nominating the use of the Structural Steel Welding Code, AS 1554. This
Standard is well understood by both fabricators and inspection
organisations and usually results in a good job being achieved at a
reasonable cost. A confusing and often expensive practice sometimes
adopted is to rewrite some existing Standard clauses into the specification
in an attempt to achieve a higher standard than that provided by the
Standard. This should be avoided because it usually leads to anomalies
and contractual problems.
Fitness for purpose should be the rule in setting inspection standards and
AS 1554 provides realistic levels of both workmanship and inspection
suited specifically for various weld quality levels required in structural
fabrication .
7.5.
Specifying oversize welds can be harmful in two ways. Firstly, the cost is
unnecessarily increased and secondly, oversize welds cause increased
shrinkage forces which may lead to distortion.
As an example, an 8 mm fillet is only 33% stronger than a 6 mm fillet, yet the
volume of weld metal is 78% higher (Table 7.1). Thus, the cost of
production of a joint can be significantly increased, not only due to the
increased volume of weld metal required but more importantly due to the
increased time in welding the joint.
(a) Simplicity -- details of welded attachments and details of end connections should be simple and consist of the fewest possible
number of component parts.
The only qualifying point that should be raised is that the minimum weld
sizes required by AS 1554 have to be observed and hence some oversize
welds may be unavoidable.
(b) Weld volume -- only the minimum required weld volume, as determined by structural calculations, should be specified.
The following rules are suggested as basic to economical weld design and
detailing (see also Refs 7.2 and 7.3):
A simple design with the fewest number of pieces is the most economic and
often results in a better product.
70
Fillet welds are usually limited to 6 mm leg size for most processes (notably
manual metal arc), although with other processes, under certain
conditions, a 10 mm or larger single pass fillet weld is possible; (for
example a 20 mm single pass fillet weld is possible using tandem
submerged arc welding but such processes are not commonly used when
welding short runs on most simple connections). Before specifying large
fillet welds, the situation should be checked with the fabricator. Larger
single pass fillet welds can be placed in the flat natural vee position. If more
than a single pass is required, the cost of the weld increases significantly.
Single run continuous fillet welds are usually more economic than
intermittent fillet welds of a larger size.
Select the smallest included angle consistent with achieving the desired
penetration. Better still, specify only, say, complete penetration butt weld
(or specify acceptable alternative details) on the drawing and allow the
fabricator to select the method he can do best and most economically.
(10) Use fillets in preference to butt welds wherever possible.
Butt welds usually involve edge preparation, which adds to costs, and as a
result fillet welds are cheaper than butt welds up to about 16 mm thickness
of connected plates. (Other considerations, such as joints which may be
subjected to fatigue, may dictate the use of a butt weld in preference to a
less costly fillet weld.)
(11) Provide adequate access.
Another way the designer can significantly help productivity is to ensure
adequate access for welding. This is vital as it is essential to ensure always
that the appropriate quality of weld can be made.
71
(e)
Fig 7.7 Use of bending to reduce welding and give clean corners
Always try to aid fabrication by designing to allow the maximum use of jigs
and positioners -- certainly try to make designs so that their use is not
hampered.
72
Fig 7.8 Beam flange with many different plate thicknesses -- avoid
when steel mass saved is less than 100 times mass of weld metal
required
(17) Standardise joint details as much as practicable to reduce variety.
Different sized welds at a joint will require changes in current and electrode
size by the operator. This causes lost time and a drop in the operating
factor. Aim to have the minimum variety of weld sizes and types on a
member or at a joint.
(18) Use sub--assemblies to give:
(a) Easier handling and positioning for downhand welding
(b) Better access for welding
(c) Less site welding and more shop welding (see Fig 7.9).
73
Fitness for purpose should be the guiding rule in specifying weld quality.
Higher quality specified unnecessarily or for its own sake is wasteful and
costly (see Clause 7.4.2).
Specify tolerances to limits consistent with the purpose of the weld.
Adequate tolerances are necessary in order to allow for ease of fit--up.
(22) Avoid, as far as practicable, requiring turning of members to weld
on other side.
Examples are:
(a) Avoid putting stiffeners on both sides of a plate girder web
(b) Truss detailing which requires one side welding only (see Clause
8.4)
(c) Angle seat to column flange connections -- a narrow seat in lieu
of wide seat avoids turning the member (see Fig 7.10).
(a)
(b)
74
Fig 7.11 These joints are difficult to weld and the welds may be of
questionable quality
(24) Consult Economic Design of Weldments (Ref 7.3) for further advice on ways to use welding effectively and economically.
8.
8.1.
It is in the design office that the potential economy of any steel structure is
effectively determined. Judicious decisions on details at this stage can
provide for simple, economic methods to be used at the fabrication stage.
The designer is faced with the problem that a different fabrication and
erection technique could be favoured by each individual fabricator likely to
tender for the project. It is a good idea at the outset for the designer to have
some preliminary discussions with likely fabricators to check on latest
techniques prevailing in the industry. From these discussions the design
and detailing approach for the structure can be carried out with factors
influencing economics firmly in mind.
In the normal course of events a steel structure passes through several
separate stages involving design, detailing, fabrication and erection. With
this in mind, it is important for designers to remember that a minimum of
design detailing by them will assist towards economy, since the shop
detailer is then left free to make the most efficient use of the particular
fabricators capabilities (Ref 2.12). The need for this flexibility is often
overlooked by designers in their anxiety to specify their requirements.
Such things as a fabricators ability to fabricate large sub--assemblies in the
shop and subsequently transport to site and erect them will obviously have
a bearing on the design of connection types and therefore on the economy
of the overall project. In this regard it must be stressed that a maximum of
work done in the shop will almost always produce better quality and more
economical structures.
In the presentation of working drawings therefore, the basic key is
communications which normally take place through a chain as illustrated
in Fig 8.1.
75
8.2.
will allow the welding of both plates to the beam to be done in the downhand
position without the need to turn the member during fabrication.
Beams
8.2.1.
GENERAL
The simplest and therefore the most economic beams in structures will be
of rolled universal sections. Wherever possible, it will almost always prove
more economic in one--off types of steel structures to use a universal
section or welded beam section as a beam, even if a heavier solution
results. The alternative fabrication of a three--plate girder introduces plate
preparation, assembly and welding, the costs of which will generally
exceed the cost of additional material in the rolled universal section or
standard WB section, unless a vast amount of repetition is required.
8.2.2.
PLATED SECTIONS
76
8.2.3.
Holes cut in the webs of beams to provide access for service ducts have
proved to be very costly in the past due to uneconomic detailing. This is due
to the fact that, traditionally, these openings have been compensated for by
the provision of extensive stiffening systems around the openings (see Fig
8.3(a)).
The position of such openings in the beam length obviously has a major
effect on the degree of stiffening required -- openings near the centre of
uniformly loaded beams will require little or no stiffening, while openings
placed near the supports may require stiffening. An early dialogue between
the structural engineer and the building services designer can lead to
ducting being located in a favourable position structurally without detriment
to service requirements.
Plain circular openings as shown in Fig 8.3(d) obviously represent the most
economic solution. These can be cut by automatic means and result in
minimum additional fabrication costs. If additional stiffening is required for
round holes, it is most economic to use a pipe piece, fillet welded to the
beam web (see Fig 8.3(c)).
8.2.4.
CASTELLATED BEAMS
77
Design paramters
Span 7m full restraint, Grade 300 steel
W* = 900 kN
Rolled Section Solution
610UB113, Mass = 113 kg/m
Castellated Beam Solution
800CUB82 cut from 530UB82
Mass = 82 kg/m
8.2.5.
1.00
1.02
1.39
Conclusion
Rolled section is more economic in this solution in this instance, although
using CNC (Computer Numeric Control) Equipment could be just as
economical.
Each individual situation should be readily assessed based on using
updated cost information.
Fig 8.5 Evaluation of economics of castellated beam
The use of castellated beams in steel structures is often seen as a method
of increasing beam strength while using the same mass of material. While
many instances have been reported where savings have been effected, it
78
THREE--PLATE GIRDERS
Where beams are required of greater depth than the largest universal
beam, consideration should be given to three--plate girders or the
standardized range of welded sections. These will most often offer more
economic solutions than trusses for such applications as floor supporting
beams. Three--plate girders are fabricated in modern automatic assembly
and welding machines using the submerged arc welding process.
In designing and detailing three--plate girders the following considerations
are important in achieving economy:
(a) Use flat bar or preferred plate widths and thicknesses for the
flange and web plates
(b) Use edge trimmed plate of preferred width wherever possible for
the web plate to avoid additional cutting in the fabrication shop.
This type of prepared plate can be fillet welded to the flange plate
without further preparation of the edge.
(c) When considering changing the flange width or thickness in order
to reduce mass, take account of the lengths of plate available
and whether continuation of an oversize plate is a more economical solution than introducing butt welded splices in the
UNSTIFFENED WEB
Load bearing stiffeners in both cases 8mm & 12mm webs
Where lengths of girders are such that butt welded splices are necessary,
locate the changes of flange plate size to suit the available lengths of plate.
Load bearing
stiffeners in
both cases
8mm & 12
mm webs
(d) The cost increase for three plate girders with stiffened webs
against unstiffened webs is about 10--25%, depending on the detailing adopted. Consequently, when evaluating whether to use a
stiffened rather than an unstiffened web, the cost saving due to
the reduced mass of the web plate with a stiffened web must exceed this cost differential, for the stiffened web solution to be
economic.
(e) If using a vertically stiffened web, use one sided stiffeners to
avoid having to turn the girder during fabrication (see Fig 8.6).
Terminate intermediate stiffeners by the allowable 4t from the
flange (see AS 4100) -- this avoids cutting stiffeners accurately to
length (see Fig 8.6).
(f)
= 5.5 tonnes
= 1.0
= 5.5
79
Either:
Stiffeners: 90x6 square edge flat bars, both sides, at 1500 mm centres (18
off)
Or:
Stiffeners: 90x6 square edge flat bars, one side, at 1500 mm centres (9 off)
8.3.
8.3.1.
Total Mass
Cost Ratio
= 5.0 tonnes
= 1.25 for two sided (average)
= 1.15 for one sided (average)
Mass x Cost Ratio = 6.3 two sided; 5.7 one sided
The unstiffened web solution is most often the most economic solution but
it is not intended to suggest that this is always so.
Each individual situation can be readily assessed by the above process
using updated values of the cost ratio for the stiffened web solution.
Columns
GENERAL
8.3.2.
80
(d) A pipe sleeve allows easy entry of anchor bolts in a double baseplate
Fig 8.8 Column base plate details (moment resisting or fixed)
Slab base plate (a) is used widely. It calls for a thicker base plate than the
gusseted base plate (c) but requires far less labour for fabrication and
therefore it is more economical. Column flanges can be extended as
shown in (b) to present a larger bearing surface.
Fillet welds should always be preferred for welding the column shaft to the
base plate. Only in very rare instances will complete penetration butt welds
be required -- these should be avoided if possible for maximum economy.
Typical details for pinned base plate connections are shown in Fig 8.9. For
the nominally pinned base, there is no need to provide true pin or rocker
connections as these are unnecessarily expensive to fabricate.
Standardised dimensions for pinned base plates are available in AISC
Standardized Structural Connections (Ref 1).
81
8.3.3.
HOLDING--DOWN BOLTS
82
8.3.4.
COLUMN SPLICES
83
8.3.5.
COLUMN STIFFENERS
DESIGN PROBLEM:
84
COMPARISON OF SOLUTIONS
Solution 2:
Requires 3m x $59 /m = $177
Solution 2 is the more economic
The use of a heavier column with a thicker web and flange may prove more
economic in situations such as that illustrated, especially for short column
lifts. Each individual situation can be readily assessed by the above
process using updated cost information.
Evaluation of economics of the use of column stiffeners at rigid
beam--to--column connection
8.3.6.
BUILT--UP COLUMNS
In box columns the detail at the corner can heavily influence fabrication
costs. Where possible the use of fillet welds will afford the best economy -Fig 8.15 (a) and (b). Where fillet weld sizes required are greater than
12--16mm, partial penetration welds should be considered (Fig 8.15(c)) as
a more economic solution. Complete penetration butt welds at corner joints
will be rarely required and should only be considered in the vicinity of very
heavily loaded rigid beam--to--column connections.
Fig 8.15 Welded corner details for box columns
Splices in box columns can be either welded or bolted, but more often than
not the welded alternative is selected because a bolted splice is only
practicable in large box columns where access can be provided to the
inside of the box. A partial penetration welded box column splice can be
carried out using the detail shown in Fig 8.16 (a). Fig 8.16 (b) shows a
girder connection to box column -- site welded. This connection requires
accurate fabrication in the overall length of the girder and may present
problems if a considerable run of beams in a line are delivered to site with
tolerances in length cumulative. In addition, allowance must be made in
85
column erection for weld shrinkage, since the relatively large weld volume
required in heavy girder flanges will cause significant shrinkage in length.
Columns must be spread by the shrinkage dimension, as shown in Fig 8.17
and for heavy box columns this can lead to erection difficulty.
Fig 8.16(c) shows a girder--to--column connection which avoids the
problems encountered with the direct welded connection shown in Fig
8.16(b). In the case of a girder stub welded to column in the shop, the
control of welding procedures and fabrication tolerances generally will lead
to a more economic weld and better quality assurance. The subsequent
site splicing of the girder to the stub can be either welded or bolted, but the
bolted alternative will normally be less costly. In the case of heavy industrial
structures using grid flooring however, the bolted flange splice will interfere
with this type of flooring, and consideration should be given to welding the
splice for such applications.
Fig 8.16(d) shows a bolted girder--to--box column connection. Where
flexible connections are used, the angle cleat connection provides good
site fit--up. The web cleats are usually loosely shop--bolted to the girder and
allow movement for any out--of--tolerance during erection. For box
columns, provision must be made in this connection for access to the inside
of the column for bolt installation.
86
8.4.
Trusses
Welded trusses have in the past provided very efficient building elements
because of the favourable mass/span ratio possible. Although for many
industrial building applications, such systems as saw--tooth trusses have
been superseded by the portal frame system, there are still many long span
applications where truss portals provide an economic solution (see Clause
4.3).
In general, trusses fabricated by welding should preferably use specially
developed details suitable for economical welded truss fabrication rather
than details borrowed from the days of riveted construction. For too long
the old riveted details have been used on welded trusses, on the basis of
simply replacing rivets by equivalent welding (see Fig 8.18). This leads to
uneconomic fabrication, since it introduces an unnecessary amount of
welding and, most importantly, since it requires the truss to be turned
during fabrication to weld the angles to the gussets on each side.
Several alternative details offer far more economic welded truss
fabrication. Fig 8.19 shows a detail where single angles have been used as
both the truss chords and the web members. This provides for the most
economic truss fabrication since all welding can be done from one side,
thus avoiding turning of the truss during fabrication. Additionally, the
gussets have been eliminated by using a long leg angle as a chord
member. Obviously this detail requires the designer to consider the
eccentricities involved in the design, but it appears in most cases that the
use of slightly heavier angles will cater for these eccentricities.
Alternatively a T--section can be used for truss chord members with single
angle web members welded to the vertical leg of the tee (see Fig 8.20). The
T--sections would usually be split universal beam or column sections -- an
operation that can be economically carried out by most fabricators.
87
cases the detail at the intersection of members can lead to very costly
fabrication and it is suggested that the spreading of intersection points can
provide a better detail where members can be plain mitre cut to length
rather than having double mitre end preparations. The resulting
eccentricity can usually be accommodated by the relatively massive chord
members in such trusses. Fig 8.21 illustrates the use of universal sections
in a welded truss while Fig 8.22 illustrates the use of rectangular hollow
sections. In both cases, detail (b) is preferable to detail (a).
Although trusses are usually considered as roof framing members there
are other areas where they offer economical light framing members.
(a) Coincident intersection points. Double mitred member ends
88
(b) Preferred
0
5
7.5
10
*
89
Recommended Minimum
Dimensions (mm)
b1
X (M20 and M24 bolts only)
for Air
for Hand
Wrench*
Wrench
60
60
60
60
100
60
60
100
60
60
100
60
The use of a universal joint does offer some possibility of reducing this
dimension, and while this may be seen as an advantage from a design
point of view, it should be noted that an impact wrench with a universal joint
and socket is generally difficult to handle for an operator some height from
ground level and sitting on only the width of the beam flange. In addition,
the use of a universal joint reduces the efficiency of the impact wrench and
this can be a problem in tensioning M24 bolts or larger, especially if located
some distance from the source of the compressed air supply.
8.5.
Portal Frames
8.5.1.
CONNECTIONS
In the design of the end plates, designers can approach the proportioning
of the end plate to resist the bending moment developed due to the
behaviour of the plate under loading in two ways; viz:
(a) Use a thick unstiffened end plate
(b) Use a thin stiffened end plate.
Fig 8.24(a) shows an excessively stiffened thin end plate which would be
an extremely expensive detail compared to the thicker end plate detail of
Fig 8.24 (b). For this reason, (b) is much preferred. Another problem with
90
8.5.2.
In order to ensure that the columns of a portal frame will be within the basic
erection tolerances in the final erected position, it is necessary to provide a
pre--set of the frame during fabrication.
This is done by determining the deflection at the frame ridge under dead
loads and calculating the resultant horizontal deflection at the knee joints.
This latter dimension is then used in the set--out for fabrication to pre--set
the geometry of the frame -- see Fig 8.28.
Fig 8.26 Termination of haunch
NOTES:
1. Place girts and purlins to most effectively shed water and debris
with due consideration to ease of erection.
2. Ensure adequate clearance to avoid interference with cleat welding.
3. Design cleats to accommodate standard punching -- refer to
manufacturers brochures.
4. Ensure adequate capacity in top girt to carry load from sag rods.
Fig 8.27 Attachment of purlins and girts
91
8.6.
Connection Detailing
8.6.1.
GENERAL
On both grounds the logical choice is Fig 8.34, web side plate (WP), for
every connection to the box columns.
By the rule of symmetry (Clause 4.4.4.) use the WP connection at the other
end of the beams in question, B1, B4, B8 and B9. By the rule of
standardization use the WP connection on both ends of the other
longitudinal beams B7 and B10, checking that there will be adequate
clearance at those ends of B7, B8, B9 and B10 which frame into the webs of
the l--section columns. Standardise further by using the WP connection
also at both ends of B3 and at the column end of B6 (see Summary below).
For the connections selected so far, the beams require only to be cut to
length and drilled. Therefore the connections for the transverse members
framing into them should be chosen so that the beams require only further
drilling (as in Fig 8.29 upper).
Choosing Fig 8.33, angle cleat (AC) will achieve this aim. Another option is
Fig 8.32, flexible end plate.
92
The columns themselves require welded fitments only. Beams B1, B3, B4,
B7, B8, B9 and B10 require only cutting to length and drilling. Beams B2,
B5, and B6 again require only cutting to length and drilling (assuming the
AC connection).
All beams have the same type of connection at each end except B6 where it
is necessary to make a minor compromise of WP at one end and AC at the
other.
8.6.2.
SPECIFIC CONNECTIONS
93
8.33
8.34
8.35
8.36
8.37
8.38
8.39
8.40
8.41
8.42
94
Cleat holes must allow for variations in beam depth due to standard rolling tolerances and also provide for erection tolerances. Standard holes (2
mm larger than nominal bolt diameter) are usually sufficient.
Check that cleat components will fit between column flanges for connections to column webs.
The use of this connection for two sided beam--to--beam connections should be considered carefully. Installation of bolts in the outstanding legs of
the angle cleats can cause difficulties in this case. When unequal sized beams are used, special coping of the bottom flange of the smaller beam
may be required to prevent fouling the bolts.
For double angle cleats, the nominal gauge required in the supporting member is (2 g3 + t). Standard gauges can hence accommodate only
certain web thicknesses (t) of the supporting member when using normal holes (2 mm clearance). Drifting widens the range of web thicknesses
that can be accommodated, but may result in some distortion of the cleat. Alternatively, a special gauge may be used in the supporting member.
In order to obviate both drifting or the use of a special gauge, custom detailed horizontal slotted holes may be used in the outstanding leg of the
angle cleat component. Alternatively, oversize (4 mm larger than nominal bolt diameter) holes could be used, but this may complicate levelling the
supported member during erection.
Observe recommendations on economical aspects of the use of bolting (Section 6).
Fig 8.33 Angle cleat connection
95
Bolt holes must allow for variations in beam depth due to standard
rolling tolerances and also provide for erection tolerances. Standard
holes (2 mm larger than nominal bolt dia.) are usually sufficient.
In connections to column webs, a check must be made on the length
of bolt to ensure sufficient clearance is available between the side
plate and the inside of the column flange to permit the bolt to be
installed.
Erection clearances must be especially considered for this detail
because of the necessity to angle beams into place during erection.
This consideration is most important for the case of a series of
beams in the one row, all connected between the same main
supporting members.
Observe recommendations on economical aspects of the use of
bolting (Section 6) and welding (Section 7).
96
(a) Stub Girder Connection, Fully shop welded beam stub, spliced on site.
(c) Field Welded Moment Connection -- using fillet welded web cleat(s)
The economics of field welding should be checked with the fabricator before it is specified.
Flange weld preparation assumes the use of a backing strip -- which
requires coping of the beam web.
Details (b) and (c) are not considered as economical in Australia.
Observe recommendations on economical aspects of welding (Section 7).
Site welding should be kept to a minimum, and should be used in an integrated manner.
97
Holes are normally 2 mm larger than the nominal bolt diameter, although oversize or slotted holes may be used.
Fillet welds or butt welds may be used as the beam flange to end plate weld. A discussion of the use of fillet welds larger than 8 mm as related to
available welding processes is contained in Section 7.
Fillet welds only are recommended for the beam web to end plate weld.
Fabrication of this type of connection requires close control in cutting the beam to length and adequate consideration must be given to squaring
the beam ends such that end plates at each end are parallel and the effect of any beam camber does not result in out--of--square end plates
which makes erection and field fit--up difficult. Shims may be required to compensate for mill and shop tolerances.
Select a gauge for the end plate bolts which allows sufficient clearance to install the bolts.
Bolts adjacent to the tension flange should be as close as possible to the flange. Dimensions must be sufficient to ensure that bolts can be
installed and tensioned -- sufficient clearance must be provided, see Table 8.1.
Stiffeners on the end plate should be avoided -- a thicker end plate is recommended instead.
Observe the recommendations on economical aspects of the use of bolting (Section 6).
98
99
Where flange splice plates are used, assemble joints with nuts to
outside of splice plate as in (a). This arrangement is recommended
for ease of tensioning, since in universal sections sufficient
clearance is not always available between flanges for a standard air
wrench.
Members can be prepared for bearing satisfactorily and
economically by cold sawing.
The cap plate detail of (d) is usually reserved for column splices
between members with significant differences in member depth.
100
NOTES:
1. The use of column stiffeners should be kept to a minimum for
maximum economy, commensurate with design requirements.
101
(a) Bracing gussets should be detailed as rectangular shapes to reduce marking--off and cutting time.
(b) In braced frames it will generally prove more economic to weld
bracing gussets to columns rather than to beams. The eccentricity caused by spreading intersection points can usually be easily
accommodated by the column section.
(c) For roof bracing, the most economic solution will be to weld gussets to the rafter top flange. Where this cannot be done, the gusset can be welded to the rafter web but sufficient clearance must
be provided for welding electrode access.
Fig 8.41 Bracing connections
102
(b) The older method employed for this connection is that of leaving
a cored hole in the wall of the slip--formed core. Originally it was
thought necessary to embed a steel seating in this opening in
which to bolt the bottom flange of the beam. This is not now recommended since the accurate positioning of this cored hole, including an embedded seating, is almost impossible to achieve on
site. It is now considered better to leave a simple cored opening
in the wall, pack the beam to level alignment during the erection
phase, and fully grout up the remaining opening.
From an economy viewpoint the alternative (b) should normally be better.
However, in the overall building design it is suggested that designers
consult with the slip--core contractor to check the more economical
method. It is possible that in some cases a large number of cored openings,
with resultant complication of reinforcement pattern, would be more
expensive than the embedded plate shown in alternative (a).
Fig 8.42 Connections to concrete cores
9.
COMPLEMENTARY REFERENCES:
8.
1.
9.
2.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
4.
15.
5.
16.
6.
17.
18.
103
21.
22.
32.
33.
34.
35.
Section 6. BOLTING
36.
37.
23.
24.
25.
38.
26.
39.
Section 7. WELDING
40.
28.
41.
29.
42.
30.
31.
43.
104
10. Standards
This list does not purport to be exhaustive, but covers most of the standards
currently in print that are likely to concern the structural steel fabrication
industry.
MATERIALS
Steel
AS 1275
AS 1559
Electrodes
AS 1167.2 Welding and Brazing -- Filler Metals, Part 2: Filler Metal for
Welding.
AS 1163
AS 1553
AS 1450
AS 1858
AS 1594
AS 3597
AS 3678
AS 1538
Bolts
AS 1554
AS 1110
AS 1111
AS 1112
AS 1214
AS 1237
AS 1252
105
Fixed Platforms, Walkways, Stairways and Ladders -Design, Construction and Installation.
AS 1796
AS 2214
AS 4100
Steel Structures.
AS 1710
AS 1929
AS 2177
AS 2205
AS 2207
SURFACE TREATMENT
AS 1627
AS 1650
AS 2311
AS 2312
106