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Heat Load - Natural Vent PDF
Heat Load - Natural Vent PDF
ABSTRACT
Industrial plants use electrical power equipment to
distributepower for lighting, driving motorized devices, operating HVAC equipment, and control of equipment. The main
focus of this paper is to provide updated information on heat
losses by various types of electricpower equipment. The information is organized by equipment type, andpracticalguidance
on using this information to compute losses under dzfferent
conditions is provided. The effect of loading margin used by
designers in sizing the electric equipment, load diversity, and
ambient temperature on heat loss is discussed. Uncertainties
in the resultsfor different pieces of equipment are presented.
Also, a comparison of the results to the previouslypublished
information is provided,
INTRODUCTION
Engineers wanting to estimate heat loss to the surrounding environment from electrical power and control equipment
in industrial plants and large buildings need updated information. This paper provides updated heat loss information on
medium-voltage (5 to 15 kV) and low-voltage (below 5 kV)
power devices for HVAC load calculations. The equipment
covered includes both power and lighting transformers,
medium-voltage switchgear, electric cables and cable trays,
motor control centers and combination motor starters, inverters, battery chargers, low-voltage circuit breakers, electric
motors, unit substations, series reactors, and adjustable-speed
or variable-frequency drives (ASD or VFD). The first part of
this paper describes the types and varieties of information
sources for equipment heat loss, how tests were conducted,
and the uncertainties associated with the gathered data. The
second part of this paper reports the study results.
-
Chris Cruz
Warren N. White is an associate professor and Chris Cruz is a graduate student in the Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering Department, and
Anil Pahwa is a professor in the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kans.
02004 ASHRAE.
Average Full
Load Losses
100% Margin
Total Losses
80% Margin
Total Losses
50% Margin
Total Losses
(w)
(w)
(w)
(w)
(w)
330
277
607
507
399
25
530
502
1032
851
656
480D-208Y
30
415
616.5
1032
810
569
80
480D-208Y
37.5
530
671
1201
959
698
80
480D-208Y
45
487.5
963.5
1451
1104
728
80
480D-208Y
50
700
1371
2071
1577
1043
80
48OD-208Y
75
725
1969.5
2695
1985
1217
80
480D-208Y
1 12.5
700
2230
2930
2127
1258
80
480D-208Y
150
1075
2136
3211
2442
1609
80
480D-208Y
225
1450
2820.5
4271
3255
2155
80
480D-208Y
300
1650
3279
4929
3749
2470
80
480D-208Y
500
2900
4857
7757
6008
41 14
80
480D-208Y
750
3640
8572
12212
9126
5783
80
15kD-480Y
500
2400
5000
7400
5600
3650
80
15kD-480Y
750
2800
9000
11800
8560
5050
80
15kD-480Y
1000
3500
9600
13100
9644
5900
80
15kD-480Y
1500
5000
11600
16600
12424
7900
80
15kD-480Y
2000
6500
15500
22000
16420
10375
80
15kD-480Y
2500
7200
18500
25700
19040
11 825
Temperature
Rise ( O C )
Rated Voltage
0')
Kilo-VoltAmps
80
480D-208Y
15
80
480D-208Y
80
RESULTS
Transformers
(1)
where
LF = the load fraction, i.e., the fraction of full-load current
(between zero and one).
Transformer losses are not a strong function of environmental temperature; thus, the full-load and no-load losses can
be considered as constant regardless of the ambient tenperature.
Those power and lighting transformers (and larger units)
built and tested in accordance with the NEMA TP1 Standard
(NEMA 1996) have maximum efficiencies that either exceed
or meet those efficiencies shown in Table 3 at a given percentASHRAE Transactions: Symposia
age of load. For low-voltage units (600, 208, 120 volts), the
given load percentage for peak efficiency is 35%, while for
medium-voltage units, the load value for peak efficiency is
50%. The efficiencies of these dry-type units are referred to an
average winding rise temperature of 7SC, while the liquid
immersed efficiencies are referred to an average winding
temperature rise of 85C. Losses vary linearly with winding
temperature. Referring the efficiencies to a particular winding
temperature allows comparison between units. The temperature to which the losses are referred is listed at the top of Table
3.
Given the full capability of the unit in kVA, the full-load
losses for the NEMA TP1 units are approximately
pf x kVA x 1000(1-
wn+,
&)
watts ,
(2)
where
pf
LF
power factor,
load fraction for peak efficiency (0.35 or 0.5), and
Table 2.
Rated Voltage
Total Losses
Total Losses
2936
1610
Substation
15kD-480Y
225
760
Table 3.
3400
4160
Kilo-Volt-Amps
Efficiency %
Dry Type, Low Voltage, 7SC
15
97
The power factor in Equation 2 depends upon the electrical load, e.g., 0.8 for motor loads or 1.0 for resistive loads.
Efficiency %
Dry Type, Medium Voltage,
96.8
98.0
require any temperature correction. The temperature correction consists of multiplying the load losses by the factor of
- (LF)
kVA
100
IOOO(LF)(- - 1)
1
(3)
(load 1osses)watts .
( TK TREF)
+
where
TK
Table 4.
Class (OC) Average Winding Temperature Rise (OC) TREF- Standard Reference Temperature (OC)
130
75
no load losses
(5)
95
5 kV breaker loss
= 4160
(9)
(10)
where
pf
where
TI
LFL
T2
where
LF = load fraction corresponding to expected peak load of
the unit (usually LFH).
The power loss, taking into account margin information, is
Power loss with margin = no load loss
+ load loss x ( ~ / 1 0 0 ), ~
(8)
where
M = the margin.
The value of M is either 100% for full loading, 80% for
expected (recommended) loading applications, or 50% for
critical applications. Transformer literature states that power
losses are only weakly influenced by the ambient temperature.
The loss information presented came from manufacturers that
followed relevant IEEE standards for measuring and reporting
transformer losses. As a result, the uncertainty of the loss
values reported by these manufacturers is +lo% or less.
ASHRAE Transactions: Symposia
where
(12)
LOAD CURRENT
I
TOTAl.WATl'Srl
Welt lossfur
ilemr a p p a a in
(his column
I
ITEM
856
The bulk ofcable losses are the resistive losses in the main
conductors. Thus, if the number of cables and their physical
arrangement in the trays are known, total losses per foot at the
room temperature of that specific cable tray can be computed.
There are many combinations of loading, size, and packing of
the cables in a tray. However, normal industry practice and the
following simplifying assumptions make it possible to
compute losses. Specific factors considered are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The inclusion of diversity in the loss predictions is accomplished by multiplying the rated current by the diversity factor,
representing the fraction of the time the rated current is flowing through the cable. An ambient temperature of 32C
increased the losses by an average of 2.3% in comparison to
the losses at 26C. The differences in cables of different type
but of the same size are mainly due to insulation thickness,
presence of shield, and other construction-related details.
Calculations performed to take these factors into effect
showed that they do not have a significant impact on results.
Overall changes in losses due to these variations are less than
10%.
Motor Control Centers
(13)
KSU
Rubin
KSU
Rubin
KSU
Rubin
600 V (Wlft)
600 V (Wlft)
5 kV (Wlft)
5 kV (Wlft)
15 kV (Wlft)
15 kV (Wlft)
10
12
23
23
26
26
18
36
35
12
39
11
42
24
47
47
16
53
15
55
30
61
58
22
65
19
68
857
Table 6.
KSU
I
M&H
KSU
M&H
KSU
M&H
Cable Size
600 V (Wlft)
600 V (Wlft)
5 kV (Wlft)
5 kV (Wlft)
15 kV (Wlft)
15 kV (Wlft)
# 8 AWG
1.49
1.63
# 6 AWG
1.73
1.90
4 AWG
1.69
1.93
# 2 AWG
2.02
2.28
2.38
2.64
2.68
2.83
350 kcmil
750 kcmil
cabinets. In each cabinet, asecondarybus carries current vertically to the various starters. Each cabinet is 20 in. wide and 72
in. high. These lengths are typical dimensions for motor
control centers. In the example, the breaker is on the left. The
horizontal bus in the cabinet immediately to the right of the
breaker cabinet carries the entire current needed for all of the
cabinets containing the motor starters. The horizontal bus in
the center cabinet carries the current for the three cabinets on
the right. It is seen that the current distributes itself among the
cabinets as airflow would in a manifold. The current in the
vertical bus also distributes itself among the compartments as
air in a manifold. This distribution of the current is used in the
example. Figure 2 shows each motor starter in the motor
control center along with the size of the starter, the motor
horsepower, the motor efficiency, the power factor of the load,
and the diversity factor. The arrangement of the motor control
center is a given fact for any application. The motor horsepower, efficiency, and power factor together with the starter
size are also given information. The diversity factor is a value
that must be determined for the application. The diversity
factor, cif; is the fraction that provides the RMS compartment
current over a 24-hour period when multiplied by the compartment current (defined in Equation 11 and Equation 12).
Figure 3 shows the loss calculation. The calculation is
organized according to cabinets. The "first cabinet" is the one
on the far right in Figure 2. The cabinets are numbered in this
example from right to left. The compartments in each cabinet
are listed in order from top to bottom. Each row of the spread-
kW * 1000
amp
line voltage * & * pf
diversity factor.
As one steps upward through the compartments of a cabinet, it is seen that the riser current increases. The vertical bus
loss in the riser for each compartment is determined by
bus loss = (riser current /rated bus ~ u r r e n t ) ~
x rated bus loss per standard length x compartment height,
(17)
where
rated bus current
800 Anp
Blak
Circuit
Breaker
Blank
N W 1
5hp
y85%
pH9
dH.8
Blank
NEMb.3
45 hp
m h
pH.9
m.8
NEMA3
40hP
f l h
NEMA5
2Ki hp
m h
pm.9
W.8
N W 5
150 hp
y85%
pm.9
w.8
pm.9
e
l
NFM1
4hp
W h
pm.9
df-1.0
W
2
20 143
q=%?h
pf4.9
&lo
NEMA 1
3hp
@So/,
pm.9
df-1.0
NEM42
15 1p
m h
pW.9
W . 8
NEMA3
35 hp
1@5%
pm.9
df-1.0
Blank
NEMA4
75 hp
q=w?/o
pm.9
dH.8
NEM.44
mhp
m h
pm.9
m.8
Note that the rated bus loss per standard length is listed in
Figure 3. As an example, consider the losses in the vertical bus
of the 35 hp starter in the second cabinet. The losses are
(107.481300)~x (50 watts16 ft) x 2 ft = 2.14 watts.
In calculating the starter loss, the diversity factor is
applied to the current but not to the relay losses since the relay
losses are present regardless of whether the motor is running
or not. The starter loss would then be the relay loss plus R* (I*
dn2, where R is the resistance of the starter circuit, I is the
starter current in amps, anddf is the starter diversity factor. For
the 80 hp starter in the first cabinet, the losses are 18.8 watts
+ 0.001488fl x (0.8 x 88.59 amps)' = 26.27 watts. For convenience, the resistance value and height of each NEMA combination motor starter are also shown in Figure 3.
To determine the losses in the cabinet, the riser and starter
losses of each compartment are summed. The total current for
the cabinet is also determined. In order to determine the horizontal bus losses, the cabinets and cabinet currents are listed
according to cabinet number. The horizontal bus current in the
cabinet is calculated using the relation,
horizontal bus current of cabinet = cabinet riser current +
horizontal bus current of previous cabinet.
(18)
ASHRAE Transactions: Symposia
As one steps through the cabinets, it is seen that the horizontal bus current increases. Once the bus currents are determined, the losses are determined by the relation,
Bus loss = (bus current /rated bus currentl2
x rated bus loss per 20" cabinet width.
(19)
For instance, the horizontal bus loss of the first cabinet will be
(87.67 amps 1800 amps12 x 40 watts = 0.48 watts.
All of the current flowing in the horizontal bus must also
flow through the breaker. The breaker power loss is estimated
and entered into the spreadsheet. The calculation of the lowvoltage breaker loss is presented in another section. The individual losses are totaled to provide the power loss of the motor
control center.
Sometimes the breaker might be placed in the middle of
a set of cabinets. This avoids excessive horizontal bus currents
and the corresponding losses. If this is the case, the losses of
the cabinets on either side of the breaker can be determined
separately and then added together. Adding the horizontal bus
currents from each side together determines the breaker
current.
~ heating,
Since the starter losses are based on 1 2ohmic
the means by which diversity is included is the same as the
calculation of the RMS average current shown in Equation 10
for medium voltage switchgear.
The design margin for motor control centers is 80% in
commercial applications, 100% in full-load applications, and
50% in critical application. However, since the loading of a
given starter may not be indicative of the entire motor control
center, the margin number should be used for motor control
center bus work and breakers. No margin should be applied to
the starter itself provided that a margin figure was used in
determining the starter load. In the motor control example just
presented, no margin information was applied to the starters
since the starter loading was known. A margin of 80% was
applied to the bus work and breaker in the example. Tests on
NEMA size 1, 2, and 3 starters demonstrated that ambient
temperature does not have a significant influence on heat
losses. Loss expressions for the NEMA 1, 2, and 3 starters
were derived from tests having an uncertainty of less than
10%.
Inverters
SSOl
ssol
sduly
S n a le)UOZ!lOH a s e v d E
SZSPOO'O
PSLPEO'O
S'9
s ~ q o
sJJeM
'U
aoue)slsaHssol A e l a ~ ) q 8 ! a ~
S VW3N
t VW3N
E VW3N
Z VW3N
C VW3N
=.
v,
..
(I)
LT
(I)
Table 7.
DC Bus Volts
23270
50
6818
130
88
50
260
88
23270
6818
60
130
84
31214
9146
75
260
86
33346
9770
100
260
87
Three Phase
kVA
DC Bus Volts
Efficiency
40815
11959
-
Margin
100%
50%
Load Loss
(w)
(w)
10
130
80
6850
2007
1004
15
130
81
9600
2813
1406
20
130
82
12000
3516
1758
30
130
82
17985
5270
2635
40
130
83
22375
6556
3278
50
130
84
26010
762 1
3810
60
130
85
28920
8473
4237
75
260
87
30600
8966
4483
100
260
87
40800
11954
5977
Battery Chargers
The margin for battery chargers in commercial applications is 100% and 50% in critical application. Thus, in
commercial application the loss figure obtained from Table 8
would not require any modification. If the load on the charger
can be estimated, then a smaller loss figure than the one
provided by the table could be used in the HVAC heat load
calculation. The effect of environmental temperature is
unknown due to data coming solely from manufacturers and
no testing being performed. Table 8 is representative ofbattery
charger losses. There are many combinations of input and
output voltage; Table 8 is a small sample of the data available.
The battery charger loss presented in Table 8 was computed by
*3
(20)
where
Q
QFL
Watts loss
VB x (1 - q1100) ,
(22)
862
= IBC x
where
IBC = Output culTent,
VB = output voltage, and
q
= battery charger efficiency, %.
(21)
Output (DC)
Efficiency
YO
Power Loss
(KSU)
Power Loss
(Rubin)
Volts
Amps
Volts
Amps
Watts
Watts
208
19.5
24
200
88
576
720
208
29.3
24
300
88
864
1080
208
39.1
24
400
88
1152
1440
240
16.9
24
200
88
576
720
240
25.4
24
300
88
8 64
1080
240
33.9
24
400
88
1152
480
8.5
24
200
88
576
480
12.7
24
300
88
864
1080
480
16.9
24
400
88
1152
1440
208
39.1
48
200
88
1152
1440
1728
2304
2880
208
78.1
48
400
88
240
33.9
48
200
88
1152
1440
240
50.8
48
300
88
1728
2160
240
67.7
48
400
88
2304
2880
480
16.9
48
200
88
1152
1440
480
25.4
48
300
88
1728
2160
480
33.9
48
400
88
2304
2880
Table 9.
wlo Enclosure
Watts Loss-
225
60.0
250
7 1.1
Resistance-
Resistance-
90.0
0.001 1852
0.00 17778
73.6
0.001 1376
0.001 1776
p
p
p
400
147
220.5
0.00091 88
0.0013781
600
215
322.5
0.0005972
0.0008958
800
330
440
0.0005 156
0.0006875
1200
865
1080
0.0006007
0.00075
1600
1000
1500
0.0003906
0.0005859
2000
1500
2250
0.000375
0.0005625
3000
2250
3375
0.00025
p
p
3200
2400
3600
0.0002344
0.00035 16
4000
3000
4500
0.0001875
0.0002813
5000
4700
7050
0.0001 88
0.000282
Watts loss = I2 x R
(25)
(24)
where .
I = trip rating in amps and
R = resistance for the frame in ohms.
The inclusion of load diversity is accomplished by
(23)
Motors
All manufacturer data for motors were in the form of e f i ciencies. Efficiency values were collected for polyphase
elec~.
tric motors for horsepower ratings from 10 to 2000 hp. The
data were collected for a large number of motor frames. In this
document, all of the efficiencies for different motors of the
same horsepower rating were averaged to get one efficiency
-
863
-600
- - . - -225
. Amp Frame - Rubin
500
400 -
100
200
300
400
500
600
(26)
where
Hp = delivered power, and
q = motor efficiency, %.
Equation 26 was used along with the average efficiency to
compare data to McDonald and Hickok (1985).
Rubin (1979) used a slightly different equation and
assumed all motors were 90% efficient. Rubin's loss equation
is
Watts Loss
= hp
x 746 x (1 - q/lOO).
(27)
= hp
x 745.7 x (100/q) .
(28)
thus, the conductor resistivity, significantly. Thus, the influence of environmental temperature on the motor losses is
small. According to the pertinent IEEE standards (IEEE 1995,
1996), the instruments used in determining the efficiency of a
motor must have an uncertainty of f0.2% of full scale or less.
The standards describe many different ways of determining
the motor efficiency, each of which having its own particular
uncertainty. The efficiency averages are determined by averaging the nominal efficiencies from several different manufacturers. The nominal efficiency represents the mean of a
collection of identical motors (same frame and horsepower).
This efficiency information is representative of the expected
values. Efficiency values may change from manufacturer to
manufacturer. Figure 5 compares heat loss data for motors
ranging from 10 to 2000 horsepower.
Unit Substations
-Heat
- - - -Heat
. Loss (Watts) Rubin
160000
140000
.-.
..=--
120000 -
$ 1 ooooo
.'
1
i.2:
T
.-.-.
---.
-.-.-.
-.
200
400
.'
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
Motor Ratlng HP
(30)
where
rated T ~ ,= rated winding temperature rise (usually 115"C),
and
= 234.SC for copper windings and 225C for
Tk
aluminium.
The loss value used in Equation 30 is obtained from Table
10 under the 100%margin heading for the corresponding rated
current value and the appropriate voltage and impedance
column. Diversity is accounted for by using the RMS reactor
current obtained over a standard work period, e.g., day or
week, in the loss calculations. If TI is the time the reactor is in
use with current I, and T2 is the time that the reactor is not
being used in the work period, then the RMS reactor current is
Reactors
instruments
800 amp
breaker
350 amp
Instr.
Instruments
800 amp
breaker
350 amp
Instruments
4000 amp
Main
800 amp
breaker
300 amp
Instr.
Fut ure
800 amp
breaker
300 amp
4000 amp
Main
800 amp
breaker
300 amp
Future
800 amp
breaker
300 amp
800 amp
m e r
350 amp
Future
2300 amp
1600 amp
feeder
1oooamP
Figure 7
2300 amp
800 amp
breaker
350 amp
1600 amp
feeder
OoO aV
Table 10.
867
-600 Volt - K
Volt - K U
- - - 460
McDolald &%ickok
U
~ U
/
/
---
--#-
--
1-
-.
/
/
/
/
/
/
I._.--'
/
/
/
/
/
._.--
..-_.-_-.-.
..-a-
Horsepower
where
Adjustable-Speed Drives
power loss,
hp
actual horsepower,
= Prated
where
Profed= full-load power loss at rated current and
horsepower, and
hprakd = rated horsepower of ASD.
Equations 33 through 34 are curve fits of manufacturer
data. These curve fits are valid for the horsepower range of 25
to 800 horsepower. If the current (horsepower) does not corre868
('/'rated
(36)
I
= actual current, and
Irofed
= rated current.
In a given application, it is very likely that an ASD might
only be used for a fraction of a standard workday or workweek. The losses adjusted for diversity would be
= 'rated
460 V: Prated
= hpratedx 13.45435 + 363.7949 watts, (34)
and
(h~/h~rafed)
=
(h~/h~rated)
F~~~ = Prated
(Ilzrated) F
~
(37)
where
FAsD
Hickok, H.N. 1978. Energy losses in electrical power systems. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications
14(5): 373-387.
McDonald, W.J., and H.N. Hickok. 1985. Energy losses in
electrical power systems. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications IA-2 l(4): 803-8 19.
Rubin, I.M. 1979. Heat losses from electrical equipment in
generating stations. IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems PAS-98(4): 1149-1 152.
IEEE. 1996. IEEE Standard 112-1996, Test Procedure for
Polyphase Indzlction Motors and Generators. New
York: IEEE Press.
IEEE. 1996. IEEE Standard 115-1995, Guide: Test Procedures for Synchronous Machines. New York: IEEE
Press.
NEMA. 1996. NEMA TPI, Guide for Determining Energy
Eficiency for Distribution Transformers. Virginia:
National Electrical Manufacturers Association.
DISCUSSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
(100 / eff - 1)
output current
(22)
output voltage
= battery charger efficiency - %.
Since IBC is the output current and V, is the output voltage, the product ofthe two quantities is the outputpower. If the
percent efficiency, q, is replaced by the symbol eff, then Equation 22 can be written as
V,
effI100)