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Quantum Theory of Radiation
Quantum Theory of Radiation
Introduction:
Our discussion of Einsteins theory of relativity took us into a world far beyond that of ordinary experience the world of objects moving at speeds close to the speed of light.
Now you are about to explore a second world that is outside ordinary experience- the subatomic world. You
will encounter a new set of surprise that, though may sometime seem bizarre, have led physicists step by
step to a deeper view of reality.
Thermal radiation:
An object and its environment can exchange energy as heat via electromagnetic waves. Energy transferred
in this way is often called thermal radiation to distinguish it from electromagnetic signals and from nuclear
radiation. When an object is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings, it emits and absorbs energy at the
same rate. The rate at which an object radiates energy is proportional to the surface area of the object and to
the fourth power of its absolute temperature. This result found empirically by Josef Stefan in 1879 and
derived theoretically by Ludwig Boltzmann about five years later, is called the Stefan-Boltzmann law:
Prad AT 4 ,
[1]
where
4 , [ 2]
Pabs Tenv
where Tenv is the temperature of the surroundings (in Kelvins).
If an object emits more radiation that it absorbs, it cools while the surroundings absorb radiation from the
object and warm. It the object absorbs more than it emits, the object warms and the surroundings cool. The
net power radiated by and object at temperature T in an environment at temperature T env is
4
Pnet Pabs Prad [Tenv
T 4 ],
[3]
Pnet is positive if net energy is being absorbed via radiation, and negative if it is being lost via radiation.
When an object is in thermal equilibrium with its surroundings,
radiation at the same rate.
Blackbody radiation:
As discussed earlier, an object that absorbs all the radiation incident upon it has an emissivity equal to 1 and
is called a blackbody. The concept of a blackbody is important because the characteristics of the radiation
emitted by such an ideal object can be calculated theoretically. Materials such as black velvet come close to
being ideal blackbodies. The best practical approximation of an ideal black body is a small hole leading to a
cavity, such as a keyhole in a closed door (Fig.1).
Radiation incident on the hole has little chance of being reflected back out of the hole before it is absorbed
by the walls of the cavity. The radiation emitted through the hole is thus characteristic of the temperature of
the object.
max
2.898 mm. K
,
T
[ 4]
The law is used to determine the temperatures of stars from analyses of their radiation. It can also be used to
map the variation in temperature over different regions of the surfaces of an object. Such a map is called a
thermograph. Thermographs can be used to detect cancer because cancerous materials are at a slightly
higher temperature than the surrounding tissue. Eq. [4] can also be written as
maxT 2.898x10 3 m. K
It may be noted that the term displacement in Weins
displacement law refers to the way the peak is moved or
displaced as the temperature is varied.
The spectral distribution curves shown in Fig.2 played an
important role in the history of physics. It was the
discrepancy between theoretical calculations of what the
black body spectral distribution should be using classical
thermodynamics and the experimental measurements
that led to Max Plancks first ideas about the quantization
of energy in 1897.
Figure 2: Radiated power versus wavelength
for radiation emitted by a black body.
Example 1:
(a) The surface temperature of the sun is about 6000 K. If the sun is assumed to be a blackbody
radiator, at what wavelength max would its spectrum peak?
(b) Calculate max for a blackbody al room temperature T= 300 K.
Solution:
(a) We can find max from Weins displacement law as:
max
(b)
max
2.898 x10 3 m. K
483x10 9 m 483 nm
6000K
2.898 x10 3 m. K
9.66 x10 6 m 9660 nm
300 K
So, we see that the peak wavelength from the sun is in the visible spectrum. The blackbody radiation
spectrum describes the suns radiation fairly well.
For T= 300 K, the blackbody spectrum peaks in the infrared wave length, much longer than the wavelengths
visible to the eye. Surfaces that are not black to our eyes may act as blackbodies for infrared radiation and
absorption. Skin of human beings of all races is black to infrared radiations hence the emissivity of skin is
1.00 for its own radiation process.
Example 2:
Calculate the net loss in radiated energy for a naked person in a room at 20 0 C assuming the person to be a
blackbody with a surface area of 1.4 m 2 and a surface temperature of 33 0 C(=306 K). (The surface
temperature of human body is slightly less than the internal temperature of 37 0 C because of the thermal
resistance of the skin.
Solution:
4
Pnet A [T 4 Tenv
]
The number of standing waves with wavelengths between and +d turned out to be
N ( )d
8V
d,
[5]
u()=
8
KT ,
4
[ 6]
The radiancy is related to the energy density (energy per unit volume) u() at the wavelength according to
R ( )
c
u( ),
4
[7]
This result follows from the classical electromagnetism by calculating the amount of radiation passing
through an element of surface area within the cavity.
Finally from Eq. [7], we get
Radiancy= R ( )
c
KT [ ],
4
[8]
Fig. 4: The failure of the classical RaleighJeans formula to fit the observed radiancy. At
long wavelengths the theory approaches the
data, but at short wavelengths the classical
formula fails miserably.
n 1,2,3,.......
where n is the number of quanta. Furthermore, the energy of each of the quanta is determined by the
frequency
h
where h is the constant of proportionality now known as Plancks constant.
So, the main points that establish Plancks radiation law can be summarized as:
(1) An oscillator absorbs energy from the radiation field and delivers it back to the field in quanta
of 0, , 2 , 3 ,.etc. where is the quanta of energy propositional to frequency of the
oscillator.
(2) An oscillator cannot have arbitrary energy but must occupy one of a discrete energy sets
given by nh , where n is an integer.
(3) The number of oscillators emitting particular energy is given by statistical distribution law of
Boltzmann, which is
Nr N0e
kT , [9]
If N is the total number of Planck oscillators and E is the total energy, then the energy per oscillator is given
by
E
,
N
[10]
Let N0, N1, N2, Nr,..etc. be the number of oscillators having energies 0, , 2,
..r,..etc respectively. Then
N0
,
kT
1 e
[11]
where
x kT
y e x
and
2
r
kT .......... ............ r N e kT ............
N0e kT 2 N0e
0
kT
kT
N
e
N
e
0
0
N0e kT [1 z ] 2
, [12]
[1 z ]2
[1 e kT ]2
N 0e
kT [1 2z 3z 2
Using [11] & [12] in [10], we can find the following expression for the average energy of an oscillator
e kT 1
h
, [13]
h
e kT 1
The number of oscillator per unit volume in the frequency range and +d can be shown to be given by
dN
8 2d
c3
[14]
When the average energy of the oscillator is multiplied by the number of oscillators per unit volume in the
frequency range and +d, then we obtain the energy density E d belonging to the range d.
Thus the energy density is given by
E d
8 2d
c
h
, [15]
h
e kT 1
&
wavelength as
cd
, can also be represented in terms of
2
E d E d
8h c 3
1
cd
. .
.
c 3 3 hc kT
2
e
1
8hc
1
.
d, [16]
hc
5
e kT 1
Radiancy R ( )
c
c 8hc
1
2hc 2
1
x energy density .
.
.
hc
hc
4
4 5
5
e kT 1
e kT 1
Case 1:
We shall now derive Rayleigh-Jeans law from Eq.[16]:
For large wavelength, T is large.
Therefore,
hc
hc
1 hc 2
[
] ..........
kT 2! kT
hc
1
.....
..... [18]
kT
e kT 1
8hc
1
. hc
d
5
kT
e
1
8hc
1
5 .
d
hc
1
1
kT
8kT
4 d
..... ..... [19]
E d
Case 2:
We shall now derive the Weins law from Plancks law.
For small wavelengths, T is small. Therefore,
In this case, we can neglect 1 in [
approximation, we can write
hc
.
e kT 1
hc
e kT 1 ]
E d
and write [
hc
e kT 1 ]
as
8hc
1
.
d ,.
hc
5
e kT 1
as
E d
8 hc hc kT
8hc
1
.
d
.e
d , [26]
5
hc
5
e kT
6
hc
e kT .
With this
(6.626 10 34 J .s ) ( 2.998 10 8 m / s )
hc
X=
= 4.116
kT
(602.5 10 9 m)(1.38 10 23 J / K )(5800 K )
R() =
2 (6.626 10 34 J .s ) (2.998 10 8 m / s ) 2
2hc 2
1
.
hc
5
(602.5 10 9 m) 5 e 4.116 1
kT
e
1