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Whatisactionresearch?
KemmisandMcTaggart(1988,5):Actionresearchisa
formof collective selfreflectiveenquiryundertakenby
participantsinsocialsituationsinordertoimprovethe
rationalityandjusticeoftheirownsocialoreducational
practices,aswellastheirunderstandingofthesepractices
andthesituationsinwhichthesepracticesarecarriedout.
Patricia Cross (1987, 499): Classroom research ... is
geared to self improvement since it is designed,
conducted, and used by teachers themselves. And
classroomresearchbridgesthegapbetweenresearchand
practicebecauseresearchersandpractitionersareinone:
theresearcherasksquestionsthatthepractitionerthinks
areimportant;thepractitioneriseagertousetheresults
oftheresearch....Classroomresearchis,bydefinition,
situationspecific,andthefindingsofclassroomresearch
are,therefore,relevanttoagiventeacherandcanbeused
directlytoimprovepractice.

Keypoints(KemmisandMcTaggart1988,2225):
1. Improving education by changing it and learning
fromtheconsequences.
2.Participatoryandcollaborative:involvementofall
participants
3. Selfreflective and spiral: PLAN > ACT &
OBSERVE>REFLECT>REVISEPLAN>ACT
&OBSERVE>REFLECT.........
4. Selfcritical: openness to surprises, responsive to
unexpectedopportunities,aimingatunderstandingofthe
relationship between the actions, circumstances and
consequencesinthegivensituation
5.Systematic,data/observationbased:keepingrecords,
collecting observational data (field notes); keeping a
personaljournalonreflectionsandlearnings
6.Criticalunderstanding ofthesituations:systematic
analysisofobservations,buildingrecordsofchanges(in
practices,interaction,socialrelationships,ownthinking,
abilitytomonitortheprocess):longtermdevelopmental
perspectivetoemergefromsuchrecords
7. Developing a rationale for what we are doing:
justifyingoureducationalactionstoothers,documenting
thembyempiricalevidence.

Potentialproblemswithactionresearch:Isittoomuch
focused on action? too problemcentred? too project
oriented? too academic with regard to the research
techniquesandconsequentlytoomuchofaburdentoget
donebypractisingteachers?
Allwright and Bailey (1991): Classroom research as
EXPLORATORY TEACHING: focus on
understandingofwhatgoesonintheclassroom,bothof
successes and "failures", posing questions = research
perspective to teaching. Teacher: observer + doer +
thinker+understander:identifypuzzlesinwork,refine
them,identifyactivitiesandrelatethemtopuzzles
>exploitactivitiesforinvestigativepurposes.

Whyactionresearch/exploratoryteaching?
Dissatisfaction with academic (positivistic) research
tradition:
Research divorced from classroom realities, done by
outsiders:gettingoutsiders(wellintentioned)advice,not
insiders'insights;teacherasa"consumer"ofknowledge
producedbyothers
Ignoreslearners'priorknowledge,skills,attitudes,beliefs
anddistractingevents:"average"learnersandsituations
areastatisticalartefact
Ignores learner diversity, differences in processing and
learners'attentiontoteaching,theirmotivationandeffort
tolearninagivensetting
==> CONTEXT/SETTINGIGNORED:howapplicable
are statistical "generalisations" to specific contexts?
>educationdoesnottakeplaceinavacuum,butin
some unique context (national/ cultural, regional,
local,individualclassroom,individuallearner)
==>Arethereuniversallyapplicable"laws"ineducation?
There can be global trends or principles, but the
PROBLEMSARELOCAL andcontextual.Howto
designcoherentwaysofsolvingproblemsincontext?
Whatdoweseeasproblems?Howtoidentifythem?

Allwright,DickandKathleenBailey,1991.Focusonthe
languageclassroom.CUP.
Carr, Wilfred and Stephen Kemmis, 1986. Becoming
critical: knowing through action research. Victoria,
Australia:DeakinUniversityPress.
Cross, Patricia, 1987. The adventures of education in
wonderland: implementing educational reform. Phi
DeltaKappan.
Kemmis,StephenandRobinMcTaggart(eds.),1988.The
action research planner. Victoria, Australia: Deakin
UniversityPress.
LarsenFreeman, Diane and Michael Long, 1991. An
introduction to second language acquisition research.
London:Longman.
Nunan,David,1989.Understandinglanguageclassrooms:a
guideforteacherinitiatedaction.N.Y.:PrenticeHall.
Richards,JackandDavidNunan,1990.Secondlanguage
teachereducation.CUP.

OnProfessionalDevelopmentArthurCombs(1988):
The causes of people's behavior lie in the people's
perceptionsorpersonalmeaningsespeciallyinthe
beliefsweholdaboutourselves,thesituationswefind
ourselvesin,andthegoalsandvaluesweseektofulfill.
Changing peoples beliefs is seldom accomplished by
force or coercion. Neither is it generally achieved by
lecturing,exhorting,ordering,legislation,administrative
mandate,ortechniquesofrewardandpunishment.To
changepeoplesbeliefsrequirescreatingconditionsfor
changeratherthanimposingreforms.
When people encounter problems they feel unable to
dealwith,theyfeelthreatened.However,whentheyare
confrontedwithproblemsthatinterestthemandwhich
they feel able to cope with successfully, they feel
challenged. ... If educational reform is to occur from
grass roots experimentation, as I have suggested,
somehow we must find ways to help our profession
believethatitsallrighttomakemistakes,thatnot
trying is the grievous sin. Teacher confidence to
experimentmust,onceagain,beseenasanecessaryand
desirablecharacteristicoftheprofession.

KennethGoodman(1987,2829):
Whole language teachers regard themselves as
professionals.Theydrawconstantlyonascientificbody
of knowledge in carrying out their work; they know
about language, learning, kids, curriculum, and
methodology. They take responsibility for their
successesandfailures.Andtheyexpecttobegiventhe
roomtousetheirprofessionalabilitiesandknowledge.
They expect respect from their pupils, their
administration, and the public, and understand that
respectmustbeearnedbyprofessionalconduct.They
takeprideandpleasureintheirwork....Theyexpecta
degree of autonomy in their classrooms, for no
professional can function if locked into rigid
administratively imposed strictures in their case,
programs,curricula,andmaterials.
Combs,Arthur,1988.Newassumptionsforeducational
reform.EducationalLeadership45:5.
Goodman, Kenneth, 1987. What's whole in whole
language? Porthsmouth, NH.: Heinemann
EducationalBooks.