Professional Documents
Culture Documents
All Chapters PDF
All Chapters PDF
Field
PHY 2049
(Coulomb's Law)
Electric Charge:
electron charge = -e
proton charge = e
e = 1.6x10-19 C
C = Coulomb
Chapter 22
chp22_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Units
MKS System (meters-kilograms-seconds):
also Amperes, Volts, Ohms, Watts
Force:
F = ma
Newtons = kg m / s2 = 1 N
Work:
W = Fd
Joule = Nm = kg m2 / s2 = 1 J
Electric Charge:
Q
Coulomb = 1 C
F = K q1q2/r2
K = 8.99x109 Nm2/C2 (in MKS system)
F = ma
W = Fd
Q
K=1
1 dyne = g cm / s2
1 erg = dyne-cm = g cm2 / s2
esu (electrostatic unit)
(in CGS system)
1 N = 105 dynes
1 J = 107 ergs
1 C = 2.99x109 esu
= K 2
e2/hc
h = Plank's Constant
Chapter 22
chp22_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
(Coulomb's Law)
K = 8.99x109 Nm2/C2
Gravitational Force :
Fg = G m1m2/r2
(Newton's Law)
G = 6.67x10-11 Nm2/kg2
m = 9.11x10-31 kg
e, m
e, m
r
Fe / Fg = K e2 / G m2 = 4.16x1042
Chapter 22
chp22_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Vector Forces
^
r KqQ
F =
r$
2
r
q1
F3
F2
Q
q2
F1
q3
F = F1 + F2 +F3 +
Chapter 22
chp22_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Ay =A sin
Ax =A cos
x-axis
Vector Addition:
y-axis
C
B
A
x-axis
r
A = Ax x$ + Ay y$ + Az z$
r
B = Bx x$ + By y$ + Bz z$
r r r
C = A + B = ( Ax + Bx ) x$ + ( Ay + By ) y$ + ( Az + Bz )z$
Chapter 22
chp22_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
-Q
d
-Q
A dipole with charge Q and separation d is located on the y-axis with its
midpoint at the origin. A charge q is on the x-axis a distance x from the
midpoint of the dipole. What is the electric force on q due to the dipole and
how does this force behave in the limit x >>d (dipole approximation)?
Example Problem:
-Q
+Q
x
A dipole with charge Q and separation d is located on the x-axis with its
midpoint at the origin. A charge q is on the x-axis a distance x from the
midpoint of the dipole. What is the electric force on q due to the dipole and
how does this force behave in the limit x >>d (dipole approximation)?
Chapter 22
chp22_6.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
q
E
F = K qQ/r2 = q (KQ/r2) = q E
The electric field at the point q due to Q is simply the force per
unit positive charge at the point q:
E = F/q
E = KQ/r2
r KQ
E = 2 r$
r
Chapter 23
chp23_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
+Q
-Q
+Q
Chapter 23
+2Q
chp23_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
dQ
r
r
E =
K
$
2 rdQ
r
and
Charge Distributions:
Q = dQ
(x)
( ) = charge/unit
dQ = dx
Q = dQ = ( x)dx
Chapter 23
chp23_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Charge Distributions
Charge Distributions:
() = charge/unit arc
dQ = ds = R d
R
Q = dQ = ( ) ds = ( ) Rd
If (
) = is constant then dQ = ds and Q = s, where s is the
arc length.
(x,y)
( ) = charge/unit area
dQ = dA
Q = dQ = ( x, y)dA
where A
Q = dQ = ( x, y, z)dV
chp23_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
L
x
r
E=
Answer:
KQ
x$
x ( x + L)
Example:
P
Answer:
r
E=
KQ
y y 2 + ( L / 2) 2
y$
Example:
A infinitely long straight rod has a uniform
charge density . What is the electric field a
point P a perpendicular distance r from the
rod?
P
r
Answer:
Chapter 23
r 2 K
E=
r$
r
chp23_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
(1 + ) 1 + p
p
<<1
(1 ) <<
1 p
1
p
e 1+
<<1
tan
<<1
sin
<<1
Indefinite Integrals:
Chapter 23
a2
(x
(x
dx =
dx =
+a
x
2 3/ 2
+a
2 3/ 2
x
x2 + a2
1
x2 + a2
chp23_6.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
R
P
r 2 KQ
E=
x$
R 2
Answer:
x-axis
Example:
A total amount of charge Q is
uniformily distributed along a
thin ring of radius R. What is
the electric field a point P on
the z-axis a distance z from the
center of the ring?
R
P
z-axis
z-axis
r
Answer: E =
KQz
( z 2 + R 2 )3/2
z$
Example:
A total amount of charge Q is
uniformily distributed on the
surface of a disk of radius R.
What is the electric field a
point P on the z-axis a distance
z from the center of the disk?
Answer:
r 2 KQ
z
z$
E = 2 1 2
R
z + R2
Chapter 23
chp23_7.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
P
z
r
E=
z$
2 0
Example:
-
r
E = z$
0
Chapter 23
chp23_8.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
^
n
^
n
Flux = vA
Flux = vA cos
Flux = 0
Consider the fluid with a vector v which describes the velocity of the fluid
at every point in space and a square with area A = L2 and normal n$ . The
flux is the volume of fluid passing through the square area per unit time.
where
r r
d = E dA
r
dA = An$
E
dA
^n
d =E dA cos
normal
Surface S
Chapter 24
r r
E = E dA
S
chp24_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
normal
Closed
Surface S
r r Qenclosed
S E dA = 0
For the discrete case the total charge enclosed is the sum over all
the enclosed charges:
Q enclosed =
q
i =1
For the continuous case the total charge enclosed is the integral of
the charge density over the volume enclosed by the surface S:
Qenclosed =
dV
Simple Case: If the electric field is constant over the surface and
if it always points in the same direction as the normal to the
surface then
r r
E = E dA = EA
S
Chapter 24
chp24_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Conductor in
static equilibrium
E=0
V = constant
=0
Q =
dA .
Surface
Chapter 24
chp24_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
E out =
r$
r2
r
KQr
E in =
r$
R3
Conducting
Sphere
R
Net Charge Q
Insulating Sphere
R
Total Charge Q
= constant
Problem:
r
KQ
E out =
r$
2
r
r
E in = 0
Problem:
a
-q
Net Charge Q
on conductor
r
K (Q q )
E r>b =
r$
2
r
r
E a<r<b = 0
Kq
Er<a =
r$
r2
Chapter 24
chp24_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Example:
vi = 0
h
vf = ?
Ef = KEf + Uf = mvf2/2
Ei = E f v f = 2 gh
Chapter 25
chp25_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
(Units = Volts
1V = 1 J / 1 C)
1 GeV=1,000 MeV
1 TeV=1,000 GeV
chp25_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
A
q
(M = 1.8x10-5kg, q = 3x10-5C)?
VA = 35V
Solution:
E A = KE A + U A = 0 + qV A
1
E B = KE B + U B = Mv B2 + qVB
2
VB = 10V
1
Mv B2 = q (V A V B )
2
vB =
2 q (V A V B )
M
vB =
Chapter 24
2 ( 3 10 5 C )( 25V )
= 9 .1m / s .
1.8 10 5 kg
chp25_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
byF
A B
r r
= F dr
A
againstF
A B
r r
= U = U B U A = F dr
A
r
r
U
U
U
F = U =
x$
y$
z$
x
y
z
Electrostatics (this semester):r
r
F = qE
Electrostatic Force:
Electric Potential Energy Difference U:
(work done against E in moving q from A to B)
B
r r
U = U B U A = qE dr
A
r r
V = V B V A = E dr
A
r
r
V
V
V
E = V =
x$
y$
z$
x
y
z
Chapter 25
chp25_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
+Q
V(r) = KQ/r
q
E
V =
i =1
Chapter 25
Kq i
ri
chp25_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
dQ
r
V =
K
dQ
r
and
Q = dQ
Example:
A total amount of charge Q is uniformily
distributed along a thin circle of radius R.
What is the electric potential at a point P at
the center of the circle?
R
P
KQ
V
=
Answer:
R
x-axis
Example:
A total amount of charge Q is uniformily
distributed along a thin semicircle of
radius R. What is the electric potential at a
point P at the center of the circle?
KQ
Answer: V =
R
Chapter 25
R
P
x-axis
chp25_6.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
R
P
z-axis
z-axis
Answer: V ( z ) =
KQ
z2 + R2
Example:
A total amount of charge Q is
uniformily distributed on the
surface of a disk of radius R.
What is the electric potential at
a point P on the z-axis a
distance z from the center of
the disk?
2 KQ
V
(
z
)
=
Answer:
R2
Chapter 25
z2 + R2 z
chp25_7.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Two Particles:
q2
r
q1q2 1 Kq 2 1 Kq1
U =K
= q1
+ q
r
2 r 2 2 r
so we see that
1
U =
2
qV
i =1
Three Particles:
qq
qq
qq
U =K 1 2 +K 1 3+K 2 3
r12
r13
r23
q3
r13
q1
which is equivalent to
U =
1
2
r23
q2
r12
3
qV
i
i =1
N Particles:
1
U =
2
Chapter 25
qV
i
i=1
chp25_8.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
E=0
dq
Q =
dQ=dA
dA
V = constant
dU =
1
1
dQV = V dA
2
2
and hence
U =
1
2
Stored Energy:
VdQ =
Surface
1
V
2
conductor
dA =
Surface
1
VQ
2
1
=
QV
2
1
U =
2
QV
i
i =1
where Qi is the charge on the i-th conductor and Vi is the electric
potential of the i-th conductor.
Chapter 25
chp25_9.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Capacitance:
C=Q/V
or
C=Q/
V
1 F=10-6 F
1 pF=10-9 F
Stored Energy:
conductor
1
Q2
1
=
QV =
=
CV
2
2C
2
where Q is the charge on the conductor and V is the electric potential of the
conductor and C is the capacitance of the conductor.
E=Q/(A0)
-Q
Chapter 26
Area A
Area A
chp26_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Parallel:
C1
C2
Series:
In this case V=
V1+
V2 and Q=Q1=Q2.
Hence,
V = V1 + V2 = Q1/C1+Q2/C2 =
(1/C1+1/C2)Q
so 1/C = V/Q = 1/C1 + 1/C2, where I used
Q1 = C1V1 and Q2 = C2V2.
C1
V
C2
Chapter 26
chp26_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
u = e0E2/2,
where E is the magnitude of the electric field. The
energy density has units of Joules/m3.
Volume
U =
udV
Volume
Chapter 26
+Q
chp26_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Charge Q
E
KQ 2
Answer: U =
2R
Example:
-Q
Q
R1
R2
KQ 2 1
1
U
=
Answer:
2 R1 R2
Example:
How much electric energy is stored by a
solid insulating sphere of radius R and
total charge Q uniformly distributed
throughout its volume?
2
3 KQ 2
1 KQ
Answer: U = 1 + 5 2 R = 5 R
Chapter 26
Charge Q
E
chp26_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
r r
N = nv A t
r r
Q = nqv At .
The current, I(A), is the amount of charge per unit time passing through the
(directed) area A:
r
r r
Q
r r
I ( A) =
= nqv A = J A ,
t
r
r
J
=
n
q
v
where the "current density" is given by
drift .
r r
dI = J dA
and
r
dI
J n$ =
dA .
The "current density" is the amount of current per unit area and has units of
A/m2. The current passing through the surface S is given by
r v
I = J dA
S
Chapter 27
chp27_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Conductor
q
we have
r
r
J = E
,
where is the conductivity of the material and is a property of the
conductor. The resistivity = 1/
.
Length L
Ohm's Law:
Conductor
Electric Field E
Current Density J
r
r
J = E
I = JA = EA
V1
Potential Change V
Current I
A
V2
I
L
V = EL =
L =
I = RI
A
A
V = IR (Ohm's Law) R = L/(
A) = L/A (Resistance)
Chapter 27
chp27_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Parallel:
I
I2
I1
R1
V2
R2
Series:
In this case V=
V1+
V2 and I=I1=I2.
Hence,
V = V1 + V2 = I1R1+I2R2 = (R1+R2)I
so R = V/I = R1 + R2, where I used
V1 = I1R1 and V2 = I2R2.
I
V1
R1
V
V2
R2
Chapter 27
chp27_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
I
+
V
EMF
EMF + V = 0
Electromotive Force:
The electromotive force EMF of a source of electric potential energy is
defined as the amount of electric energy per Coulomb of positive charge as
the charge passes through the source from low potential to high potental.
EMF = = U/q
- IR = 0
and I = /R
(Kirchhoff's Rule)
+
R
Chapter 28
chp28_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
DC Circuit Rules
Loop Rule:
+
V
EMF
-
EMF + V = 0
loop
= 0 .
Junction Rule:
The sum of the currents entering any junction
must be equal the sum of the currents leaving
that junction.
I = I
i
in
out
Resistor:
V=-IR
Capacitor:
I
Q
+
-
V=Q/C
Chapter 28
I
L
VL=-LdI/dt
chp28_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Charging a Capacitor
Switch
IR
Q
=0 ,
C
where I(t) and Q(t) are a function of time. If the switch is closed at t=0 then
Q(0)=0 and
dQ Q
=0 ,
dt
C
dQ
1
= (Q C ) , where I have define =RC.
dt
Q
0
dQ
1
t
Q C
= dt , which implies ln
= .
C
(Q C ) 0
t
Charging a Capacitor
1.50
Q ( t ) = C (1 e t / )
.
1.25
1.00
Q(t) 0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
0
I (t ) =
Time
C t /
e
= e t / . The quantity =RC is call the time
Chapter 28
chp28_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Discharging a Capacitor
After the switch is closed the current is
leaving the capacitor so that I = -dQ/dt,
where Q is the charge on the capacitor and
summing all the potential changes in going
around the loop gives
Switch
+
C
Q
IR = 0 ,
C
where I(t) and Q(t) are a function of time. If the switch is closed at t=0 then
Q(0)=Q0 and
Q
dQ
+ R
=0 ,
C
dt
which can be written in the form
dQ
1
= Q , where I have defined =RC.
dt
Q
Q0
t
Q
t
dQ
1
= dt , which implies ln
= .
Q0
0
Discharging a Capacitor
1.00
Q (t ) = Q0e t / .
0.75
Q(t)
0.50
0.25
I (t ) =
0.00
0
Time
Q0 t /
e
.
RC
The quantity =RC is call the "time constant" and has dimensions of time.
Chapter 28
chp28_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
v=0
q
r
KQq
FE =
r$ (electrostatic force) ,
r2
r
r
V=0
v
q
r
KQq
KQq r r
$
FE M =
r + 2 2 v V r$
r2
c r
(electromagnetic force)
where K = 8.99x109 Nm2/C2 and c = 3x108 m/s
Q
(speed of light in a vacuum). The first term is the
electric force and the second (new) term is the called the magnetic force so
r
that FE M = FE + FB , with
r
r
KQq
KQ
FE = 2 r$ = q 2 r$ = qE
r
r
r
KQq r r
r KQ r
r r
FB = 2 2 v V r$ = qv 2 2 V r$ = qv B
c r
c r
Electric and Magnetic Fields of a
Charged Particle Q moving with
Speed V (out of the paper)
Chapter 29
r KQ
E = 2 r$
r
r KQ r
B = 2 2 V r$
cr
The electromagnetic force on q is given by
r
r
r
r
FE M = qE + qv B (Lorenz Force).
chp29_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
q
v
r
r r
FB = qv B .
The magnitude of the magnetic force is FB = qvB sin
and
B = FB/(qv sin
) is the definition of the magnetic field. (The
units for B are Tesla, T, where 1 T = 1 N/(C m/s)). The magnetic force
an infinitesimal charged particler dq in a magnetic
r field B is given by
r
dF B = dqv B .
B-out
r
r
r
dF B = dqv B ,
dq
dl
dF
r
r
dl
r
dqv = dq
= Idl ,
dt
v
dF
=
Idl
B . The total
infinitesimal length dl of the wire becomes
B
magnetic force on the wire is
r
r
FB = dFB =
v r
Idl B ,
r
r r
FB = IL B .
Chapter 29
chp29_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
r
A = A x x$ + A y y$ + A z z$
r
B = B x x$ + B y y$ + B z z$ .
r
A = A=
r
B = B =
A x2 + A y2 + A z2
B x2 + B y2 + B z2
r r
r r
S = A B = A B cos = Ax B x + Ay B y + Az Bz
r r r
C = A B = ( Ay Bz Az By ) x$ ( Ax Bz Az Bx ) y$ + ( Ax By Ay Bx )z$
r r r r r
C = A B = A B sin
The direction of the cross product can be determined from the "right hand
rule".
Determinant Method:
The cross product can be constructed by evaluating the following
determinant:
x$
r r r
C = A B = Ax
Bx
Chapter 29
y$
z$
Ay
By
Az
Bz
chp29_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
q x-axis
R
E kin =
1
1 r r
mv 2 = mv v ,
2
2
B-in
r
FB = qv B .
The magnetic force does not change the speed (kinetic energy)
of the charged particle. The magnetic force does no work on the
charged particle since the force is always perpendicular to the path of the
particle. There is no change in the particle's kinetic energy and no change in
its speed.
r
r
r
dv
dv
r r
r r
F
=
qv
B
=
m
m
=
qv
B . Hence
Proof: We know that
B
dt
dt
r r
r
dE kin 1 dv 2 1 d ( v v )
r dv
r r r
= m
= m
= mv
= qv v B = 0 ,
2
2
dt
dt
dt
dt
and thus Ekin (and v) are constant in time.
The magnetic force can change the direction a charged particle but not its
speed. The particle undergoes circular motion
v(t+dt)
with angular velocity = qB/m.
Fdt/m
d
v(t)
Chapter 29
F
qvB
dt =
dt
m
m
d
qB
=
=
dt
m
vd =
chp29_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
v
M
Magnetism:
v
q
r
B-in
r = mv/(qB) = p/(qB) ,
and v = qBr/m. The period of the
rotation is given by T = 2
r/v =
2
m/(qB) and is independent of the radius! The frequency (called the
cyclotron frequency) is given by f = 1/T= qB/(2
m) is the same for all
particles with the same charge and mass ( = qB/m).
Chapter 29
chp29_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
r
r
W ire
dQ
dl
r
KdQ r
dB = 2 2 V r$
c r
r
r
d Q V = Idl and,
r kI r
dB = 2 dl r$ (Law of Biot-Savart),
r
where k = K/c2 = 10-7 Tm/A. For historical reasons we define 0 as
follows:
k =
K
0
= 2 ,
4
c
(
0 = 4
x 10-7 Tm/A).
r
I
Chapter 30
B (r ) =
I-out
2 kI
r
chp30_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
kI
B
(
r
)
=
Answer:
y
L
y 2 + L2
Example (Semi-Circle):
A thin wire carrying a current I is
bent into a semi-circle of radius
R. What is the magnitude of
magnetic field at the center of the
semi-circle?
R
P
kI
B
=
Answer:
R
Example (Circle):
A thin wire carrying a current I is forms a
circle of radius R. What is the magnitude of
magnetic field at the center of the semi-circle?
Answer: B =
Chapter 30
R
P
2kI
R
chp30_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
R
P
z-axis
Answer:
Bz ( z) =
2 kIR 2
( z 2 + R 2 )3/2
2 k B
B
(
z
)
=
Answer:
z
z3
z-axis
z
I
B = IR 2 = IA
B = NIA,
Chapter 30
chp30_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Ampere's Law
Gauss' Law for Magnetism:
The net magnetic flux emanating from a closed surface S is proportional to
the amount of magnetic charge enclosed by the surface as follows:
r r
Magnetic
B = B dA Qenclosed
.
S
r r
B = B dA = 0
Ampere's Law:
Magnetic Field of an Infinite Wire
Carrying Current I (out of the paper)
is B(r) = 2kI/r.
r
B d l = 2 rB ( r ) = 4 kI = 0 I .
Loop
r
I-out
Curve C
The line integral of the magnetic field around any closed path C is equal
to 0 times the current intercepted by the area spanning the path:
r
B dl = 0 I enclosed
C
Ampere's Law
The current enclosed by the closed curve C is given by the integral over the
surface S (bounded by the curve C) of the current density J as follows:
I enclosed =
r r
J dA
Chapter 30
chp30_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
2 kI
B out ( r ) =
r
2 krI .
B in ( r ) =
R2
B out ( r ) = 0
B in ( r ) = 0 nI .
Example (Toroid):
A solenoid bent into the shape of a doughnut is called a toriod. What is the
magnitude and direction of the magnetic field
Toriod
inside and outside a toriod of inner radius R1 and
outer radius R2 and N turns of wire carrying a
current I (assume zero pitch)?
Answer:
B out ( r ) = 0
2 kNI
B in ( r ) =
r
Chapter 30
R1
R2
chp30_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
B-out
r
r
r
FB = qv B .
FB
r
1 r
r r r
= FB dl = v B dl = vLB .
q
In Steady State:
In steady state a charge q in the rod
experiences rno netrforce since,
Rod
FE + F B = 0 ,
and thus,
r
r
r
E = v B .
B-out
---
FE
q
FB
+++
r r
r r r
= E dl = v B dl = vLB ,
which is the same as the work done per unit charge by the magnetic field.
Chapter 31
chp31_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
B-out
---
r
r
r
FB 1 = qv B1 ,
FE
r
r
r
FB 2 = qv B 2 .
FB
field is uniform, B1 = B 2 ,
+++
and the induced EMF's on side 1
and side 2 are equal, 1 = 2, and the net EMF around the loop
(counterclockwise) is zero,
2
1
q
r
r
FB dl = 1 2 = 0 .
Loop
FB2
FB1
1
v
2
1
q
r
r
F B d l = 1 2 = v L ( B1 B 2 ) .
Loop
This induced EMF will cause a current to flow around the loop in a
counterclockwise direction (if B1 > B2)!
Chapter 31
chp31_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
r
r
B dA .
In the simple case where B is constant and normal to the surface then
B = BA.
The units for magnetic flux are webbers (1 Wb = 1 Tm2).
vdt
d B
= v L ( B1 B 2 ) =
dt
d B
dt
Substituting in the definition of the induced EMF and the magnetic flux
yields,
r
r
r
r
r
r
d B
d
B
= E dl =
=
B d A = t d A
d
t
d
t
Surface
C losed
Surface
Loop
We see that a changing magnetic field (with time) can produce an electric
field!
Chapter 31
chp31_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Lenz's Law
Example (Loop of Wire in a Changing Magnetic Field):
A wire loop with a radius, r, of 1
meter is placed in a uniform
magnetic field. Suppose that the
electromagnetic is suddenly
r
switched off and the strength of the
magnetic field decreases at a rate
of 20 Tesla per second. What is
the induced EMF in the loop (in
Loop
Volts)? If the resistance of the
loop, R, is 5 Ohms, what is the
induced current in the loop (in Amps)? What is the direction of the
induced current? What is the magnitude and direction of the magnetic
field produced by the induced current (the induced magnetic field) at the
center of the circle?
Answers: If I choose my orientation to be counterclockwise then
B = BA and
B-out
changing with time
= -d
B/dt = -A dB/dt = -(r2)(-20T/s) = 62.8 V.
The induced current is I = /R = (62.8 V)/(5 ) = 12.6 A. Since is positive
the current is flowing in the direction of my chosen orientation
(counterclockwise). The induced magnetic field at the center of the circle is
given by Bind = 2
kI/r = (2 x 10-7 Tm/A)(12.6 A)/(1 m) = 7.9 T and
points out of the paper.
Lenz's Law:
Chapter 31
chp31_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Induction Examples
Example (simple generator):
A conducting rod of length L is pulled
along horizontal, frictionless, conducting
rails at a constant speed v. A uniform
Rod
magnetic field (out of the paper) fills the
R
region in which the rod moves. The
v
rails and the rod have negligible
resistance but are connected by a
resistor R. What is the induced EMF
in the loop? What is the induced
current in the loop? At what rate is thermal energy being generated in
the resistor? What force must be applied to the rod by an external agent
to keep it in uniform motion? At what rate does this external agent do
work on the system?
B-out
B-out
a
b
v
Chapter 31
Mg
chp31_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
B1
I1
Coil 1
I2
Coil 2
r
r
B 1 d A 2 = N 2 2 ,
coil 2
where N2 is the number of loops in coil 2 and 2 is the flux through a single
loop in coil 2. However, we know that B1 is proportional to I1 which means
that 2 is proportional to I1. The mutual inductance M is defined to be the
constant of proportionality between 2 and I1 and depends on the
geometry of the situation,
N
M = 2 = 2 2 2 = N 2 2 = MI 1 . The induced EMF in coil 2 due
I1
I1
to the varying current in coil 1 is given by,
d 2
dI
= M 1
2 =
dt
dt
B1
1
N
= 1 1
I1
I1
I1
Coil 1
1 = N 11 = LI 1 ,
where N1 is the number of loops in coil 1 and 1 is the flux through a single
loop in coil 1. The induced EMF in coil 2 due to the varying current in coil
1 is given by,
1 =
Chapter 31
d 1
dI
= L 1
dt
dt
chp31_6.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
B
I
Coil
Pb a c k = I = LI
dI
dt ,
since = -LdI/dt. The power supplied by the external EMF (rate at which
work is done against the back EMF) is
P =
dW
dI
= LI
dt
dt ,
U =
Pdt =
dI
LI
dt =
dt
LIdI =
1 2
LI .
2
uB =
1
B2
20
U =
dV .
Volume
Chapter 31
chp31_7.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
RL Circuits
"Building-Up" Phase:
A
Switch
dI
IR L
= 0 ,
dt
t
dI
1
I / R
=
dt
ln
0 ( I / R ) 0 , which implies / R
.
t
I (t ) =
1 e t / ) .
(
R
VL (t ) = e
t /
1.50
1.25
1.00
I(t)
0.75
0.50
0.25
0.00
0
Time
The quantity =L/R is call the time constant and has dimensions of time.
"Collapsing" Phase:
Connecting the switch to position B corresponds to the "collapsing" phase
of an RL circuit. Summing all the potential changes in going around the
loop gives I R L
dI
= 0 , where I(t) is a function of time. If the
dt
Chapter 31
chp31_8.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
I
Loop
orb = IA =
q
q
R 2 = vR ,
T
2
orb =
q
L
2 m orb ,
e
orb =
L
2 me orb .
"Spin" Magnetic Moment (Quantum Mechanics):
S
B
spin
e
eh/
=
gS =
2 me
2 me , (electron)
Chapter 32
chp32_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Maxwell's Equations
I. (Gauss' Law):
r r Qenclosed
1
=
E = E dA =
dV
0
0 Volume
Surface
E
Charge Q
r r
B dA = 0
Surface
No Magnetic Charges!
E
Changing
Magnetic
Field
Chapter 32
r r
J dA
Current
Density J
Surface
One Source of Magnetic Fields
chp32_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
E
I
r r
d E
B
dl
I
0
dt ,
C1
S1
S2
C1
r
r
J dA
r
r
E dA ,
r r
d E
B
dl
I
=
+
=
0
C 1
dt
r
r
r
E
J
dA
+
= 0 I ,
S 1 0
t
Must be equal,
hence =
0 0.
r r
d E
B
dl
I
=
+
=
0
C 1
dt
r
r
E r I
S 1 0 J + t dA = 0 ,
E =
Q
=
0 0 A
E
1 dQ
I
=
=
t
0 A dt
0 A .
r
r
r
r
E
d E
B d l = 0 I + 0 0
= 0 J + 0
t
d
t
Curve
Surface
r
r
r
r
E
Id = Jd dA
Jd = 0
t
S
"Displacement Current"
Chapter 32
d A = 0 (I + I d ) ,
chp32_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
0
0 Volume
Surface
E
Charge Q
r r
B dA = 0
Surface
No Magnetic Charges!
E
t
Curve
Surface
Changing
Magnetic
Field
Current
Density J
Changing
Electric
Field
r
r r
r
d E
E r
= 0 J + 0
B dl = 0 I enc + 0 0
dA
dt
Curve
Surface
Surface Bounded by Curve
Chapter 32
chp32_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
r
E
r
r
d B
2 dB
E
d
l
=
2
r
E
(
r
)
=
dt
dt ,
Circle
and hence E(r) = -(r/2) dB/dt. Since dB/dt > 0 (increasing with time), E is
negative which means that it points opposite my chosen orientation.
r r
d E
r 2 dE
B dl = 2 rB ( r ) = 0 0
= 2
dt
c dt ,
Circle
and hence B(r) = (r/2c2) dE/dt. Since dE/dt > 0 (increasing with time), B is
positive which means that it points in the direction of my chosen orientation.
Chapter 32
chp32_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
d 2x
kx = m 2
dt
or
d2x k
+ x = 0 , where x = x(t).
dt 2 m
d 2 x (t )
+ Cx (t ) = 0 ,
dt 2
where C is a positive constant (for the Hooke's Law spring C=k/m). The
most general solution of this 2nd order differential equation can be written
in the following four ways:
x ( t ) = Ae it + Be it
x ( t ) = A cos( t ) + B sin( t )
x ( t ) = A sin( t + )
x ( t ) = A cos( t + )
where A, B, and are
arbitrary constants and
= C . In the chart, A is
the amplitude of the
oscillations and T is the
period. The linear frequency
f = 1/T is measured in cycles
per second (1 Hz = 1/sec).
The angular frequency =
2
f and is measured in
radians/second. For the
x(t) = Acos(
t+
)
1.0
0.5
0.0
0
-0.5
-1.0
t+ (radians)
chp33_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
d 2 x (t )
+ Cx (t ) = 0 ,
dt 2
where C is a constant. One way to solve this equation is to turn it into an
algebraic equation by looking for a solution of the form
x ( t ) = Ae at .
Substituting this into the differential equation yields,
2
a 2 Ae at + CAe at = 0 or a = C .
x ( t ) = Ae it + Be it
x ( t ) = A cos( t ) + B sin( t )
x ( t ) = A sin( t + )
x ( t ) = A cos( t + )
where A, B, and are arbitrary constants (two arbitrary constants for a 2nd
order differential equation). Remember that e
where i =
= cos i sin
1.
C . In this case,
the most general solution of this 2nd order differential equation can be
written as follows:
x ( t ) = A e t + B e t
Chapter 33
chp33_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
UE
Q
C
Q = C VC
uE =
1
0 E 2
2
Q2
=
2C
VC = Q / C
(E-field energy density)
Chapter 33
chp33_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
An LC Circuit
Switch
Q
+++ +++
C
--- ---
Q
dI
L
= 0.
C
dt
1
d 2Q
Q = 0.
2 +
dt
LC
This differential equation for Q(t) is the SHM differential equation we
studied earlier with = 1 / LC and solution
Q ( t ) = A cos t + B sin t .
The current is thus,
I (t ) =
dQ
= A sin t B cos t .
dt
Q ( t ) = Q 0 cos t
I ( t ) = Q 0 sin t
Thus, Q(t) and I(t) oscillate with SHM with angular frequency
= 1 / LC . The stored energy oscillates between electric and magnetic
according to
Q 2 (t )
Q 02
U E (t ) =
=
cos 2 t
2C
2C
1
1
U B ( t ) = LI 2 ( t ) = L Q 02 2 sin 2 t
2
2
Energy is conserved since Utot(t) = UE(t) + UB(t) = Q02/2C is constant.
Chapter 33
chp33_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
LC Oscillations
I
I
t=0
t = T/4
+++ +++
--- ---
1.0
Q ( t ) = Q 0 cos t
I ( t ) = Q 0 sin t
Q(t)
0.5
I(t)
0.0
0
-0.5
-1.0
t (radians)
Utot = UE + UB
1.0
UE(t)
Q 02
U E (t ) =
cos 2 t
2C
Q 02
U B (t ) =
sin 2 t
2C
UB(t)
0.5
0.0
0
t (radians)
Chapter 33
chp33_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Mechanical Analogy
I
t=0
t=0
Q
+++ +++
--- ---
m
x-axis
x0
At t = 0:
At t = 0:
1
Q 02
2C
I =0
1 2
kx
2 0
v = 0
U =
E =
At Later t:
dx
v=
dt
x ( t ) = x 0 cos t
k
=
m
1
1
E = mv 2 + kx 2
2
2
At Later t:
dQ
I =
dt
Q ( t ) = Q0 cos t
1
=
LC
1
1
E = LI 2 +
Q2
2
2C
Constant
Correspondence:
x (t ) Q (t )
v (t ) I (t )
m L
k 1/ C
Chapter 33
chp33_6.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
dx ( t )
d 2 x (t )
+
+ Cx ( t ) = 0 ,
D
dt 2
dt
where C and D are constants. We solve this equation by turning it into an
algebraic equation by looking for a solution of the form x ( t ) = Ae .
Substituting this into the differential equation yields,
at
a 2 + Da + C = 0
D
D
a = C .
2
2
or
= D / 2 i , where
x ( t ) = e Dt / 2 ( Ae i t + Be i t )
x ( t ) = e Dt / 2 ( A cos( t ) + B sin( t ) )
x ( t ) = Ae Dt / 2 sin( t + )
x ( t ) = Ae Dt / 2 cos( t + )
( D / 2 ) 2 C = D / 2 , where
( D / 2) 2 C . In this case,
x ( t ) = e D t / 2 ( A e t + B e t ) .
x (t ) = A e Dt /2
Chapter 33
chp33_7.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
An LRC Circuit
Switch
Q
+++ +++
C
--- --R
Q
dI
L
IR = 0 .
C
dt
1
d 2Q
R dQ
+
Q = 0.
2 +
dt
L dt
LC
This differential equation for Q(t) is the differential equation we studied
earlier. If we take the case where R2 < 4L/C (damped oscillations) then
Q(t ) = Q0 e Rt / 2 L cos t ,
with =
2 ( R / 2 L ) 2 and =
1 / LC .
1.0
Damped Oscillations
0.5
0.0
0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
-0.5
Q(t)
-1.0
Time
Chapter 33
chp33_8.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Traveling Waves
A "wave" is a traveling disturbance that transports energy
but not matter.
Constructing Traveling Waves:
To construct a wave with shape y = f(x) at time t = 0 traveling to the right
with speed v simply make the replacement x x vt .
y = f(x-vt)
v
x=0
x = vt
y = Acos(kx) at time t = 0,
1.0
where k is the "wave number"
0.5
(k = 2
/
where is the "wave
length") and A is the
0.0
"amplitude". To construct an
-0.5
harmonic wave traveling to the
-1.0
right with speed v, replace x by
kx (radians)
x-vt as follows:
y = Asin(k(x-vt) = Asin(kx-
t) where = kv (v = /k). The period of the
oscillation, T = 2
/
= 1/f, where f is the linear frequency (measured in
Hertz where 1Hz = 1/sec) and is the angular frequency (
= 2
f). The
speed of propagation is given by v = /k = f .
y = y(x,t) = Asin(kx-
t) right moving harmonic wave
y = y(x,t) = Asin(kx+
t) left moving harmonic wave
Chapter 34
chp34_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
2 y( x, t ) 1 2 y( x, t )
2
=0
2
2
x
v
t
Whenever analysis of a system results in an equation of the
form given above then we know that the system supports
traveling waves propagating at speed v.
General Proof:
If y = y(x,t) = f(x-vt) then
y
= f
x
y
= vf
t
2y
= f
x 2
2y
2
=
v
f
t 2
and
2 y(x,t)
1 2 y( x,t)
2
= f f = 0 .
x 2
v
t 2
Proof for Harmonic Wave:
If y = y(x,t) = Asin(kx-
t) then
2y
2
2 = k A sin( kx t )
x
2y
2
2 = A sin( kx t )
t
and
2 y( x,t ) 1 2 y( x, t )
2
2
2
= k + 2 A sin( kx t ) = 0 ,
x 2
v
t 2
v
since = kv.
Chapter 34
chp34_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
E
dl
dt
y-axis
r r
d E
=
B
dl
.
0 0
dt
x-axis
z-axis
y-axis
E(x+dx,t)
E(x,t)
dx
Bz
E y ( x + dx , t ) h E y ( x , t ) h =
hdx
t
x-axis
or
E y
B
= z
x
t
z-axis
Ampere's Law:
y-axis
or
E y
Bz
= 0 0
x
t
Chapter 34
E y
t
hdx
B(x,t)
z-axis
x-axis
dx
B(x+dx,t)
chp34_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
E y
Bz
=
t
x
and
(1)
x-axis
E y
1 Bz
=
t
0 0 x
z-axis
(2)
=
t 2
0 0 t x
0 0 x t 0 0 x 2
which implies
2Ey
x 2
0 0
2Ey
t 2
= 0.
Thus Ey(x,t) satisfies the wave equation with speed v = 1 / 0 0 and has a
solution in the form of traveling waves as follows:
Ey(x,t) = E0sin(kx-
t),
where E0 is the amplitude of the electric field oscillations and where the
wave has a unique speed
1
v=c=
= f =
= 2.99792 10 8 m / s (speed of light).
k
0 0
From (1) we see that
E y
Bz
=
= E 0 k cos( kx t ) ,
t
x
Bz ( x , t ) = E 0
k
E
sin( kx t ) = 0 sin( kx t ) ,
c
so that
Bz(x,t) = B0sin(kx-
t),
where B0 = E0/c is the amplitude of the magnetic field oscillations.
Chapter 34
chp34_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
r
E ( x , t ) = E 0 sin( kx t ) y$
r
B ( x , t ) = B 0 sin( kx t ) z$
where k = 2
/
, = 2
f, and
E0 = cB0.
y-axis
Direction of Propagation
x-axis
z-axis
Chapter 33
chp34_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
y-axis
Bz(x,t) = B0sin(kx-
t),
x-axis
uE =
z-axis
1
1
0 E 2 = 0 E02 sin 2 ( kx t ) and the magnetic energy density is
2
2
1 2
1
1
2
uB =
B =
E
=
0 E 2 = uE ,
2
2 0
2 0 c
2
where I used E = cB. Thus, for light the electric and magnetic field
energy densities are equal and the total energy density is
1 2
B = 0 E02 sin 2 (kx t ) .
0
r 1 r r
S
Poynting Vector ( = E B ):
0
utot = uE + uB = 0 E 2 =
Intensity
y-axis
E
A
Energy Flow
x-axis
z-axis
B
cdt
1 dU
E2
E 02
2
S =
= 0c E =
=
sin 2 ( kx t ) .
A dt
0 c
0c
of the Radiation (Watts/m2):
Chapter 34
chp34_6.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
E2 = (cp)2 + (m0c2)2
energy
E = cp
(for light)
For light the average momentum per unit time per unit area is equal to the
intensity of the light, I, divided by speed of light, c, as follows:
1 dp 1 1 dU
1
=
= I.
A dt
c A dt
c
Total Absorption:
dp 1 dU
1
F =
=
= IA
dt
c dt
c
F
1
P=
= I (radiation pressure)
A
c
Total Reflection:
dp
2 dU
2
F =
=
= IA .
dt
c dt
c
F
2
P=
= I (radiation pressure)
A
c
Chapter 34
Light
Total Absorption
Light
Total Reflection
chp34_7.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
P = 3.9 x 1026 W
Chapter 34
chp34_7e.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Geometric Optics
Fermat's Principle:
In traveling from one point to another, light follows the path that
requires minimal time compared to the times from the other possible
paths.
Theory of Reflection:
Let tAB be the time for light to go
from the point A to the point B
reflecting off the point P. Thus,
t AB
1
1
= L1 + L2 ,
c
c
L2
L1
a
where
r
d-x
L1 = x 2 + a 2
.
L2 = ( d x ) 2 + b 2
P
d
To find the path of minimal time we set the derivative of tAB equal to zero
as follows:
dt AB 1 dL1 1 dL2
=
+
= 0,
dx
c dx c dx
which implies
dL1
dL
= 2,
dx
dx
but
dL1
x
=
= sin i
dx
L1
dL2 ( d x )
=
= sin r
dx
L2
L2
L1
a
Chapter 34
d-x
sin i = sin r
P
d
i = r
chp34_8.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Law of Refraction
Index of Refraction:
Light travels at speed c in a vacuum. It travels at a speed v < c in a medium.
The index for refraction, n, is the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to
its speed in the medium,
n = c/v,
n1
A
where n is greater than or equal to
L1
one.
a
Theory of Refraction:
t AB
d-x
P
2
1
1
= L1 +
L
v1
v2 2 ,
where
L2
n2
L1 = x 2 + a 2
.
L2 = ( d x ) 2 + b 2
To find the path of minimal time we set the derivative of tAB equal to zero
as follows:
dt AB
1 dL1 1 dL2
1 dL1
1 dL2
=
+
= 0 , which implies
=
dx
v1 dx v2 dx
v1 dx
v2 dx , but
dL1
x
=
= sin 1
dx
L1
dL2 ( d x )
=
= sin 2
dx
L2
so that the condition for minimal time becomes
1
1
sin 1 =
sin 2
v1
v2
Chapter 34
n1 sin 1 = n 2 sin 2
Snell's Law
chp34_9.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
n
sinc = 2
n1
2=90
n2
n1
Problem:
n 2 =1
R
c
n 1 =1.3
Chapter 34
chp34_10.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Refraction Examples
Problem:
A scuba diver 20 meters
beneath the smooth surface
of a clear lake looks
upward and judges the sun
2
n2=1
o
to be 40 from directly
overhead. At the same
n1=4/3
time, a fisherman is in a
1
boat directly above the
20 m
diver.
(a) At what angle from the
vertical would the
fisherman measure the sun?
(answer: 59o)
(b) If the fisherman looks
downward, at what depth below the surface would he judge the diver to be?
(answer: 15 meters)
Chapter 34
chp34_11.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Spherical Mirrors
Vertex and Center of Curvature:
The vertex, V, is the point where
the principal axis crosses the
mirror and the center of
curvature is the center of the
spherical mirror with radius of
curvature R.
Concave Mirror
R = Radius of Curvature
C = Center of Curvature
F = Focal Point
V = Vertex
R
R-side
Principal Axis
V-side
Principal Axis
R-side
Convex Mirror
V-side
Focal Point:
A light ray parallel to the
principal axis will pass
through the focal point, F,
where F lies a distance f
(focal length) from the vertex
of the mirror. For spherical
mirrors a good approximation
is f = R/2.
Chapter 35
chp35_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Mirror Equation
Object and Image Position:
For spherical mirrors,
1 1
1
+ =
p i
f ,
where p is the distance from the
vertex to the object, i is the
distance from the vertex to the
image, and f is the focal length.
Focal Length:
For spherical mirrors the focal
length, f, is one-half of the radius
of curvature, R, as follows:
p
R-side
V-side
C = Center of Curvature
F = Focal Point
p = Object Position
i = Image Position
f = R/2.
Magnification:
The magnification is
m=
i
p , (magnification equation)
where the magnitude of the magnification is the ratio of the height of the
image, hi, to the height of the object, hp, as follows:
m =
hi
hp .
Sign Conventions:
Variable
p (object distance)
i (image distance)
R (radius of curvature)
f (focal length)
m (magnification)
Chapter 35
chp35_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Mirror Examples (1
(1 )
Mirror Equations:
f =
R
2
1 1
1
+ =
p i
f
m=
i
p
Example:
Concave Mirror
R = 2, p = 3
f = 1, i = 3/2, m = -1/2
i
p
R-side
V-side
Example:
Concave Mirror
R = 2, p = 3/2
f = 1, i = 3, m = -2
i
C
R-side
F
V-side
Chapter 35
chp35_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Mirror Examples (2
(2 )
Mirror Equations:
f =
R
2
1 1
1
+ =
p i
f
m=
i
p
Example:
Concave Mirror
R = 2, p = 1/2
f = 1, i = -1, m = 2
F p
R-side
V-side
Example:
Convex Mirror
R = -2, p = 3
f = -1, i = -3/4, m =
1/4
V-side
p
R-side
Chapter 35
chp35_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
1
1
1
= ( n 1)
f
R1 R 2 ,
where f is the focal length, n is the index of refraction, R1 is the radius of
curvature of side 1 (side that light enters the lense), and R2 is the radius of
curvature of side 2 (side that light exits the lense).
Lense Equation:
Converging Lense
1 1 1
+ =
p i
f
n
Magnification:
m=
V-side
C2
i
p
Side 1
C1
R-side
Side 2
Sign Conventions:
Variable
p (object distance)
i (image distance)
R1 (radius of curvature)
always positive
if image is on R-side (real image)
if C1 is on R-side
R2 (radius of curvature)
if C2 is on R-side
if C2 is on V-side
f (focal length)
m (magnification)
R1 = R R2 = R
Chapter 35
R
>0
2(n 1)
R
f =
<0
2(n 1)
f =
chp35_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
f = 1, p = 2
i = 2, m = -1
n
V-side
R-side
Example:
Converging Lense
f = 1, p = 1/2
i = -1, m = 2
i
V-side
F
1
R-side
Chapter 35
chp35_6.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Diverging Lense
f = -1, p = 2
i = -2/3, m = 1/3
p
V-side
i
1
R-side
R-side
Example:
Diverging Lense
f = -1, p = 1/2
i = -1/3, m = 2/3
V-side
i
1
Chapter 35
chp35_7.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Interference
Wave Superposition
ysum = y1 +y2
2.0
y2=Asin(k(x+))
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5 0
-1.0
-1.5
y2=Asin(kx)
-2.0
kx (radians)
Wave Superposition:
Consider the addition (superposition) of two waves with the same amplitude
and wavelength:
y1 = A sin(kx)
y2 = A sin(k ( x + ))
ysum = y1 + y2
The quantity is the "phase shift" between the two waves and k=2
/
is
the wave number.
= m + m = 0,1,2,K
Chapter 36
(max destructive)
chp36_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Interference Examples
Wave Superposition (
= ; max constructive):
Wave Superposition
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5 0
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
ysum = y1 + y2
kx (radians)
Wave Superposition (
= /2;
/2 max destructive):
Wave Superposition
1.0
0.5
0.0
0
-0.5
-1.0
ysum = y1 + y2
kx (radians)
Wave Superposition (
= /2):
Wave Superposition
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5
ysum = y1 + y2
Chapter 36
kx (radians)
chp36_2.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Double Slit
P
L1
S1
y
L2
d
S2
Double Slit
L1
S1
d
S2
L2
L = L2 L1 = d sin ,
and thus
d sin
sin = m
Double Slit
m = 0,1,2,K
d
Maximal Destructive
Interference:
The condition for maximal
destructive interference is
S1
d
S2
y = L tan
sin = m +
m = 0,1,2,K
2 d
(Dark Fringes - max destructive)
Chapter 36
chp36_3.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Incident Light
n1
"film"
n2
2
n3
Chapter 36
chp36_4.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Interference Problems
Chapter 36
chp36_5.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Diffraction Summary
Single Slit
Single Slit-Diffraction:
sin = m
W
m = 1,2,K
Round Hole-Diffraction:
Angular position of the first dark ring:
sin = 1.22
Diffraction Grating:
Diffraction
Grating
sin = m
m = 0,1,2, K
y
d
Slit
y = L tan
Chapter 37
chp37_1.doc
R. D. Field
PHY 2049
Diffraction Problems
Single Slit Example:
Light passes through a slit and shines on a flat screen that is located L = 0.4
m away. The width of the slit is W = 4x10-6 m. The distance between the
middle of the central bright spot and the first dark fringe is y. Determine the
width 2y of the central bright spot when the wavelength of light is = 690
nm.
Answer: 2y = 0.14 m
Chapter 37
chp37_2.doc