Graduate Journal of Counseling Psychology

Volume 1
Issue 2 Spring 2009

Article 14

3-1-2009

Identity Development Throughout the Lifetime:

An Examination of Eriksonian Theory
Justin T. Sokol

Follow this and additional works at: http://epublications.marquette.edu/gjcp

Recommended Citation
Sokol, Justin T. (2009) "Identity Development Throughout the Lifetime: An Examination of Eriksonian Theory," Graduate Journal of
Counseling Psychology: Vol. 1: Iss. 2, Article 14.
Available at: http://epublications.marquette.edu/gjcp/vol1/iss2/14

Sokol: Identity Development Throughout the Lifetime: An Examination of E

IdentityDevelopmentThroughouttheLifetime:
AnExaminationofEriksonianTheory
JustinT.Sokol

Abstract:Thepurposeofthecurrentarticleistoreviewidentitydevelopmentfromalifespan
perspective.Toaccomplishthistask,identitydevelopmentisexaminedatvarious
developmentalstagesincludingchildhood,adolescence,andadulthood.Thearticleutilizes
ErikEriksonspsychosocialtheoryofdevelopmenttoinvestigateidentitydevelopment
throughoutthelifespan.Researchfindingsfromempiricalstudiesareincludedwithinthis
discussion.Itappearsthatformanyindividuals,identitydevelopmentisalifelongprocess
thatextendswellbeyondtheyearsofadolescence.

TheinfluentialwritingsofErikErikson(19021994)havestimulated
over50yearsofsocialscienceliterature(Schwartz,2001).Histheorieson
developmenthaveinspiredcountlessresearchstudiesmakinghiman
especiallyrelevantfigureinthefield(Kroger,2007).Eriksonwroteat
lengthaboutidentity,focusingmainlyontheperiodofadolescence.
However,hedidofferinsightsonidentityduringbothchildhoodand
adulthood.Tracesofhistheoriescanbefoundinalmostallformsof
identityresearch.Therefore,itisappropriatetoinvestigatethistopicfrom
hisperspective.

Thepurposeofthisstudyistoexamineidentitydevelopmentfroma
lifespanperspective.ThearticlewillbeginwithadescriptionofEriksons
psychosocialtheoryofdevelopment.Next,attentionwillbegivento
identitydevelopmentduringchildhood,adolescence,andadulthood.Each
ofthesethreesectionswillincludeadescriptionofEriksonstheories;
empiricalstudieswillalsobepresentedtohelpillustratetheprocessof
identitydevelopment.Finallythearticlewillclosewithabriefevaluation
ofEriksonsidentitytheoryandcommentswillbeofferedforfuture
research.Beforestarting,afewwordsareinorderregardingterminology.

Inreviewingtheliteratureonidentity,thereisverylittleagreement
onhowidentityisdefined(Bosma,Graafsma,Grotevant,&deLevita,
1994).Eriksonaloneusedavarietyofidentityrelatedterms(identification,
identityformation,identitydevelopment,identityconsolidation,identity
foreclosure,andidentityresolution)withoutprovidingagreatdealof
explanation(Hoare,2002).Asaresult,hehasbeenheavilycriticizedfor
hisambiguousstyleofwriting.Thecurrentarticlewillutilizefewerterms
inanefforttoconveyaclearmessage.Therefore,identitydevelopment
willdescribetheoverarchingprocessofdevelopment,particularlyduring
theadulthoodyears.Identificationwillbeusedtodescribedevelopment
duringchildhoodandidentityformationwillapplytodevelopment
duringadolescence.

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ERIKSONSPSYCHOSOCIALTHEORY

ErikEriksonspsychosocialtheoryrevolutionizeddevelopmental
thought(Hoare,2002).Hewasoneofthefirsttoproposealifespan
modelofhumandevelopmentwhichincludedeightsuccessive
psychosocialstages.Eachstageisassociatedwithaninherentconflictor
crisisthattheindividualmustencounterandsuccessfullyresolveto
proceedwithdevelopment.ItisworthnotingthatErikson(1968)usedthe
termcrisisinadevelopmentalsensetoconnotenotathreatof
catastrophe,butaturningpoint,acrucialperiodofincreasedvulnerability
andheightenedpotential(p.96).Theassumptionisthateach
psychosocialstagehasbothasuccessfulandunsuccessfuloutcome(e.g.
trustversusmistrust,initiativeversusguilt,intimacyversusisolation).
Resolutionofearlierstagesisbelievedtodirectlyaffecttheresolutionof
laterstages(Marcia,1993).Erikson(1968)summarizeswiththefollowing
statement:
Ishallpresenthumangrowthfromthepointofviewof
theconflicts,innerandouter,whichthevitalpersonality
weathers,reemergingfromeachcrisiswithanincreased
senseofinnerunity,withanincreaseofgoodjudgment,
andanincreaseinthecapacitytodowellaccordingto
hisownstandardsandtothestandardsofthosewhoare
significanttohim.(pp.9192)
EriksongoesontosayTheuseofthewordstodowellofcoursepoints
upthewholequestionofculturalrelativity(p.92)whichhighlightsthe
emphasisheplacedonsocioculturalfactors.

Eriksoncontinuestoreceiveagreatdealofcreditforrecognizingthe
influenceofcultureondevelopment(Hoare,2002).Hewasthefirstto
illustratehowthesocialworldexistswithinthepsychologicalmakeupof
eachindividual.Erikson(1959)believedthattheindividualcannotbe
understoodapartfromhisorhersocialcontext.Individualandsociety
areintricatelywoven,dynamicallyrelatedincontinualchange(p.114).
ThisisathemethatpermeatesthroughoutallofEriksonseight
developmentalstagesandisespeciallyrelevanttothefifthpsychosocial
stage(identityversusroleconfusion)whichoccursduringadolescence.
Beforeexaminingthisdevelopmentaltask,itisimportanttorecognize
whatEriksonmeantwhenheusedthetermadolescence.

Erikson(1968)consideredadolescencetobeatransitionalperiodof
developmentfollowingchildhoodandleadingintoadulthood.
Unfortunately,heneverdefinedarangeofchronologicalagesfor
adolescenceorotherperiodsoflifesuchaschildhoodandadulthood
(Waterman,1993).Healsowroteinanerawhenattendingcollegewasless
commonthanitistoday;thishasdirectimplicationsbecauseofthe

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Sokol: Identity Development Throughout the Lifetime: An Examination of E

emphasisheplacedonvocationalidentity.Itcanbehypothesizedthat
Eriksonsversionofadolescencereferstoanageperiodroughlyassociated
withmiddleandhighschool:ages12through18.Arnett(2000)hassince
proposedaperiodofdevelopmentreferredtoasemergingadulthood
whichencompassestheyearsbeyondhighschool:ages18through25.
Identitydevelopmentisaninherentcomponentofemergingadulthood
andthereappearstobeconsiderableoverlapwiththesocialtasksof
adolescencethatEriksondescribes.Becausethisstagemaybemore
relevanttowhatEriksoninitiallytermedadolescence,itwillbeintegrated
withthehypothesizedageranges.Thus,adolescencewillrefertothelarge
spanofages12through24forthecurrentstudy.Itisequallyimportantto
operationalizeagerangesfortheotherdevelopmentalperiodsthatwillbe
discussed.Childhoodwillincludeages6through11,youngadulthoodwill
includeages25through39,middleadulthoodwillincludeages40through
65,andlateadulthoodwillconsistoftheyearsbeyondage65.Although
Erikson(1968)believedidentityformationisthefocalpointof
adolescence,itseemslogicaltobeginfromthestartwithadiscussionof
childhooddevelopmentandthenproceedthroughbothadolescenceand
adulthood.

IdentificationinChildhood(Ages611)

Theprocessofidentitydevelopmentbeginsmuchearlierthan
adolescence.Erikson(1968)believedthatseedsofidentityareplantedata
youngagewhenthechildrecognizeshimself/herselfasauniquebeing,
separatefromhis/herparents.Asmaturationoccurs,thechildtakeson
characteristicsandadmiredfeaturesofparentsorsignificantothers.
Eriksoncalledthisprocessidentification.Identificationallowsthechildto
buildasetofexpectationsaboutwhatheorshewishestobeanddo.
However,thechildeventuallylosesinterestinmerelyadoptingtheroles
andpersonalityattributesofparentsorsignificantothers;itisatthispoint
thattheprocessofidentityformationissetinmotion.

AccordingtoErikson(1968),identityformationbeginswhenthe
usefulnessofidentificationends.Takingoncharacteristicsofothersno
longerprovidessatisfaction;theindividualexperiencesadesiretoshape
hisorherworldinuniqueways.Identityformationbeginswithasynthesis
ofchildhoodskills,beliefs,andidentificationsintoacoherent,unique
wholethatprovidescontinuitywiththepastanddirectionforthefuture
(Marcia,1993).Eriksondidnotdiscussidentitydevelopmentduring
childhoodatgreatlength.Alternatively,heofferedgreatdetailaboutthe
processofidentityformationduringadolescence.

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IdentityFormationinAdolescence(Ages1224)

Erikson(1968)believedtheprimarypsychosocialtaskofadolescence
istheformationofidentity.Therefore,hecalledthedevelopmental
conflictidentityversusroleconfusion.Thereareseveralcontributing
factorstotheformationofidentity.Theonsetofpubertyduring
adolescenceleadstonewfoundcognitiveskillsandphysicalabilities
(Kroger,2004).Inaddition,increasedindependenceandautonomyleads
togreaterinteractionswithneighborhoods,communities,andschools.
AccordingtoErikson(1968),thisallowstheindividualtoexplore
vocations,ideologies,andrelationships.Hegaveparticularattentionto
thecareerdomain,statingIngeneral,itistheinabilitytosettleonan
occupationalidentitywhichdisturbsmostyoungpeople(Erikson,1968,
p.135).Newexpectationsofadultresponsibilitiesaregraduallyassumedas
theadolescentmatures.Withadulthoodonthehorizon,eventuallythe
twinidentityquestionsemerge:WhoamI?andWhatismyplacein
thisworld?(McAdams,Josselson,&Lieblich,2006).Whentheindividual
isabletoassesstheirpersonalattributesandmatchthesewithoutletsfor
expressionavailableintheenvironment,Erikson(1963)wouldsayidentity
hasbeenformed.However,whentheindividualisunabletomanagethis
developmentaltask,roleconfusionoccurs.

FromEriksonsperspective,identityreferstoasenseofwhooneisasa
personandasacontributortosociety(Hoare,2002).Itispersonal
coherenceorselfsamenessthroughevolvingtime,socialchange,and
alteredrolerequirements.Theformationofidentityisamajoreventinthe
developmentofpersonalityandassociateswithpositiveoutcomes
(Marcia,1993).Identityprovidesadeepsenseofideologicalcommitment
andallowstheindividualtoknowhisorherplaceintheworld(Hoare,
2002).Itprovidesonewithasenseofwellbeing,asenseofbeingathome
inonesbody,asenseofdirectioninoneslife,andasenseofmatteringto
thosewhocount(Erikson,1968).Identityiswhatmakesonemovewith
direction;itiswhatgivesonereasontobe.Eriksonclearlybelievedthat
havingasolidsenseofidentityiscrucialtofurtherdevelopment.
However,notallpeoplesuccessfullyresolvethisdevelopmentaltask.

Roleconfusioncanleadtoaverydifferenthumanexperience.It
causestheindividualtoseriouslyquestiononesessentialpersonality
characteristics,onesviewofoneself,andtheperceivedviewsofothers
(Bosmaetal.,1994).Consequently,theindividualexperiencesextreme
doubtregardingthemeaningandpurposeoftheirexistence,leadingtoa
senseoflossandconfusion.Duetochangingphysical,cognitive,and
socialfactors,nearlyalladolescentsexperiencesomeformofrole

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Sokol: Identity Development Throughout the Lifetime: An Examination of E

confusion(Kroger,2004).However,mostactivelyresolvetheseissuesand
progresstowardslaterdevelopmentalstages.

Insummary,Erikson(1968)believedthatadolescenceisatimein
whichidentitynormallybecomesthefocusofconcern.Researchappears
tosupportthisnotionbyindicatingthatthemostextensiveadvancesin
identitydevelopmentoccurduringthecollegeyears(Waterman,1985).
Majorgainsareexpectedduringcollegeasstudentsmakeimportant
decisionsthatpertaintovariouslifedomainsincludingoccupation,
friendship,romanticrelationships,andreligiousorpoliticalbeliefs
(Waterman&Archer,1990).Collegeenvironmentsprovideadiversityof
experiencesthatcanbothtriggerconsiderationsofidentityissuesand
suggestalternativeresolutionsforidentityconcerns(Waterman,1993,p.
5354);Eriksonwouldcertainlyagree.However,notallindividualsattend
collegeandhavetheopportunitytoexploretheaforementionedidentity
domains.Evenforthosewhodo,isitrealistictothinkthattheywillmake
commitmentsintheseareasthatwillremainunchangedthroughoutlife?
Itisforthesereasonsthatidentitydevelopmentbeyondadolescencewill
nowbediscussed.

IdentityDevelopmentinAdulthood(Ages25andBeyond)

Eriksonheldthatidentitydevelopmentdoesnotendwithits
formation(Hoare,2002).Hevieweditasanongoingprocessthatcaptures
onesinvestmentsthroughoutthelongyearsofadulthood.Thus,identity
developmentisbothanormativeperiodofadolescenceandanevolving
aspectofadulthood.IncontrasttoEriksonsextensivewritingsonthe
adolescentidentityformationprocess,hedidnotofferdetailedcomments
regardingidentitysevolutionthroughouttheadultlife(Kroger,2007).As
aresult,hehasbeencriticizedforextendinghistheorybeyond
adolescencewithoutprovidingmuchdetail.Tocomplicatematters
further,Eriksonconveyscontradictorymessagesspeakingonidentity
developmentbeyondadolescence.AccordingtoErikson(1968),thefinal
identityisfixedattheendofadolescence(p.161).Hesuggeststhat
identityconcernsfadeasissuesofintimacy(followedbygenerativityand
egointegrity)becomethemainfocus.Alternatively,Eriksonproposedthat
identitydefiningissuesofadolescencedonotremainfixed;theyretain
flexibilityformodificationthroughouttheadulthoodyearsduetonewlife
experiences.Clearlythesetwostatementsappearcontradictory;thisis
whyitisdifficulttoassessidentitydevelopmentbeyondadolescencefrom
hisperspective.Thankfully,othershavepickedupwhereEriksonleftoff.

Thereappearstobeaconsiderablescopeforidentitydevelopment
beyondadolescence(Kroger,2007).Theidentitydefiningdomainsof

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meaningfulvocational,political,religious,interpersonal,andsexual
choicesremainkeyfoundationalissuesduringyoungadulthood(ages25
39).VaillantandMilofsky(1980)suggestthatyoungadulthoodisatimeof
developingandconsolidatinggoals,particularlyintheareasofcareerand
family.Ontopofimplementingavocationalpathway,thedemandsof
partnering(andpossiblyparenting)raisenewissuesformanyyoung
adults.Researchhasindicatedthatintransitioningfromyoungtomiddle
adulthood,bothmenandwomenfrequentlychangetheirvalues,goals,
whattheyfindimportantinlife,andwhattheyaregenerallystriving
towards(Harker&Solomon,1996).

Identityrelatedissuescontinuetoemergeduringmiddleadulthood
(ages4065).Duringthistimeperiod,individualsbegintoreclaim
oppositesexqualitiesandexperienceashiftinperspectiveontime(Kotre
&Hall,1990).Womentendtotakeonmoremasculinecharacteristics
whilementakeonmorefemininecharacteristics(Huyck,1990;James,
Lewkowicz,Libhaber,&Lachman,1995);inaddition,therealitythatlifeis
halffinishedbeginstosinkin.Itisnotuncommonforindividualsto
reevaluate,refine,andreadjustvocationalandsocialrolesduringmiddle
adulthood(Kroger,2007).Changesinlifecircumstancescanalsocausea
reexaminationofidentityissues(Waterman,1993).Midlifecareerchanges,
geographicrelocations,resumingoneseducation,divorce,remarriage,
deathoflovedones,andadoptionareallviablepossibilitiesformiddle
adulthood.Finally,thecommonlyusedphrasemidlifecrisisisoften
associatedwithidentityrelatedissues,althoughresearchindicatesthat
thisisaninfrequentlyoccurringevent(Berk,2007).

Examinationandevaluationaretwowordssynonymouswith
continuedidentitydevelopmentinlateadulthood(ages65andbeyond).
Retirementallowstheindividualtoreflectuponthechoicesthathave
beenmadethroughoutthecourseoflife.Reviewingoneslifeinapositive
mannerallowstheindividualtoexperiencesatisfaction.Alternatively,a
negativelifereviewcanleavetheindividualwithfeelingsofregret.Kroger
(2002)conductedoneofthefewstudiesonidentityrevisionand
maintenanceprocessesduringlateadulthood.Resultsshowedthat
importantidentityprocessesincludedreintegratingimportantidentity
elementsfromyoungeryears,rebalancingrelationshipsandothersocial
roles,readjustingtolossanddiminishedphysicalcapacities,andfinding
lifemeanings.Theargumentcouldbemadethatidentitydevelopmentis
stilljustasmuchanissueinlateadulthoodasitisearlierinlife.

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CONCLUSION

Insummary,Eriksonspsychosocialtheoryiscomposedofeight
developmentalstageswhichspanthroughoutthecourseoflife.Eachstage
presentstheindividualwithaninherenttaskorconflictthattheymust
successfullyresolvetoproceedwithdevelopment.Eriksonplacedagreat
dealofemphasisonsocioculturalfactorsbecausehebelievedthese
stronglyinfluencedevelopment.Suchfactorsareespeciallyrelevantinthe
processofidentityformation.Eriksonbelievedthatchildhood
identificationslaythegroundworkforidentityformationinadolescence.
Theprocessofforminganidentityinvolvescreatingacoherentsenseof
selfandwhooneisinrelationtotheworld.Adolescencerepresentsan
optimaltimeforidentitydevelopmentduetoavarietyofphysical,
cognitive,andsocialfactors.AlthoughEriksonbelievedidentitywas
largelyfixedbytheendofadolescence,hedidsuggestthatidentity
continuestoevolvethroughoutadulthood.Unfortunately,hedidnotgive
greatdetailonwhatthisprocesslookslike.Researchshowsthatidentity
developmentcontinuestobeanongoingprocessthroughoutadulthood.
Justasinadolescence,vocations,ideologies,andrelationshipscontinueto
remainimportantidentityissues.Severalstudieshavebeenpresentedto
supportthisnotion.

Muchlikeforminganidentity,reviewingtheliteratureonthis
nebuloustopicisnosmalltask.Asdiscussedearlier,researchersusea
varietyoftermsandphraseswhendescribingtheprocessofidentity
development.Itisalsodifficulttofindcontinuitywithregardsto
developmentalperiodsandassociatedages.Astrongefforthasbeenmade
touseterminologythatconnectsEriksonsworkwithmorerecent
empiricalstudiesinamannerthatisunderstandableandcoherent.It
wouldbewiseforfutureresearcherstouseagreedupontermsand
definitionssoasnottoconfusereadersandfellowcolleagues.Nomatter
whatyoucallit,identitydevelopmentisamajorpsychosocialtaskandone
thatappearsduringmanyphasesoflife.AlthoughEriksonmaynothave
beenclearregardingidentitydevelopmentbeyondadolescence,wewill
alwaysbeindebtedtohimforthegreatdealofdiscussionand
conversationhehasstimulatedonthisintriguingtopic.

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JustinT.Sokol

Justin Sokol obtained his BS in Psychology from the University of

Wisconsin-La Crosse. He is currently a first year doctoral student in the
Counseling Psychology program at Marquette University. Justins
research and clinical interests include psychotherapy process/outcome
studies and religion/spirituality. He hopes to conduct research,
psychotherapy, and teach at the university level.

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