SUMMARY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT – A LIFE SPAN VIEW

CHAPTER I – THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1.1 THINKING ABOUT DEVELOPMENT

Since birth, many parents wondered how the development of their children will
become as they grow older. You might suspect your genetic heritage, your family or
neighborhood, the suddenness of some changes in your life and the gradualness of
others, and the culture(s) in which you grew up or now live.

In this chapter, the fundamental issues or characteristics of human development

are discussed. There are three main issues that are prominent in the study of human
development: the nature and nurture, the continuity and discontinuity, and the universal
and context-specific development.

 Nature and Nurture

 The degree to which genetic or hereditary influences (nature) and
experiential or environmental influences (nurture) determine the
kind of person you are.
 As mutually interactive influence, development is shaped by both.
 Continuity and Discontinuity
 Whether a particular development phenomenon represents a
smooth progression throughout the life span (continuity) or a series
of abrupt shifts (discontinuity)
 It also concerns whether the same explanations (continuity) or
different explanations (discontinuity) must be used to explain
changes in people over time.
 Continuity approaches emphasize quantitative change;
discontinuity approaches emphasize qualitative change.
 Universal and Context-Specific Development
 whether there is one path or several paths of development
 whether development follows the same general path in all people of
fundamentally depends on the sociocultural context.

Putting all three issues together, we can ask how heredity and environment
interact to influence the development of personality, whether the development of
personality is continuous or discontinuous, and whether personality develops much the
same way around the world

Basic Forces in Human Development: The Biopsychosocial Framework

Development is based on the combined impact of four primary forces. When

trying to explain why people develop as they do, scientists usually consider four
interactive forces:

 Biological Forces
 include all genetic and health related factors that affects
development; many of these are determined by our genetic code
 Psychological Forces
 include all internal cognitive, emotional, perceptual, and personality
factors that influence development
 explain the most noticeable differences in people
 Sociocultural Forces
 include interpersonal, societal, cultural, and ethic factors that affect
development
 Culture consists of the knowledge, attitudes, and behavior
associated with a group of people
 It provide the context or backdrop for development
 Life-Cycle Forces
 provide a context for understanding how people perceive their
current situation and what effects it has on them
 reflects differences in how the same event affects people of
different ages

Each person is a unique combination of these forces, and each force shapes the
others. One useful way to organize the biological, psychological, and sociocultural
forces on human development is with the biopsychosocial framework.

Biopsychosocial Framework

The biopsychosocial framework shows the human development results from

interacting forces. It also emphasizes that the four forces are mutually interactive;
development cannot be understood by examining the forces in isolation. The same
event can give different effects, depending on when it happens.

Neuroscience: A Windows Into Human Development

How does neuroscience enhance our understanding of human development?

 Neuroscience, a study of the brain and nervous system, especially in terms of
brain-behavior relationships, brings important perspective in human development. It
identifies the patterns of rain activity that helps to reveal interactions between biological,
psychological, sociocultural, and life-cycle forces, which allows a better understanding
of how each person is a unique expression of these forces

Neuroscientific approaches are being applied in a wide range of issues in human

development, especially those involving memory, reasoning, and emotion.

1.2 DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES

Developmental Theory – organize knowledge so as to provide testable explanation of

human behaviors and the ways in which they change over time. Current approaches to
developmental theory focus on specific aspects of behavior. At present, there is no
single unified theory of human development.

Psychodynamic Theory – propose that behavior is determined by the way people deal
with conflicts they face at different ages. Erickson proposed a life-span theory of
psychosocial development consisting of eight universal stages, each characterized by a
particular struggle.

Learning Theory – focuses on the development of observable behavior.

There are two influential theories in this perspective: behaviorism (operant conditioning)
and social learning theory.

 Operant conditioning is based on the notions of reinforcement, punishment,

and environmental control of behavior.
 Social learning theory proposes that people learn of observing others.

Cognitive-Developmental Theory – focuses on thoughts process; the key is how

people think and how thinking changes over time

Three distinct approaches have developed:

1. Thinking develops in a universal sequence of stages. (e.g. Piaget’s theory of

cognitive development – and its recent extensions)
2. People process information as computers do, becoming more efficient over much
of the life span. (e.g. information-processing theory)
3. Contributions of culture on cognitive growth.

Piaget’s Theory
 Piaget proposed a four-stage universal sequence based on the notion that
throughout development;

The first stage in Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development is the

sensorimotor. It is from birth up to two years of age. In this stage, the infant’s
knowledge of the world is based on senses and motor skills and by the end of the
period, they use mental representation.

The second stage is preoperational thought, from ages two to six years in
where child learns how to use symbols such as words and numbers to represent the
aspects of the world but relates to the world only through his or her perspective.

On the third stage, the concrete operational thought, ages seven to early
adolescence, the child understands and applies logical operations to experiences
provided they are focused on the here and now.

And the last stage, the formal operational thought, from adolescence and
beyond, adolescent or adult thinks abstractly, deals with hypothetical situations, and
speculates about what may be possible.

Information-Processing Theory

According to information-processing theory, people deal with information like a

computer does – proposing that human cognition consists of mental hardware and
mental software.

Mental Hardware – refers to cognitive structures, including different memories

where information is stored.

Mental Software – includes organized sets of cognitive processes that enable

people to complete specific task such as reading a sentence, playing a video game, or
hitting a baseball.

Vygotsky’s Theory

Lev Vygotsky emphasized the influence of culture on development in where the

children’s thinking is influenced by the sociocultural context in which children grow up.
He also believed that because a fundamental aim of all societies is to enable children to
acquire essential cultural values and skills, every aspects of a child’s development must
be considered against this backdrop.

The Ecological and System Approach

Ecological Theory – human development is inseparable from their environmental
contexts in which a person develops. Its approach proposes that all aspects of
development are interconnected so that no aspect of development can be isolated from
others and understood independently.

There two example of ecological and system approach: Bronfenbrenner’s theory and
the competence-environmental press framework

Bronfenbrenner’s Theory

Bronfenbrenner proposed that development occurs in the context of several

interconnected systems of increasing complexity. He divided the environment into the
four levels: the microsystem, the mesosystem, the exosystem, and the macrosystem.

 Microsystem – consists of the people and objects in an individual’s

immediate environment; connected to create the mesosystem
 Mesosystem – provides connections across microsystems because what
happens in one microsystem is likely to influence others
 Exosystem – social settings that a person may not experience firsthand
but that still influence development
 Macrosystem – the cultures and subcultures in which the microsystem,
and exosystem are embedded

The Competence-Environmental Press Theory

According to this theory, people adapt most effectively when their competence,
or abilities, match the environmental press – the demands put on them by the
environment. It simply postulates that there is a “best fit” between a person’s abilities
and the demands of the person’s environment.

Life-Span Perspective, Selective Optimization with Compensation, And Life-

Course Perspective

Life-Span Perspective, Selective Optimization with Compensation

According to the life-span perspective, human development is multiply

determined and cannot be understood within the scope of a single framework. It is
characterized by four critical developmental forces; multidirectionality, plasticity,
historical context, and multiple causation.
  Multidirectionality – development involves both growth and decline; as
people grow in one area, they may lose in another and at different rates
 Plasticity – one’s capacity is not predetermined or carved in stone. Many
skills can be learned or improved with practice, even in late life.
 Historical Context – each of us develops within a particular set of
circumstances determined by the historical time in which we are bornand
the culture in which we grow up.
 Multiple Causation – how we develop results from the biological,
psychological, sociocultural, and life-cycle forces that we mentioned
previously.

Selective Optimization with Compensation

Selective optimization with compensation refers to the developmental trends to

focus one’s efforts and abilities in successively fewer domains as one ages and to
acquire ways to compensate to normative losses.

Life-Course Perspective

The life course perspective describes the ways in which various generations
experience the biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces of development in
their respective historical context. Also, it refers to understanding human development
within the context of the historical time period in which a generation develops, which
creates unique sets of experiences.

There are three major dimensions in life-course dimension:

 The individual timing of life events in relation to external historical events.

 This dimension addresses the question: how do people time and
sequence their lives in the context of changing historical conditions?
 The synchronization of individual transitions with collective familial ones.
 This dimension addresses the question: how do people balance their own
lives with those of their family?
 The impact of earlier life events, as shaped by historical events, on
subsequent ones.
 This dimension addresses the question: how does experiencing an event
earlier in life at a particular point in history affects one’s subsequent life?

1.3 DOING DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH

 Measurement in Human Development Research

Research typically begins by determining how to measure the topic of interest.

Human development researchers use one of four approaches: observing
systematically, using tasks to sample behavior, asking people for self-reports, and
taking physiological measures.

Systematic Observation

It involves watching people and carefully recording what they say or do;
recording people’s behavior as it takes place, in either a natural environment
(naturalistic observation). Two forms of systematic observation are common; the
Naturalistic Observation and Structured Observation

 Naturalistic Observation – technique in which people are observed as they

behave spontaneously in a real-life situation
 Structured Observation – technique in which a researcher creates a setting that
is likely to elicit the behavior of interest

Sampling Behavior with Tasks

Researchers sometimes create tasks to obtain samples of behavior. In self-

reports, people answer questions posed by the experimenter, or questions about the
topic of interest. Physiological measures provide a way to examine body behavior
relationships.

Reliability and Validity

Researchers must determine that their measures are reliable and valid; they
must also obtain a sample representative of some larger population. The reliability of a
measure is the extent to which it provides a consistent index of a characteristic, while
the validity is the extent to which a measure actually assesses what researchers think it
does.

General Designs for Research

Having a selected way to measure the topic or behavior of interest, researchers

must embed this measure in a research design that yields useful, relevant results.
Human development researchers rely only on two primary designs in their work:
correlational studies and experimental studies.

In correlational studies, investigators examine relations among variables as

they occur naturally. This relation is often measured by a correlation coefficient, which
can vary from -1 (strong inverse relation) to 0 (no relation) to +1 (strong positive
relation). Correlational studies cannot determine cause and effect, so researchers do
experimental studies in which an independent variable is manipulated and the impact of
this manipulation on dependent variable is recorded.

Experimental studies allow conclusions about cause and effect, but the
required strict control of other variables often makes the situation artificial. Also. The
investigators in this studies are systematically manipulating the factor(s) that they think
causes a particular behavior. The factor being manipulated is called the independent
variable; the behavior being observed is called the dependent variable.

The best approach is to use both experimental and correlational studies to

provide converging evidence. Qualitative research permits more in-depth analysis of
behavior and is often used as a preliminary step for, or in conjunction with, quantitative
research.

Designs for Studying Development

Research in human development usually concerns differences or changes that

occur over time. In these cases, investigators must also choose one of three designs
that allow them to examine development: longitudinal, cross-sectional, or sequential.

In a longitudinal design, the same people are observed or tested repeatedly at

different points in their lives. It also examines development over time. This approach
provides evidence concerning actual patters of individual growth but has several
shortcomings as well: It is time-consuming, some people drop out of the project, and
repeated testing can affect performance.

An alternative, the cross-sectional design, involves testing people of different

ages. This design avoids the problems of the longitudinal design but provides no
information about individual growth. Also, what appear to be age differences may be
cohort effects. Because neither design is problem-free, the best approach involves
using both to provide converging evidence.

Some researchers use another more complex research approach, called the
sequential designs, that is based on multiple longitudinal or cross-sectional designs.

Integrating Findings from Different Studies

Findings are often inconsistent so researchers integrate findings using different

studies. The so-called meta-analysis are also used when conducting a study in where
it provides a way for researchers to look for trends across multiple studies to estimate
the relations among variables.
 Conducting Research Ethically

Planning research also involves selecting methods that preserve the rights of
research participants. Experimenters must minimize the risks to participants, describe
the research so that candidates can make an informed decision about participating,
avoid deception, and keep results anonymous or confidential.

Communicating Research Results

Once research data are collected and analyzed, investigators publish the results
in scientific outlets such as journals and books. The researchers will submit the report to
one of several scientific journals that specialized in human development research. Such
results form the foundation of knowledge about human development.

Applying Research Results: Social Policy

How does research affect public policy?

Research results are sometimes used to inform and shape public policy. The ban
on lead-based paint is an example.

CHAPTER TWO – BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS: HEREDITY, PRENATAL

DEVELOPMENT, AND BIRTH

The period before birth is the foundation for all human development and the
focus of this chapter. Pregnancy begins when egg and sperm cells unite and exchange
hereditary material. In the first section, you’ll see how this exchange takes place and, in
the process, learn about inherited factors that affect development. The second section
of the chapter traces the events that transform sperm and egg into a living, breathing
human being. You’ll learn about the timetable that governs development before birth
and, along the way, get answers to common questions about pregnancy. We talk about
some of the problems that can occur during development before birth in the third section
of the chapter. The last section focuses on birth and the newborn baby. You’ll find out
how an expectant mother can prepare for birth and what labor and delivery are like.

2.1 – IN THE BEGINNING: 23 PAIRS OF CHROMOSOMES

At conception, the 23 chromosomes in the sperm merge with the 23

chromosomes in the egg. Chromosomes, a threadlike structure in the nucleus that
contain genetic material. Each chromosome is one molecule of DNA – a molecule
composed of four nucleotide bases that is the biochemical basis of heredity; a section of
DNA that provides specific biochemical instructions is called a gene.
 All of a person’s genes make up a genotype; the phenotype refers to the
physical, behavioral, and psychological characteristics that develop when the genotype
is exposed to a specific environment.

Different forms of the same gene are called alleles. A person who inherits the
same allele on a pair of chromosomes is homozygous; in this case, the biochemical
instructions on the allele are followed. A person who inherits a different allele is
heterozygous; in this case, the instructions of the dominant allele are followed and
those of the recessive allele are ignored.

Genetic Disorder

Genetics can derail development in two ways. First, some disorders are
inherited, and second, sometimes eggs or sperm do not include the usual 23
chromosomes, but have more or fewer chromosomes instead.

Most inherited disorders are carried by recessive alleles. Example which include
sickle-cell disease and phenylketonuria, in which toxins accumulate and cause mental
retardation. Also, sometimes fertilized eggs do not have 46 chromosomes. Usually they
are aborted spontaneously soon after conception. An exception is Down syndrome, in
which individuals typically have an extra 21 st chromosome. Down syndrome individuals
have a distinctive appearance and mentally retarded. Disorders of the sex
chromosomes are more common because these chromosomes contain less genetic
material than do autosomes.

Heredity, Environment, and Development

How do children’s heredity influenced by the environment in which they grow up?

Many people mistakenly view heredity as a set of phenotypes unfolding

automatically from the genotypes that are set at conception. Nothing could be further
from the truth. Although genotypes are fixed when the sperm fertilizes the egg,
phenotypes are not. Instead, phenotypes depend both on genotypes and on the
environment in which individuals develop. There are methods that developmental
scientists use; the behavioral genetics.

The behavioral genetics is a branch of genetics that deals with inheritance of

behavioral and psychological traits. Behavioral and psychological phenotypes that
reflects underlying continuum (such as intelligence) often involve polygenic inheritance.
In polygenic inheritance, the phenotype reflects the combined activity of many distinct
genes. Traditionally, polygenic inheritance has been examined by studying twins and
adopted children and, more recently identifying DNA markers.
 The impact of heredity on a child’s development depends on the environment in
which in genetic instructions are carried out, and these heredity – environment
interactions occur throughout a child’s life. A child’s genotype can affect the kinds of
experiences the child has; children and adolescents often actively seek environments
related to their genetic makeup. Family environments affect siblings differently
(nonshared environmental influence); parents provide a unique environment for each
child in the family.

2.2 FROM CONCEPTION TO BIRTH

The first period of prenatal development lasts two weeks. It begins when the egg
is fertilized by the sperm in the fallopian tube and ends when the fertilized egg has
implanted itself in the wall of the uterus. By the end of this period, cells have begun to
differentiate.

The second period of prenatal development begins two weeks after conception
and lasts until the end of the eighth week. This is a period of rapid growth in which most
major body structures are created. Growth in this period is cephalocaudal (the head
develops first) and proximodistal (parts of the center of the body develops first).

The third period of prenatal development begins nine weeks after conception and
lasts until birth. The highlights of this period are a remarkable increase in the size of the
fetus and changes in body systems that are necessary for life. By seven months, most
body systems function well enough to support life.

2.3 INFLUENCES ON PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

General Risk Factors

As the name implies, general risk factors can have widespread effects on
prenatal development. Scientists have identified three general risk factors: nutrition,
stress, and mother’s age.

The mother is the developing child’s sole source of nutrition, so a balanced diet
that includes foods from each of the five major food groups is vital. Another risk factor is
the stress. Women who report greater anxiety during pregnancy more often give birth
early or have babies who weigh less than average. Stress can also weaken a pregnant
woman’s immune system, making her more susceptible to illness that can damage fetal
development. Also, pregnant women under stress are more likely to smoke or drink
alcohol and are less likely to rest, exercise, and eat properly. Stress may also produce
epigenetic changes in which genes that help children regulate their behavior are made
less effective. All these behaviors endanger prenatal development.
 The woman’s age can also affect prenatal development. Teenagers often have
problem pregnancies, mainly because they rarely receive adequate prenatal care. After
age 35, pregnant women are more likely to have a miscarriage or to give birth to a child
with mental retardation. Prenatal development can also be harmed if a pregnant mother
has inadequate nutrition or experiences considerable stress.

Teratogens: Drugs, Diseases, and Environmental Hazards

Teratogens are agents that can cause abnormal prenatal development. Many
drugs that adults take are teratogens. For most drugs, scientists have not established
amounts that can be consumed safely.

Several diseases are teratogens. Only by avoiding these diseases entirely can a
pregnant woman can escape their harmful consequences.

Environmental teratogens are particularly dangerous because a pregnant woman

may not know that these substances are present in the environment.

How Teratogens Influence Prenatal Development

The impact of teratogens depends on the genotype of the organism, the period of
prenatal development when the organism is exposed to the teratogen, and the amount
of exposure. Sometimes the effect of a teratogen is not evident until later in life.

Prenatal Diagnosis and Treatment

Many techniques are used to track the progress of prenatal development. A

common component of prenatal care is ultrasound, which uses sounds waves to
generate a picture of a fetus. This picture can be used to determine the position of the
fetus; its sex; and gross physical deformities, if any.

When genetic disorders are suspected, amniocentesis and chorionic villus

sampling are used to determine the genotype of the fetus

Fetal medicine is a new field in which problems of prenatal development are

corrected medically via surgery or genetic engineering.

2.4 LABOR AND DELIVERY

Stages of Labor
 Labor consists of three stages. In stage 1, the muscle of the uterus contracts.
The contractions, which are weak at first and gradually become stronger, cause the
cervix to enlarge. In stage 2, the baby moves through the birth canal. In stage 3, the
placenta is delivered.

Approaches to Childbirth

Natural or prepared childbirth is based on the assumption that parents should

understand what takes place during pregnancy and birth. In prepared childbirth, woman
learn to cope with pain through relaxation, imagery, and the help of a supportive coach.

Most American babies are born in hospitals, but home delivery can be safe when
the mother is healthy, when pregnancy and birth are trouble-free, and when a health
care professional is present to deliver the baby.

Adjusting to Parenthood

Following of the birth of a child, a woman’s body undergoes several changes; her
breast fill with milk, her uterus becomes smaller, and hormone levels drop. Both parents
also adjust psychologically, and sometimes fathers feel left out. After giving birth, some
women experience postpartum depression: they are irritable, have poor appetite and
disturbed sleep, and are apathetic.

Birth Complications

During labor and delivery, the flow of blood to the fetus can be disrupted because
the umbilical cord is squeezed shut. This causes hypoxia, a lack of oxygen to the fetus.
Some babies are born prematurely, and others are “small for date.” Premature babies
develop more slowly at first but catch up by 2 or 3 years of age. Small-for-date babies
often do not fare well, particularly when they weigh less than 1,500 grams at birth and
their environment is stressful.

Infant Mortality

Infant mortality is relatively high in many countries around the world, primarily
because of inadequate care before birth and disease and inadequate nutrition after
birth.