Module 1

Introduction to
Networking
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Internet Connections
The Internet is the largest data network on earth.
The Internet consists of a multitude of interconnected networks
both large and small.
Connection to the Internet can be broken down into the physical
connection, the logical connection, and the application.

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Internet Connections
A physical connection is made by connecting a
specialized expansion card such as a modem or a
network interface card (NIC) from a computer (PC) to a
network.
The physical connection is used to transfer signals
between PCs within the local network and to remote
devices on the Internet.

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Internet Connections
The logical connection uses standards called protocols.
A protocol is a formal description of a set of rules and
conventions that govern how devices on a network
communicate.
Connections to the Internet may use multiple protocols.

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Internet Connections
The application that interprets the data and displays the
information in an understandable form is the last part of
the connection.
Applications work with protocols to send and receive data
across the Internet.
A web browser displays Hypertext Markup Language
(HTML) as a web page.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used to download files and
programs from the Internet.

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PC Basics
Computers are important building blocks in a network.
It is important to be able to recognize and name the
major components of a PC.
Many networking devices are themselves special purpose
computers, with many of the same components as
normal PCs.

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PC Components
Small, Discrete Components

Transistor

Integrated circuit (IC)

Resistor

Capacitor

Connector

Light emitting diode (LED)

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PC Components
Personal Computer Subsystems
Printed circuit board (PCB)
CD-ROM drive
Central processing unit (CPU)
Floppy disk drive
Hard disk drive
Microprocessor
Motherboard
Bus
Random-access memory (RAM)
System unit
Expansion slot
Power supply
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PC Components
Backplane Components

Backplane
Network interface card (NIC)
Audio card
Parallel port
Serial port
Power cord

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Information Flow
Information and electric power are constantly flowing in a
computer.
Outgoing or exported information flows from RAM and the CPU,
through the bus and expansion slots, to the printer, video card,
sound card, or network card (NIC).

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Network Interface Card (NIC)

A network interface card (NIC) is a printed circuit board that
provides network communication capabilities to and from a
personal computer.
Also called a LAN adapter, it resides in a slot on the
motherboard and provides an interface connection to the
network media.

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Network Interface Card (NIC)

When selecting a NIC, consider the following factors:
Protocols Ethernet, Token Ring, or FDDI
Types of media Twisted-pair, coaxial, wireless, or fiber-optic
Type of system bus PCI or ISA

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Modems
A modem, or modulator-demodulator, is a device that provides
the computer with connectivity to a telephone line.
The modem converts (modulates) the data from a digital signal
to an analog signal that is compatible with a standard phone
line.
The modem at the receiving end demodulates the signal, which
converts it back to digital.
Modems may be installed internally or attached externally to the
computer using a serial or USB interface.

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Dial-up and High-speed Connectivity

Standard Modem
56 kbps
Each session requires the user to dial-up

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

High-speed connectivity
Always on service (no dial-up required)
Does not tie up the phone line

Cable Modem
High-speed connectivity
Always on service (no dial-up required)
Does not tie up the phone line
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TCP/IP
Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) is a set of protocols
or rules developed to allow
cooperating computers to
share resources across a
network.
To enable TCP/IP on the
workstation, it must be
configured using the operating
system tools.

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Ping
Ping is a utility used to verify Internet connectivity.
The ping command works by sending multiple IP packets
to a specified destination.
Each packet sent is a request for a reply.
The ping command is used to test the NIC
transmit/receive function, the TCP/IP configuration, and
network connectivity.

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Ping
The output response for a ping contains the success ratio
and round-trip time to the destination. From this
information, it is possible to determine if there is
connectivity to a destination.

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Types of Ping Tests

ping 127.0.0.1 - This ping is unique and is called an
internal loopback test. It verifies the operation of the
TCP/IP stack and NIC transmit/receive function.
ping IP address of host computer - A ping to a
host PC verifies the TCP/IP address configuration for the
local host and connectivity to the host.

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Types of Ping Tests

ping default-gateway IP address - A ping to the
default gateway verifies whether the router that connects
the local network to other networks can be reached.
ping remote destination IP address - A ping to
a remote destination verifies connectivity to a remote host.

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Web Browsers
Two of the most popular web browsers are Internet
Explorer (IE) and Netscape Communicator.
A web browser is software that interprets hypertext
markup language (HTML).

A web browser performs the following functions:

Contacts a web server
Requests information
Receives information
Displays the results on the screen

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Web Browsers and Plug-ins

There are also many special, or proprietary, file types that
standard web browsers are not able to display. To view
these files the browser must be configured to use the
plug-in applications. These applications work in
conjunction with the browser to launch the program
required to view the following special files:
Flash plays multimedia files, which was created by
Macromedia Flash
QuickTime plays video files, which was created by Apple
Real Player plays audio files

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Binary Representation
Computers work with and store data using electronic switches
that are either ON or OFF.
Computers can only understand and use data that is in this twostate or binary format.
1 is represented by an ON state.
0 is represented by an OFF state

The 1s and 0s are referred to as binary digits or bits.

A binary 0 might be represented by 0 volts of electricity (0 = 0
volts).
A binary 1 might be represented by +5 volts of electricity (1 = +5
volts).
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Bits & Bytes

Computers are designed to use groupings of eight bits.
This grouping of eight bits is referred to as a byte.
In a computer, one byte represents a single addressable
storage location.
These storage locations represent a value or single
character of data.
The total number of combinations of the eight switches
being turned on and off is 256. The value range of a byte
is from 0 to 255.

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Units of Data Storage

Bit (b) binary 1 or 0
Byte (B) eight bits
Kilobyte (KB) 1024 bytes or approximately 1,000 bytes
Megabyte (MB) approximately 1 million bytes
Gigabyte (GB) approximately 1 billion bytes
Terabyte (TB) approximately 1 trillion bytes
How many bits are in a Megabyte?

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Number Systems
Decimal (Base 10)
uses 10 symbols
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9

Binary (Base 2)
uses 2 symbols
0, 1

Hexadecimal (Base 16)

uses 16 symbols
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F

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Number Systems
Base 10

10^4 10^3 10^2 10^1 10^0 Decimal

10,000 1,000 100 10
1
4
2
6
426

Base 2
2^7
128

2^6
64

2^5
32

2^4
16
1

2^3
8
0

2^2 2^1 2^0 Decimal

4
2
1
0
1
1
19

Base 16
16^4 16^3 16^2 16^1 16^0 Decimal
65,536 4,096 256 16
1
1
2
A
298
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Binary Counting
Decimal

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

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Binary

0
1
10
11
100
101
110
111
1000
1001
1010
1011
1100

Decimal
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

Binary
1101
1110
1111
10000
10001
10010
10011
10100
10101
10110
10111
11000
11001
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Decimal to Binary Conversion

Method 1

Convert the decimal number 192 into a binary number.

192/2 =

96

with a remainder of

96/2

48

with a remainder of

48/2

24

with a remainder of

24/2

12

with a remainder of

12/2

with a remainder of

6/2

with a remainder of

3/2

with a remainder of

1/2

with a remainder of

Write down all the remainders, backwards, and you have the
binary number 11000000.
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Decimal to Binary Conversion

Method 1

Convert the decimal number 235 into a binary number.

235/2 =

117

with a remainder of

117/2 =

58

with a remainder of

58/2

29

with a remainder of

29/2

14

with a remainder of

14/2

with a remainder of

7/2

with a remainder of

3/2

with a remainder of

1/2

with a remainder of

Write down all the remainders, backwards, and you have the binary
number 11101011.
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Decimal to Binary Conversion

Method 2

Convert the decimal number 192 into a binary number. First find
the largest number that is a power of 2 that you can subtract from
the original number. Repeat the process until there is nothing left
to subtract.
192-128 =
64
128s used
1
64-64 =
0
64s used
1
32s used
0
16s used
0
8s used
0
4s used
0
2s used
0
1s used
0
Write down the 0s & 1s from top to bottom, and you have the
binary number 11000000.
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Decimal to Binary Conversion

Method 2

Convert the decimal number 213 into a binary number. First find the
largest number that is a power of 2 that you can subtract from the
original number. Repeat the process until there is nothing left to
subtract.
213-128 =
85
128s used
1
85-64 =
21
64s used
1
*(32 cannot be subtracted from 21)
32s used
0
21-16 =
5
16s used
1
*(8 cannot be subtracted from 5)
8s used
0
5-4 =
1
4s used
1
*(2 cannot be subtracted from 1)
2s used
0
1-1 =
0
1s used
1
Write down the 0s & 1s from top to bottom, and you have the binary
number 11010101.
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Binary to Decimal Conversion

Method 1

From right to left, write the values of the powers of 2 above

each binary number. Then add up the values where a 1
exist.
27
128
1

26
64
0

25
32
1

24
16
1

23
8
0

22
4
1

21
2
0

20
1
1

128 + 32 + 16 + 4 + 1 = 181

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Binary to Decimal Conversion

Method 1

From right to left, write the values of the powers of 2 above

each binary number. Then add up the values where a 1
exist.
27
128
1

26
64
1

25
32
0

24
16
1

23
8
1

22
4
1

21
2
0

20
1
0

128 + 64 + 16 + 8 + 4 = 220

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Binary to Decimal Conversion

Method 2

Start from the left with the first 1 in the binary number. Write
down a 1 below it.
Then look at the next number to the right
if it is a 0, double the previous number and write it down
if it is a 1, double the previous number and add 1 to it, then write it
down

Continue this until you reach the last 0 or 1 in the binary

number.
The last number you write down is the decimal equivalent of
the binary number.
Binary place value 128
64
32 16
8
4
2
1
Binary number
1
1
0
1
1
3 6
13
Conversion
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Binary to Decimal Conversion

Method 2

Binary place value

128

64

32

16
1
1

8
1
3

4
0
6

2
1
13

1
0
26

128

64

32
1
1

16
0
2

8
0
4

4
1
9

2
1
19

1
1
39

128

64
1
1

32
1
3

16
1
7

8
1
15

4
0
30

2
1
61

1
1
123

Binary number
Conversion

Binary place value

Binary number
Conversion

Binary place value

Binary number
Conversion
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IP Addresses
Currently, addresses assigned to computers on the Internet are
32-bit binary numbers.
To make it easier to work with these addresses, the 32-bit
binary number is broken into a series of decimal numbers.
To do this, split the binary number into four groups of eight
binary digits.
Then convert each group of eight bits, also known as an octet
into its decimal equivalent.

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IP Addresses
The complete binary number is represented as four groups of
decimal digits separated by periods.
This is referred to as dotted decimal notation.

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Hexadecimal
Hexadecimal (hex) is used frequently when working with
computers since it can be used to represent binary numbers in
a more readable form.
The computer performs computations in binary, but there are
several instances when the binary output of a computer is
expressed in hexadecimal to make it easier to read.
Binary number
11101011001110
Hexadecimal number
3ACE
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Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion

Base 16
16^4 16^3 16^2 16^1 16^0 Decimal
65,536 4,096 256 16
1
1
2
A
298
Each number place represents a power of 16
Given the hexadecimal number 12A
1 X 256 = 256
2 X 16 = 32
AX1

= +10

(A = 10 in hex)

298
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Hexadecimal to Binary Conversion

To convert a hex number to a binary number, each hex bit represents 4
binary digits
Given the hex number A 3
A is the decimal number 10
10 in binary is 1 0 1 0
8 4 2 1 (binary number places - 4 bits)
1 0 1 0
3 is the decimal number 3
3 in binary is 0 0 1 1
8 4 2 1 (binary number places - 4 bits)
0 0 1 1
hex
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A 3 = 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 in binary
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Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion

Now that you have seen how to convert hexadecimal to binary,
how could you convert from binary to hexadecimal?
Convert the following binary numbers to hexadecimal:
101110101101
100100101111
1011010011

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Boolean Logic
Boolean logic is a binary logic that allows two numbers to be
compared and a choice generated based on the two numbers.
These choices are the logical AND, OR and NOT.
Computers are built from various types of electronic circuits.
These circuits depend on what are called AND, OR, and NOT
logic "gates."
These gates are characterized by how they respond to input
signals.

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Boolean Logic AND

The AND operation takes two input values.
If both are 1, the logic gate generates a 1 output. Otherwise it
outputs a 0.
There are four combinations of input values.
Three of these combinations generate a 0, and one combination
generates a 1.

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Boolean Logic OR
The OR operation also takes two input values.
If at least one of the input values is 1, the output value is 1.
Again there are four combinations of input values.
This time three combinations generate a 1 output and the fourth
generates a 0 output.

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Boolean Logic NOT

The NOT operation takes whatever value is presented, 0 or 1,
and inverts it.
A one becomes a zero and a zero becomes a one.
The logic rule that they follow is whatever the input is, the output
is the opposite.

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IP Addresses and Network Masks

When IP addresses are assigned to computers, some of the bits
on the left side of the 32-bit IP number represent a network.
The number of bits designated depends on the address class.
The bits left over in the 32-bit IP address identify a particular
computer on the network.
A computer is referred to as the host.

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IP Addresses and Network Masks

The IP address of a computer consists of a network and a host
part that represents a particular computer on a particular network.

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IP Addresses and Network Masks

To inform a computer how the 32-bit IP address has been split, a
second 32-bit number called a subnetwork mask is used.
This mask is a guide that indicates how the IP address should be
interpreted by identifying how many of the bits are used to identify
the network of the computer.
A subnet mask will always be all 1s until the network address
is identified and then be all 0s from there to the right most bit
of the mask.

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IP Addresses and Network Masks

Some examples of subnet masks are:
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 written in dotted decimal
as 255.0.0.0

or
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 written in dotted decimal
as 255.255.0.0

or
11111111.11111111.11111111.11000000 written in dotted decimal as
255.255.255.192

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IP Addresses and Network Masks

Performing a Boolean AND of the IP address 10.34.23.134 and
the subnet mask 255.0.0.0 produces the network address of this
host:
00001010.00100010.00010111.10000110
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
00001010.00000000.00000000.00000000
Converting the result to dotted decimal, 10.0.0.0 is the network
portion of the IP address, when using the 255.0.0.0 mask.

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IP Addresses and Network Masks

Given the following information, determine the network and host
portion of the IP address:
IP address:

192.32.224.8

Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0

Given the following information, determine the network and host

portion of the IP address:
IP address:

224.48.130.34

Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.192

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