Lecture 7 Solar Cells

review
solid-state thermionics
solar cells: basic principle
solar cells: maximum efficiency

factors impacting efficiency

different types of cells

WARREN M. ROHS
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ROHSENOW

Compare Schottky diode and pn diode

p-type

Ec

C
V
hole
diffusion A

e
h

Ec

electron
diffusion
D
Ev

n-type
xC

Ef

eV
J = J s exp
k BT

J s = AT exp
k
T
B
2

xA

xB

x
xD

J = J s e eV / k BT 1
1
J s = eN c N v
NA

ah

1
+
h ND

EG
ae

exp

e BT

WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT

p-type
ptype
e
C
V
hole
diffusion A

Current and
Energy
Distribution

Ec

electron
el
ectron
diffusion
D
Ev

n-type
xC

xA

xB

x
xD

Energy Source
Distribution
Positive

Positive

J
xc

xA

xB

xD

Jn
Negative

Jp

xc

x
xA

xB

xD
WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT

Thermionic Emission and Energy Filtering

Energy filtering

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

D(E)

Moyzhes and Nemchinsky, Appl. Phys. Lett., 73,

1895-1897 (1998).

Shakouri and Bowers, Appl. Phys. Lett., 71,

1234 (1997).

WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
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MIT

Potential-Step Amplified Thermal-Electrical Energy Converter

Region 1

Region 2

Potential

Interface

Ec1
Ef
Forward Structure
Ec2
Ec1

Ef
Reverse Structure

ICT02

Sharp Interface: Electron Mean Free Path > Space Charge Region

Single Carrier Transport

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ROHSENOW

Amplification of Temperature Discontinuity

(Te1 Te2 ) f

Ec1

ke2 dTe2

J R, f dx

Ef
Forward Structure

J R , f = ATe12 e

(Ec1 E f 1 ) / ( BTe1 )

(Te1 Te2 ) f

~e

/ ( BTe )

dTe2
e2
dx

Amplification Factor
Ec2
Ec1

Ef

(Te1 Te2 )r

ke2 dTe2

J R,r dx

Reverse Structure

(Te1 Te2 ) f ~ e2

dTe2
dx

No Amplification
WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW

Two-Temperature Modeling Results

500

500
Dashed
D
ashed Lines: Electron
Solid
S
olid Lines: Phonon

PHONON

450

Hot

Ec1

TE MPERATURE (K)

TEMPERATURE
(K))
(K

TEMPERATURE (K)

ELECTRON

Cold
Ef
Forward
F
orward Structure

400

350

FiREVERSE
Fig.
g.VERSE
1(b)
RE
Re
Reverse
verse
THERMAL
THER
THERMA
MAL
L BIAS
Structure
Structure

400
400

FORWARD
FO
RWARD THERMAL
BIAS
Fig.
F
ig. 1(a) BIAS
Forward
Forward
Structure
Structure

350
350

300

300
0

-5

1 10

-5

-5

2 10
3 10
COORDINATE (m)

-5

4 10

-5

5 10

n2=1.3x1018 cm-3
=10
=10
G2=1010 W/m3K
=7700

=7700Vcm/s
Kp=1W/mK

450

-6
1110
0

-6

-6

2 10
3 10
DISTANCE
DI
STANCE( m)

-6

4 10

-6

5 10

= 8.3 =20,000 cm2/Vs; m*=0.014 me; G=1010 W/m3K

BT
kp=1W/mK; n2=3.18x1017 cm-3; n1=5.8x1016 cm-3
WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW

0.06

0.07

0.05

0.06

0.04

0.05

VOLTAGE (V)

EFFICIENCY

Power Generation Efficiency

PANTEC

0.04

0.03

0.03

Regular
Thermoelectric
Device

0.02

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.00
0

1 0 2 10 3 10 4 10 5 10
2
CURRENT DENSITY (A/m )

08
6 10

WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW
MIT

Photovoltaic Cells

h
p-type
e
C
V
hole
diffusion A

p-type

Ec

electron
diffusion
D

eV

Ec

h
Ev

Ev

n-type
xC

xA

xB

x
xD

Load R

J = J s e eV / k BT 1

J = Js e

E
J s = Aexp G
BT

JL --- Excitation due to photon

Short Circuit Current

eV / k BT

1 J L

WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW
MIT

Solar Cell: Open Circuit Voltage

J L

Voc =
ln +1
e
Js

BT

EG

J s = A exp
BT
EG BT A

Voc
ln
e
e
JG
WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW

IV Characteristics of Solar Cell

Images removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see Fig. 5 in Chapter 14, "Solar Cells." Sze, Simon M.
Physics of Semiconductor Devices. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Wiley, 1981.

From S.M. Sze, Physics of Semiconductor Devices, 2nd Ed., p.795

WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW

Maximum Power Output

We = J eV = J sV e eV / k BT 1 J LV
Find maximum: dWe/dV=0

eVm
eVm
eVm
Jm = Js
exp
J L 1

BT
BT
BT

J L / J s +1
BT eVm
Voc

ln1+
ln
Vm =
e
e
BT
1+ eVm / ( BT )

BT

Fill Factor:

J mVm
F=
J LVoc
WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW
MIT

Source Term
Radiation

I b (T , )
J L = eFse (1 R )
d
h
EG / h

Electrode
p-type film

n-type substrate

Fraction of solar radiation reaching earth

One photon generates one electron-hole pair

JV
=
Is

Incident solar radiation flux

Question: what is the maximum possible efficiency?

WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW
MIT

Schokley-Quisser Limit

p-type

electron
diffusion

e
C
V
hole
diffusion A

Ec

D
Ev

n-type
xC

J = J s e

xA

eV / k BT

1
J s = eN c N v
NA

ah

x
xD

xB

1 J L
+

1
ND

EG
ae

exp

e BT

If we do not include
nonradiative recombination
at all, there is still radiative
recombination in the pn
junction.
When a voltage develops
across the pn junction, the
average number of photons
per mode is:

f (T , ) =

1
h eV
exp
k BT

Shockley, W. and Queisser, H.J., Journal of Applied Physics, 32, 510 (1961).
Henry, C.H., Journal of Applied Physics, 51, 4494 (1980).
WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW
MIT

Schokley-Quisser Limit

Recombination Jr
Current

n---Refractive index

I b (T , )
I b (T , )
J L = eFse (1 R )
d = eFse
d
h
h
EG / h
EG / h
WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW
MIT

Ideal Device

eV E g
J = A exp
k BT

J L

Image removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see Fig. 3 in Henry, C. H.
"Limiting Efficiencies of Ideal Single and Multiple
Energy Gap Terrestrial Solar Cells." Journal of
Applied Physics 51 (August 1980): 4494-4500.

Follow same efficiency

analysis to maximize efficiency

Henry, C.H., Journal of Applied Physics, 51, 4494 (1980).

WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW

Multijunction
Cells
Image removed due to copyright restrictions.
Please see the schematic of a tandem PV cell
in Pentland, William. "Solar Energy's Bleeding
Edge - Breakthrough PV Research Projects ."
CleanBeta Blog, June 22, 2008.

http://www.solarserver.de/solar
magazin/images/Imagen1_web.g
if

http://cleantechlawandbusiness.com/cleanbeta/wpcontent/gallery/cache/314__520x420_tandempv.jpg

Courtesy of Antonio Luque.

Used with permission.
http://spie.org/Images/Graphics/Newsroom/Imported/0689/0689_fig2.jp
g

Image removed due to copyright restrictions.

Please see Fig. 4 in Henry, C. H.
"Limiting Efficiencies of Ideal Single and Multiple
Energy Gap Terrestrial Solar Cells."
Journal of Applied Physics 51 (August 1980): 4494-4500.

Henry, C.H., Journal of Applied Physics, 51, 4494 (1980).

WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT

Courtesy of Claudio Pelosi, Matteo Bosi, and SPIE. Used with permission.

Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., http://www.sciencedirect.com . Used with permission.

WARREN M. ROHSENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT

Challenge: Recombination

Conduction band
0

Li+ (0.033)

P+ (0.044)

+
As+ (0.049) Sb (0.039)

Ec

0.1
S+ (0.18)

0.2
0.3
0.4

Ni- (0.35)

0.5

S++ (0.37)
Zn-

(0.55)

Au- (0.54)

Mn+ (0.53)
Cu- (0.49)

0.5
0.4

0.2
0.1
0

Au+ (0.35)

0.3

Purify
Single crystals

Zn (0.31)
Cu+ (0.24)

Ni (0.22)
B- (0.045)

Deep levels
Dangling bonds

Grain boundaries

In- (0.16)
Ga- (0.065)

Al- (0.057)

Ev

Valence band

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IITDelhi/Semiconductor%20Devices/LMB2A/3b.htm
WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW
MIT

Photon Absorption
Absorption Coefficient of Semiconductor Mate

Reflection

Is

I(z)

I (z) = I s e

--- absorption coefficient

=1/---penetration depth

Courtesy of Christiana Honsberg and

Stuart Bowden. Used with permission.

(H.J Moller, 1993)

WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW

Direct vs. Indirect Semiconductors

ENERGY

ENERGY

Eg

Eg
k

Phonon
Emission or
Absorption
k

WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW
MIT

Solar Radiation

Thin and Thick Dilemma

For Light Capture

Photon

Electrons

Crystalline Si: >100 m

Amorphous Si: ~ 1 m

For Charge Transfer

Holes

Thinner is better

WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW
MIT

Issue of Cost

1%
0%
2%
1% 4% 4%
Multi-crystalline Si

27%

Single-crystalline Si
Ribbon Si
a-Si/Mono Si
61%

Thin-film Si
a-Si
CIS
Others

Installed PV capacity by cell type, 2003

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

Courtesy of Thomas Surek. Used with permission.

WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW

Single Crystalline and Polycrystalline Si Cells

http://i.ehow.com/images/GlobalPhoto/Articles/5282425/CellS
tructure-SiCrystal-eng_Full.jpg
http://solarpowernotes.com/images/sin
gle-solar-cell.png

http://www.k2solar.com/images/sb
10067558az-001.jpg

http://wpcontent.answers.com/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d7/Silicon_
Solar_cell_structure_and_mechanism.svg/400px
Silicon_Solar_cell_structure_and_mechanism.svg.png
WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT

ROHSENOW

Images from EERE, Wikimedia Commons, sbma44 on Flickr, and Cyferz on Wikipedia.

Thin Film Solar Cells

Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., http://www.sciencedirect.com.

Used with permission.

Image removed due to copyright

restrictions. Please see Fig. 2 in
Compaan, Alvin. "Photovoltaics:
Clean Electricity for the 21st Century."
APS News 14 (April 2005).

http://www.aps.org/publications/
apsnews/200504/images/fig2_tri
ple_junction_cell.jpg

http://www.informaworld.co
m/ampp/image?path=/7136
10945/713984434/001f0003.
png

Courtesy of EERE.

WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW

Polymer Cells

Photon
hole transport

_+
electron
transport

anode

cathode
Electric field

http://www.pvsociety.com/photo/158/158157Three_different_views_of_IMEC_s_spray_coated_organic_
solar_cell.jpg
Courtesy of IMEC. Used with permission.

Figure by MIT OpenCourseWare.

http://crg.postech.ac.kr/korea
n/UserFiles/Image/pics/opv6.j
pg

WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW
MIT

Grtzel Cells

TiO2 particle

Photon

Dye (Monolayer)

Dye

Nano
particle

Electrolyte

"hole"
(aq.)

0.13%
0.13%

Load
e-

PV Efficiency: ~11% (~7% module)

Hydrogen Generation: ~5%
Grtzel, Nature, 2001.

quantum efficiency

88%
88%

Flat
Flat
electrode

Nanocrystal
Nanocrystal
electrode

300
30
0
800
8
00 nm
wavelength
wavelength
WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW

Trends in Solar PV

Courtesy of Elsevier, Inc., http://www.sciencedirect.com. Used with permission.

(Source: Martin Green)

Can we bring Si into Gen. III paradigm?

WARREN M. ROHS
ENOW HEAT AND MASS TRANSFER LABORATORY, MIT
ROHSENOW

MIT OpenCourseWare
http://ocw.mit.edu

2.997 Direct Solar/Thermal to Electrical Energy Conversion Technologies

Fall 2009

For information about citing these materials or our Terms of Use, visit: http://ocw.mit.edu/terms.