USE OF THERMAL EXPANSION & CONTRACTION TO REPRESENT

SLING LENGTH TOLERANCES IN LIFT ANALYSIS MODELS

The following is an explanation and derivation of the temperature used for the thermal
expansion of designed slings within a SACS TM lift analysis model to account for sling length
tolerances.

The coefficient of thermal expansion (Ct) for a material is defined as the change in
length (L) per unit length (L) for a one degree change in temperature (T) [C t = (L/L)/
(T)].
The average coefficient of thermal expansion for structural steel is stated as 0.0000065
per degree Fahrenheit for temperatures in the range of 70F to 100F in the AISC manual
of Steel construction and is the default value used in SACS TM.
Since thermal expansion is a percentage change in the original length, the impact of a
sling length tolerance on the redistributions of forces throughout a lifted structure may
be simulated by a change in temperature equivalent to the ratio of the change in the
length of the sling to the original desired sling length. Note that the use of a change in
temperature to simulate the impact of a sling length tolerance is independent of the
properties of the sling (i.e. diameter and modulus of elasticity).
Based on the above, a temperature change of 384.6F would equate to a % change in
length and would therefore simulate the impact of a change in the sling length tolerance
of % of the desired sling length (0.0025/0.0000065/1F = 384.6F).
Per API, slings should be fabricated such that an individual sling is within plus or minus
% of the nominal desired sling length with an upper limit of 1 inches. Additionally, the
total variation in length from the longest to shortest sling should not exceed % of the
sling length.
The 1 inch upper limit in sling length variation (3 total variation between sling
lengths) would apply to slings with lengths of 50 feet or more (1 /0.0025 = 600 =
50) while the percent variation would be applicable for sling lengths less than 50 feet.
However, note that it would be conservative to apply the percent variation in sling
lengths greater than 50 feet in length.

Using the above as the criteria for accounting for sling length tolerances in a lift analysis
model, a thermal expansion of 769.2F will be initially applied to diagonally opposite slings
in a separate basic load case within the lift analysis model to represent a maximum total
differential in sling lengths of % as a result of imperfections in fabrication per API. Note
that using this temperature for a % increase in length in these slings will have the same
effect as applying a minus 384.6F temperature change (representing a % decrease in
length) in one set of diagonally opposite slings with a positive 384.6 F temperature change
(representing a % increase in length) applied to the other set of diagonally opposite slings
for a symmetrical lift with all four slings having the same ideal length. The above will be
considered reasonable for a symmetric and non-symmetrical lift as well. These basic load
cases are combined with the load combination that would represent a static lift under ideal
conditions (all slings fabricated to the desired ideal lengths) for a load combination to
represent the results for a static lift but with sling length tolerance in consideration.
After performing the initial analysis, the results must be reviewed to see if any of the slings
experience compression. If any slings do end up in compression (which cannot occur); the
applied temperature must be reduced until all of the slings have a zero or positive (tension)

value. As per GL Noble Denton Guidelines, the minimum increase in the sling load due to
the sling tolerance (also known as the Skew Load Factor (SKL)) must be 25 % and the results
must be reviewed to ensure the sling loads are above this amount. If thermal expansion
does not increase the sling loads by this amount then the SKL of 1.25 is applied to meet the
minimum. Note that for a single spreader bar using matched pairs of slings the SKL is 1.05
(applicable for lifts with multiple hooks as well). If there is more than one spreader bar for
the same scenario then the SKL is 1.10.