Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Extinguishing agents
sustained.
z When the fire cools down the fire process
will eventually stop.
Due to the lack of energy there will be no
combustible gasses escaping to burn.
Instead of physically separating fuel and oxygen,
the fire process can also be stopped by disturbing
the chemical reaction between these
components.
Certain chemical products have the ability to mix
with the fire reaction in such a way that flames are
broken down.
This reaction is called a catalytic process
During fire fighting there is often a combination of
several extinguishing principles working.
Due to these principles, the mixture of the fire
process is disturbed in several ways thus
extinguishing the fire.
The following fire fighting agents are common:
z Water
z High pressure water system (i.e. Hi-fog)
z Foam
z Powder
z Carbon dioxide (CO2)
z Halon
z FM200
Use of water
Water is usually present in large quantities.
Water is relatively easy to use.
Due to its high capacity as a thermal conductor,
water has a high cooling effect.
Another positive side effect is the formation of
steam during extinguishing that has a suffocating
effect on the fire.
Water is a very good extinguishing agent on so
called solid fires. (Class A)
The cooling down limits or stops the discharge of
gasses from the fuel so the fire process will
eventually stop all together.
Extinguishing agents
Extinguishing agents
Distance
Light foam
> 200
1,5 mtr.
Medium foam
20 200
7,5 - 15 mtr.
Heavy foam
< 20
15 60 mtr.
Extinguishing agents
Extinguishing agents
Extinguishing agents
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide extinguishes fire mainly by
smothering.
It dilutes the air surrounding the fire until the
oxygen content is too low to support combustion.
Carbon dioxide has a very limited cooling effect.
Carbon dioxide does not conduct electricity.
Carbon dioxide does not support combustion in
ordinary material, however, carbon dioxide reacts
with magnesium and other metals.
Extinguishing agents
Halon
Halon is made up of carbon and one or more of
the halogen elements:
z Fluorine.
z Chlorine.
z Bromine.
z Iodine.
Two halons are used in fire fighting:
z BTM (Bromo Trifluoro Methane) known as
HALON 1301.
z BCF (Bromo Chlorodifluormethane) known
as HALON 1211.
Halon 1301 is stored as a liquid under pressure.
When released in the protected area it vaporises
to an odourless, colourless gas and is propelled
to the fire by the storage pressure.
Halon 1301 does not conduct electricity.
Halon 1211 is also colourless but has a faint
sweet smell.
Halon 1211 is stored as a liquid and pressurised
by a nitrogen gas. Pressurisation is necessary
since the vapour pressure of Halon 1211 is too
low to convey it properly to the fire area.
Halon 1211 does not conduct electricity.
FM200
FM200 is a gaseous type of extinguishing agent
which is stored in low pressure cylinders.
FM200 can be the replacement for Halon (banned
in 2004).
Working principle:
z Negative catalyst
z Concentration used is 7 9 %
z Storage capacity is low
Advantages of FM200:
z Low concentration needed to extinguish
z Not harmful to humans (as gas)
z Can be used on Class A, B and electrical
equipment
Disadvantages of FM200:
z Not environmentally friendly
z Gasses are harmful after contact with high
temperatures
There are more extinguishing agents available.
The most common and widely used are
mentioned.
Extinguishing agents
Fire spread
FIRE SPREAD
Fire spread is possible when there is sufficient
fuel and oxygen available.
Outdoors a fire mainly moves with the wind.
With flames and smoke heat and flammable
gasses will also be transported.
A fire can spread when nearby flammable substances in the direct vicinity are being heated up.
Heat transport
Heat transport takes place by:
l Radiation
l Conduction
l Convection
Radiation is heat transport by energy waves.
The radiation heat of a fire can be felt from a
distance. 80% of the heat transport is by radiation.
Conduction is heat transport via the material. In
conducting materials like metals, heat is transported relatively quickly.
Convection is heat transport due to the movement
of air or fluid. The central heating in a house is
based on this principle.
Combustible products
During a fire heat and smoke are produced.
Smoke is one of the most important characteristics of a fire.
Smoke mainly consists of small un-burnt carbon
particles. Because of the heat these particles will
rise upwards.
The production of smoke depends on the combustible reaction.
The better this combustible process, the lesser
the amount of smoke.
Hardly any fires are smokeless.
When extinguishing a fire with water, the fire
process is not complete, creating more smoke
because the temperature drops.
Fire spread
tible gas
z The air supply into the area
Fire spread
Ignition of gas is only possible when the concentration of this gas, in air, is within certain levels and
thus has a certain mixture.
A flashover can only occur, within the limitations
of the explosive level.
The amount of combustible gas depends on the
intensity and type of fire process of the fire. The
amount of air depends on the ventilation in an
area.
The explosive levels can vary, depending on the
temperature.
With high temperatures, the explosive level is
much higher; the lower explosion level (LEL)
drops and the upper explosion level (UEL) rises.
Without oxygen supply the duration of the flashover will be short (or does not occur at all).
The concentration of combustible gas will rapidly
exceed the UEL, preventing the gasses to ignite.
When air is supplied, a combustible mixture is
being formed, so the flashover can occur again
and again.
This will create a pulsating fire.
With large amounts of air supply, the flashover
can be unremitting (only if sufficient combustible
gasses are present) thus creating a completely
developed area fire.
Typical circumstances for such a fire is the
continuous supply of air on the bottom of windows
and doors, while gasses produced during the
flashover are escaping from the top.
Fire spread
Flashover indicators
z A rapid increase in compartment temperature
fire hose
Check escape routes are protected
Check the outside of the door for signs of heat
Stay low
Use short spray pulses on hot gasses at ceiling
level.
z Ventilate only when safe to do so
z Be aware of the potential for flashover and
backdraft
z
z
z
z
Fire spread
Backdraft
Limited ventilation can lead to a fire in a compartment producing fire gasses containing significant
proportions of partial combustion products and
un-burnt pyrolysis products. If these accumulate
then the admission of air when an opening is
made to the compartment can lead to a sudden
ignition.
This ignition moving through the compartment and
out of the opening is a backdraft.
Possible Backdraft Scenarios
There are different backdraft scenarios, any one
of which could be awaiting the fire fighter.
z If the fire is still burning in the compartment
when the fire fighter opens the door, and
especially if the combustion gasses are not
escaping, the air, which enters through the
door, may mix with the flammable gasses,
forming an explosive mixture.
z If the gasses in the compartment are hot
enough, they will then ignite on their own (autoignite) at the doorway, and the flame will
spread back into the compartment along with
the fresh air supply. This would result in rapid
fire growth, but not necessarily in a backdraft.
z If the compartment gasses are not that hot,
they will be ignited when sufficient oxygen has
reached the gasses surrounding the fire.
Flames will then travel across the compartment
towards the door, resulting in flame shooting
out of the door driven by the expanding gasses
behind it. It is not easy to predict whether this
will actually happen, or how long it will take,
once the door has been opened. This will
depend on where the fire is in the compart
ment, the rate at which air flows in through the
door, and whether the hot gasses can escape
without mixing with the incoming air.
A more dangerous situation can occur when the
fire in the compartment has almost died out.
When the door is opened, the air flows in and an
explosive mixture may be generated, but nothing
happens because there is no immediate source of
ignition.
If the fire-fighters now enter the compartment,
their activities may a source of ignition, initiating a
delayed backdraft but now with them inside and
surrounded flame.
Fire spread
This can still occur even when the fire is apparently out and the compartment has cooled down.
Foam rubber, in particular, can smoulder for a long
time, producing flammable gasses. Whenever
flammable gasses remain in the compartment,
they can be ignited. Cold smoke explosions occur
in this way.
The situation can be further complicated if significant amounts of the flammable gasses in the
compartment have managed to escape into
surrounding areas.
Areas other than the closed compartment could
then contain explosive atmospheres, waiting for a
source of ignition.
The highest risk area is the area directly outside
the compartment, exactly where the fire fighters
are waiting when they open the door.
When the door is opened, flammable gasses
outside the compartment may be ignited by a
backdraft within the compartment.
Signs and Symptoms of a Backdraft
The first clue to the possibility of a backdraft is the
history of the fire: if the fire has been burning for
some time, has generated lots of smoke which is
now leaking out from the building, and has apparently died down without major areas of flame
being visible from outside, the possibility is that it
has died down from oxygen starvation.
When the building is viewed from outside, it is
likely that the windows of the compartment concerned will be blackened with no obvious flames
within. If part of a window is broken, it is possible
that this will not provide sufficient oxygen to feed
the fire. In this case it is likely that smoke will be
pulsing out of the hole.
This cycle repeats itself at a frequency, which
depends on the size of the hole and the location
of the fire relative to it. If there is a gap under the
compartment door, there may be smoke pulsing
there due to the mini-backdraft effect already
described. There may be a whistling noise. If air is
being drawn into the compartment through very
small gaps around the door, but this could be
difficult to hear. The door may be hot on the
outside. In particular, the door handle may be hot
if there is a metal rod linking it to the door handle
on the other side.
If the compartment has been left long enough for
it to cool down, air will no longer be drawn in, and
the smoke pulsing effect will not be evident.
However, if the compartment has not been ventilated and there are still flammable gasses
present, a backdraft is still possible.
Fire spread
BLEVE
Fires in which tanks or vessels are involved can
when pressure valves are damaged be exremely
dangerous.
Pipelines which are sealed also belong to this
category.
In case of fire the pressure in a tank can rise so
high that the tank ruptures.
This is called a physical explosion and called
BLEVE.
BLEVE means:
Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion.
It means that the wall of the tank will collapse
under the increasing pressure because of the
heating of the gas inside the tank.
In the list of works consulted BLEVE is only
mentioned with refference to flammable liquids
and gas but all closed tanks can explode due to
the buildup of the pressure inside.
It is difficult to predict when a BLEVE will occur.
If the tank wall is heated up above the level of the
liquid weakening can be expected rapidly.
Cooling is essential in order to prevent a possible
BLEVE.
In case a safety valve is installed on the tank
pressure can be released but this does not mean
that a BLEVE cannot occur.
A safety valve releasing product can be an
indication.
The higher the whistling sound of the safety valve,
the higher the pressure inside the tank.
When the escaping product is on fire the saying
goes:
The higher the flames, the higher the pressure.
The rising of the pressure can also be heard, a
closed tank will turn rounded when the pressure
rises, the sound of the metal can be easily
identified.
It is difficult to predict how and where a tank will
rupture.
It will probably be on the weakest spot of the
metal (bulging of the metal, blisters on the metal).
Fire spread
stop cooling
yes
is steam coming from the cylinder?
no
cool for half an hour
no
does the surface stay wet?
yes
no
is the cylinder cold?
EQUIPMENT
Torch
The torch must be of the explosion proof type and
easy to handle. It is favourable if the torch can be
connected to either the jacket or to the BA-set.
Hose
It is recommended that the fire team is equipped
with a fire hose.
This has two advantages with respect to the
safety of the fire team.
z The hose can be used as a guideline when
visibility is poor and
z when the fire team comes into contact with
possible fires the team can protect itself and/or
start extinguishing immediately.
Safety line
The safety line is a good tool when fire team members
must stay in contact with each other when, for
example, they are searching in a large area.
One of the team members can stay in contact with
one of the walls while the other team member sweeps
the area.
Radio
The radio is carried in such a way that the team
can hear all the messages that are broadcasted.
Axe/master key
In order to gain access to closed compartments
axes were being used. Nowadays the materials
used and/or the construction of doors is in such a
way that an axe is off little help. On top of that
there can be a lot of collateral damage.
Most of the times a master key is present avoiding
unnecessary work and damage.
COMMUNICATION
Between team members
Because of the face mask, the helmet and
surrounding sounds team members might not be
able to receive radio messages.
The person transmitting the messages must
therefore speak slowly and with a clear voice.
The message should be brief and to the point.
The receiving party can hold his breath to avoid
disturbing noises from his BA-set.
Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment
CASUALTIES
Alerting a casualty
From previous situations we have learned that
calling the missing persons name gives the best
response during a search.
Transporting a casualty who is still mobile
If a casualty can still walk he can be accompanied
in between the team members to a safe area.
This is to avoid losing the casualty.
The casualty should stay as low as possible in
order to avoid breathing in hot and/or toxic
vapours.
The fire team members must be aware that the
casualty can panic.
These reactions can be dangerous to the fire
team members
Transporting a casualty whos not mobile
If the casualty must be carried it is recommended
that one team member carries the legs and the
other team member carries the upper body.
Due to the fact that the team is performing a
difficult job (heat, carrying a person, the use of a
BA-set and the possible use of staircases) it is
recommended to ask for assistance or see to it
that assistance is organised.
Triage
When multiple casualties are detected a selection
must be made of who must be helped first.
This can be a very difficult situation. It is
emphasized that persons with the best chances
of recovery must be rescued first to limit the
amount of casualties.
Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment
Convection
Convection currents around the body accounts
for about 25% of the heat loss. It is well known
that hot air is lighter than cold, therefore hot air
rises as it expands.
This means that the air around the body becomes
warm, it then rises and is replaced by cool air.
Tight restricted clothing and certainly clothing
worn by fire fighters can reduce the amount of
heat that would be dissipated by this process.
Radiation
Radiation from the body can account for up to
50% of heat loss from a person at rest. Loss of
heat by radiation is dependant upon the
surrounding temperature being lower than that of
the body.
If the surrounding temperature is higher than that
of the body, then the body will absorb heat.
Working in hot atmospheres requires the body to
be protected against radiated heat from the fire,
but at the same time, the fire kit worn by fire
fighters prevents body heat being lost by
radiation.
Vaporisation
Working hard in a hot and humid atmosphere,
cause the body temperature to rise; therefore the
temperature of the blood rises. The blood is
cooled in the lungs by inhalation of cool air, and
the body gives off heat through exhaled breath.
The use of compressed air in breathing apparatus
assists in this vaporisation process.
Evaporation
The rise in temperature of the deep tissues of the
body, or of the skin, must provide some indication
of how heat stress is causing strain on the
thermal-regulatory system.
Heart rate increases are followed by the
production of sweat.
Since the evaporation of sweat constitutes the
bodys main defence against over-heating, the
presence of a humid atmosphere can slow down
and even stop the evaporation process.
Working in very hot and humid environments
causes heat production in the body to increase.
Breathing apparatus & working in a hot, humid environment
Heat syncope
The bodys thermal regulatory system pushes
more blood to the surface in an attempt to cool it.
If this condition becomes extreme, the blood
pressure will drop due to the amount of blood
being pushed to the dilated surface vessels. With
now a drop in pressure, insufficient blood reaches
the brain. Less blood means less oxygen thus
fainting occurs. Treatment is to remove from the
heat and attempt to get the blood back to the
brain.
Heat stroke
Heat stroke is the term for the most serious
disorder. The fundamental feature of heat stroke
is an extreme and uncontrolled elevation of body
temperature.
High temperatures (41C. or even higher) exert
its harmful effect chiefly on the central nervous
system.
The changes that occur include a drop, or near
cessation of sweating, collapse, coma and even
death if prompt treatment by cooling is not
started.
Treatment is to remove clothing and cool by
covering with wet towels or spraying with cold
water.
Precautions
Do not allow fire teams in hot and humid
atmospheres any longer than absolutely
necessary.
If the situation permits change the wearer to limit
exposure and allow recovery.
The teams can also minimize stresses on their
bodies by adopting good working procedures and
good teamwork i.e. staying low out of the heat
and sharing the work load by working together.
Class A-60
60 minutes
Class A-30
B-class division
Division formed by bulkheads, decks, ceilings or
linings.
z Capable of preventing the passage of smoke
and flames for the first half hour
z Be insulated such that the unexposed side
will not rise in temperature more than 139
Celsius nor at any one point more than 225
Celsius above original temperature within the
time listed
Class B-30 30 minutes (after 30 minutes T > 139 C.)
Class B-15 30 minutes (after 15 minutes T > 139 C.)
Class B-0
C-class division
Constructed of approved non combustible
materials preventing the passage of smoke, flames
or rise in temperature on exposed surfaces.
F-class division
Class F is equivalent to Class B.
The human element
The human element is very often the cause of
accidents; therefore a great deal of attention must
be placed on the crew. Educating the crew in the
causes of fires and working procedures will help
reduce the risk and frequency of fires. Built in
features such as fire resisting construction;
ventilation, fuel and electrical controls; and fire
fighting systems are key areas of knowledge
required by the crew to control an out break of fire.
Inspection and maintenance is another key area to
target in the fire safety policy. Inspecting
equipment and appropriate service scheduling will
reduce the chance of failure and subsequent fire.
Risk assessment should also be regularly carried
out, to identify possible combustible materials and
potential ignition sources and then setting up a
control measure to prevent the two combining to
start a fire.
Prevention, organization and drills
Inspection of fire detection and fire fighting equipment is the third area of concern of the safety
policy. Regular tests of detection equipment as
recommended by the manufacture or other advisory bodies will maintain the systems in the most
reliable and effective state.
Fire fighting equipment can be tested during fire
drills to maintain their effectiveness. Fixed fire
fighting systems are maintained again by following
the recommended inspection schedules. In the
event of a fire then all the crew must work as a
cohesive unit, following a prepared plan. The
Station Bill forms the basis of this emergency
organisation.
The emergency organisation
The basis of this organisation is set out in the
Station Bill, which identifies the key roles within an
emergency team, giving duties which speed up the
response and forms the command structure for
effective decision making i.e. closing team, attack
team, team leader etc.
Organisations are designed around the ship design and manning levels, where automatic systems
will be used to cover manned functions on ships
with small crews.
The command structure in fire situations will also
vary according to the ships size and complexity.
The organisation will help control the incident,
particularly in the early staging where chaos and
panic will increase the demands on the crew and
officers; however the organisation must be flexible
enough to cope with sudden changes i.e. a missing person who holds a key function in the team.
Preparation
Preparation prior to a fire or incident is vital. The
officer and crew must learn the basic procedures
indicated on the Station Bill and any special procedures to cover special loads or hazards. Intimate
knowledge of the ships facilities shown on the
ships fire safety plan is essential to control the fire
in the early stages.
The crew must be fully aware of their tasks and
use of their equipment and it must be tested
during a fire drill.
All the equipment used in controlling a fire must be
in a perpetual state of readiness, from the
ventilation controls through to the batteries fully
charged in the lamps, everything is important.
Fire drill
The purpose of the fire drill is to test the efficiency
of the organization. The crew must be challenged
in order to make it interesting and more
importantly to learn from mistakes.
The danger is to make the drill a routine that does
not test the organization.
One focused drill is more beneficial than repeating
a routine drill many times.
Change the drill each time to stimulate and
challenge thought.
The drill can also be used to check and test
equipment in the drill environment, required under
SOLAS i.e. fire pumps, breathing apparatus, fire
suits and communications.
A successful meaningful drill requires thought
before the drill begins, firstly defining the learning
objectives, setting the timing and allocating time to
debrief afterwards.
The objectives must reflex key tasks to be
performed and must be measurable against a
standard i.e. one objective could be to dress
effectively in fire outfits and breathing apparatus
within a fixed time frame, effectively means skin is
fully protected and the start up tests are
performed on the breathing apparatus.
Once the objectives are set, a scenario can be
written, which incorporates specific events and
consequences of certain actions, the script
should test all of thecrew.
The drill begins with a report of fire and subsequent sounding of the alarm, indicating that it is a
drill, but trying to bring an element of surprise and
realism. Occasionally begin the drill by a report of
fire from sources other than the bridge. The speed
of reaction, mustering, and specific duties performed, setting up of the command and communications should be analysed.
The attack on the fire will depend upon the scenario, however the leadership, assessment of the
situation and subsequent decisions should be
evaluated. Create chaos to see if the team can
control and react to the ever changing situations a
fire can create.
Evaluate the drill; by assessing if the objectives
were reached, being critical about actions so that
the lessons learned can be incorporated in the
procedures. The crew should be encouraged to
participate uninhibited, without fear of making
mistakes. The drill will go wrong, but then lessons
are learned. A drill that is perfectly conducted is
not challenging the crew.
The standards of competence can be improved
through drilling. Specific skills can be identified,
taught, demonstrated and practised. Slow down
the task and repeat until the person or team demonstrates a set level of competence. Endeavour to
share information and experience gained by all
members of the crew.
Document the fire drill for future reference, to
assess improvements in the organisation.
Functional leadership
LEADERSHIP
This section deals with leadership, how to
manage an incident effectively involving fire or
spillage of a dangerous product.
The approach to leadership in emergency
situations is based on a system used by fire and
emergency services; it is called functional
leadership which analyses the functions involved
in dealing with an emergency.
Previous approaches made assumptions that
leaders were born with the qualities to lead.
Certain qualities, courage, integrity, common
sense etc, may help to lead but a good leader
may not have to display these characteristics.
Another approach suggests that the leader having
skill or knowledge to deal with a situation makes
the best leader. There is a little truth in this
approach; however this is not the whole picture in
dealing with an emergency.
A better approach is to analyse the functions
involved.
Leadership can only be applied to groups who are
confronted with a need to take action or make
decisions
Within a group 3 areas of need exist:
z task needs
z team maintenance needs
z individual needs
Task needs
Groups formed to undertake a task too complex
or too impractical for one person to accomplish.
Team maintenance needs
The group to achieve the task must be held
together as a cohesive team.
Individual needs
The group has individuals, who have their own
demands, which contribute to the functioning of
the group.
The functions of a good leader are to recognise
the 3 areas of need, thus be aware of the needs
of the group and perform the thought processes,
communications and actions to satisfy the needs
of the group.
Functional leadership
Task functions
z
z
z
z
z
z
Individual functions
z
z
z
z
z
Functional leadership
Planning
This process concerns obtaining all available
information, determining the extent of the task,
deciding on a plan of action and an order of
priorities. The initial alarm will initiate the fire
organisation which has already allocated key roles
and duties to help contain the fire, however follow
up works on fire location, size and possibilities of
escalation and will dictate further actions.
The control of compartments, fuel cut and
ventilation are important initials actions, which
should be performed as early as possible.
Limitations on manpower and equipment can give
serious restrictions, thus a quick response to
control the incident is essential or to prevent
escalation then use of passive protection (fire
resisting bulkheads) and active measures (fixed
fire fighting systems, fire teams) must be placed
effectively.
The main priority in formulating an attack plan
comes with safety of the crew. Assessment of the
risk involved must be performed before
committing teams, particularly in the engine room
where temperatures can increase rapidly in a
short time.
Next priority considered is rescue, if a missing
person has a chance of survival then a quick
response has to be made, but again assess the
risk to the rescuers.
The incident may be dealt with in one of two ways,
direct attack on the fire or indirect attack, meaning
controlling the growth of(the incident i.e. surround
the fire with boundary cooling until the fire
suffocates itself. The choice depends on the
extent of the fire, the time required to begin the
attack and possible casualties.
Before an attack first consider dangers such as
BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour
Explosion) if closed containers are involved.
The following list will help establish the priorities:
z Safety of the crew and fire teams.
z Rescue of endangered personnel.
z Exposure of containers to fire, which could
result in additional fires, the worst case is a
BLEVE.
z Confinement of the fire, preventing fire
spread to surrounding area i.e. fire can
spread in 6 directions, thus the fire needs to
be blocked and confined.
z Extinguish the fire when it is safe to do so and
when the correct means are available.
z Over haul, returning the scene back to safe
condition.
Functional leadership
Informing
The communications links should be set up to
assist in the flow of information two ways.
The command must inform crews of all matters
affecting their activities, particularly matters
concerning their own safety and the command
must have reports back from the crews, in order
to carry out evaluation of the progress.
Evaluating
The achievements need to be compared with the
original plan.
The performance needs to be checked with the
plan.
In each situation the plan needs to be modified or
remedial action taken.
The situation on the ship may change rapidly;
therefore the command must monitor conditions
regularly.
Debriefing after an incident can also be very
effective at highlighting good work, problems and
weaknesses in the performance.
Decision making
The style of leadership in an emergency will be
autocratic, due to the urgency of the situation.
However leaders will vary their style to be
democratic if the situation and time pressures
allow.
Decision sharing will produce sounder decisions
when skills and knowledge is coming from within
the group.
The styles of leadership varies from autocratic to
democratic as follows:
A leader makes a decision and announces it.
TELLS
A leader makes a decision and sells it.
SELLS
A leader presents a plan and invites questions
before deciding.
CONSULTS
A leader presents a problem and invites
suggestions before deciding.
CONSULTS
A leader defines limitations and asks group to
make decision.
JOINS
Functional leadership
Delegate
To delegate is the practice of granting authority or
the right of decision taking in certain defined
areas, and charging the subordinate with the
responsibylity for carrying out an assigned task.
The delegating officer should retain accountability.
It is an efficient use of time, skills, abilities and
resources.
Much can be gained from delegating including:
z Speeds up action by people making
decis ions closest to the action.
z Reduction in workload and concentration on
other more important issues.
z Development of personnel and full use of
their skills Improves mutual trust, morale and
confidence.
Only delegate if the individual understands and
can do the task.
Set limits within which that individual may operate
and give full support and control without
undermining.
Never delegate matters essential to your overall
control and matters concerning discipline.
Summary
The functional leadership approach can provide
the inexperienced with a quick understanding to
lead effectively in an emergency and the more
experienced to evaluate for further development.
Functional leadership
Tactics
Tactics
Tactics
Tactics
Tactics
Tactics
Tactics
Tactics
Tactics
Tactics
Compatibility classes A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, K, L,
N, S enable sub divisions to be transported with
other sub divisions with the same compatibility
letter i.e.:
Class 1.3A with Class 1.6A.
Class 2
Gasses (general)
Class 2.1
Flammable gases
Class 2.2
Non-flammable, non-toxic gases
Class 2.3
Toxic gases
Class 3
Liquids (flammable liquids having a flash point of
ess than 61C)
Class 4
Solids
Class 4.
Flammable solids
(self-reacting substances and desensitized
explosives)
Class 4.2
Substances liable to spontaneous combustion in
contact with air
Class 4.3
Substances, which, in contact with water, emit
flammable gases
Class 5
Oxidizing substances and organic peroxides
Class 5.1
Oxidizing substances
(oxidizing substances not necessarily
combustible but cause or contribute to
combustion of other material by giving oxygen)
Class 5.2
Organic peroxides
Organic peroxides are liable to exothermic
decomposition initiated by heat, contact with
impurities, friction or impact may have one or
more of the following characteristics:
z Explosive decomposition
z Burn rapidly
z React dangerously with other substances
z Sensitive to impact
z Cause damage to eyes
Dangerous goods at sea
Class 6
Toxic and infectious substances
Class 6.1
Toxic substances
LD50 (oral, dermal) mg/kg
LC50 (inhalation) mg/l
Packing group I (high toxic)
Packing group II (medium toxic)
Packing group III (low toxic)
group
toxicity
I
II
mg/kg
<5
> 5- 50
mg/kg
< 40
> 40 200
mg/l
< 0.5
> 0.5 - 2
III
Solids
> 50 - 200
Class 6.2
Infectious substances
Class 7
Radioactive material
Class 8
Corrosive substances
By chemical action these substances will cause
severe damage to living tissue, damage or
destroy other goods or the means of transport.
Packing groups:
I Very dangerous.
(full thickness tissue damage with less than 3
min. exposure)
II Present medium danger.
(Full thickness tissue damage with more than 3
min. exposure but less than 60 min.)
III Present low danger.
(full thickness tissue damage with more than 60
min. but less than 4 hours exposure OR do not
cause full thickness tissue damage)
Class 9
Miscellaneous
In order to deal with an incident involving a
hazardous material, first the product has to be
classified, the appropriate product information
retrieved and the correct emergency schedule
from the IMDG identified.
Dangerous goods at sea
Fire at Sea
Some countries have the funding and resources
to assist a ship in trouble.
A professional response demands a great deal of
preplanning by the Fire Department, thus poorer
countries may not have the funding to set up a
Emergency response team for offshore work.
It is not straight forward to set up a team for ship
firefighting, the selection of suitable personnel,
training of those personnel not just for ship fire
fighting, but also helicopter operations and sea
survival will need to be funded, in most cases
separately to local funding arrangements.
The funding is very often a grey area and the
retrieval of costs involved in fighting fires can be
difficult due to the complexities of salvage claims.
Shore based fire fighters offer some obvious
advantages over a ships crew, namely a greater
understanding and experience in fire and dealing
with hazardous materials.
A professional fire team trains very regularly, in
some cases every day and regularly performs
excercises, which demand the mobilization of a
large amount of resources.
Early notification is essential in order that the
shore-based service can assess the situation and
plan a safe approach.
The reluctance to call earlyfor help whatever the
reason, be it company policy, salvage claims or
just lack of understanding of what is available,
may incur serious delays which will affect the
success of the operation.
Before boarding, the senior fire officer will carry
out a dynamic risk assessment, to ensure the
safety of the team.
Safe access and escape routes, together with the
risks on board are their main concerns.
Liaison with shore based services
Fire investigation
FIRE INVESTIGATION
Accident investigation is a necessity, in order to
prevent a repeat of the incident. It can also be
required to settle an insurance claim, part of legal
proceedings, improve operational procedures and
improve fire-fighting techniques. Examples of this
process are well documented.
The maritime disasters of the past i.e. Titanic
and Scandinavian Star where large losses of life
provoked changes to SOLAS, and the cruise ship
Ecstasy where huge damage was sustained
caused a change in the operating procedures.
Investigation of even small incidents can be of
benefit.
The true recording of all accidents and accurate
assessments of the causes of fires/incidents will
contribute to greater safety in the shipping
industry. The Shipping Inspectorate demands that
all incidents that cause damage or severe injury
are reported. Certain accident investigation
agencies also encourage the reporting of near
misses.
This information should be circulated to all,
without it the level of safety within the industry will
not improve. Investigating agencies are now using
modern technology by publishing their findings on
the Internet. The information first needs to be
reported.
The ships command should be able to investigate
minor fire incidents, with a basic understanding of
combustion. The process of finding the seat of
fire, i.e. the initial fuel, the ignition source, should
be reasonably easy to detect providing there is not
too much damage. The more damage the more
difficult it is to establish a cause, especially in a
ship compartment because of the oven effect.
(uniform heat damage)
Serious damage or major injury will initialise a
formal investigation, perhaps from more than one
agency (police, Shipping Inspectorate, insurers
etc.) In this case the preservation of the evidence,
the scene and any relevant records should be
given priority. Nothing should be removed from the
scene unless it interferes with the safe operating
of the ship or because the evidence may be lost,
in which case photography or video should be
used to record the scene.
Fire Investigation
Fire Investigation
Fire Investigation
The report
The report needs to contain particular information,
set usually be the ship operators.
The following criteria is desirable:
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
z
Fire Investigation
Offshore supplement
INTRODUCTION
The production platform has many similarities to
an oil refinery, but the potential dangers are compounded due to the limited space and the hostile
environment the sea presents.
The risk of fire, explosion and leakages are high,
therefore the design of the platform, detection
equipment, efficient fire fighting facilities, together
with a well-trained organisation are an absolute
necessity to prevent a disaster.
The threat of fire must be detected as early as
possible, from which well rehearsed actions are
implemented, including shut down of production,
initiating manually or automatically fixed fire
protection and intervention by fire team to prevent
the situation from worsening.
DETECTION SYSTEMS
Gas detection equipment
Gas alarms detect gas concentrations set to a
percentage of the LEL (Lower Explosive Limit).
There are normally two stages to gas alarms, a
low level and high level alarm condition.
The low level will initiate a alarm condition
normally set at 20% of the lower explosion limit
(LEL) and the high level alarm (60% of the LEL).
The general alarm
Two high level alarms will result in automatic shut
down of production.
Living quarters are also protected by gas
detection set to lower levels (10% lower 40% high
level alarm conditions).
Flame detectors
For detection of fires in the open the flame
detector gives the fastest response.
The detectors are sensitive to ultra violet
emissions from the flame and to prevent false
alarms they are programmed to detect specific
frequencies of light or a fixed time period.
Detection normally initiates the general platform
alarm and activates fixed fire fighting systems
after a predetermined delay (approx 15 secs.)
Offshore supplement
Smoke detection
Used in enclosed areas for the fastest response.
Ionisation type detectors usually initiate general
alarm, more than one head activating in the same
zone will initiate a platform shut down and the
automatic fixed fire systems will also be activated.
Heat detectors
These detectors are used in areas where more
sensitive detectors would give too many false
alarms.
There are a number of designs, fuse links, quartz
bulb, bimetal strips, pneumatic loops and
thermistors, all of which are normally set at a
predetermined temperature or a specific increase
of temperature, will activate both the general
alarm and automatic fixed fire systems.
Offshore supplement
Offshore supplement
Foam Systems
Where there is a risk of a liquid spill, a foam hose
box may be provided to cover the spill quickly to
prevent ignition or to extinguish the fire.
Foam stocks may be provided at each foam box
or alternatively injected into the main fire system at
a central location.
Foam concentrates in commonly in use are
fluorprotein, AFFF and for special circumstances
alcohol resistant foams.
The concentrates are introduced into the water at
a percentage ranging from 3% to 6% depending
on the manufacturers instructions.
The system is generating low expansion foam
having an expansion rate of around 12:1.
Dry chemical systems
Fire involving liquid releases on a three
dimensional scale are best extinguished with
powder.
Large powder containers are sometimes provided
with the appropriate hose and applicators giving a
high discharge of powder in to the fire by an
operator. (2 kg per sec)
Halon systems
When avoidance of static electricity is required,
fixed fire fighting systems with Halon can be
installed (CO2 can generate high voltage static
electricity on discharge).
These systems are often found in turbine rooms,
generator rooms and electrical switch rooms.
Offshore supplement
TACTICAL APPROACH IN
OFFSHORE FIRE FIGHTING.
Emphasis must be placed on the pre-determined
Contingency plan designed for the installation.
These plans are designed to quickly and safely
detect, control and extinguish the fire without
undue risk to the personnel.
Contingency plan
The fire teams must quickly assess the
effectiveness of the Contingency plan and make
necessary adjustments.
This will include establishing the effectiveness of
automatic fixed fire protection systems and to
supplement additional supplies as necessary.
For example, flame impingement on a tank can
penetrate through a water protection screen,
causing failure and/or increase in temperature
resulting in a BLEVE.
The Fire team may have to deflect the flames
away using monitors or hand lines. (Flame
bending)
Any fire team involvement close to the fire is a
risk; therefore great care must be taken to control
their movements, ensuring that they afford
themselves the maximum protection.
Full protective clothing must be worn, whilst taking
advantage of blast and firewalls.
Offshore supplement
Offshore supplement